Alfabetización científica en Países en Desarrollo · Alfabetización científica en los países...

Alfabetización científica en Países en DesarrolloEstudio panorámico

Informe Sintético

Autores:Rob Davies y Carol Priestley

Hardie WrenDevelopment Initiatives

Network for Informationand Digital Access

Prefacio

Este informeesun resumende los resultadosque fueronpresentadosenunaversiónunpoco más extensa al cofundador de la Hardie Wren Development Initiatives (HWDI) endiciembredel2016.

Agradecimientos

NIDA quisiera dar las gracias a todas las organizaciones, instituciones e individuos querespondieron al anuncio inicial del estudio; a los que participaron en el debate y en ladiscusión sobre las definiciones de términos utilizados para describir los ámbitos deinteracciónentre lacienciayelpúblico;ya todos losqueaportaron,y siguenaportando,recomendacionesdeiniciativasprácticasinnovadoras

DentrodeNIDA, agradecemos enparticular a nuestros asesores y colaboradores en cadapaís,aRobDaviesporsuenergíailimitadaysucompromiso,aCarolUsherquenosapoyóatodos de unamanera increíblemente eficaz, haciendo que todo parezca fácil, a RebeccaBailey por su ayuda en el desarrollo de los estudios de casos y a Inès Roudil por latraducción.

Por último, agradecemos a la Hardie Wren Development Initiatives (HWDI) por habercofinanciadoelestudio.

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ScienceLiteracyinDevelopingCountries:LandscapeSurvey–SummaryReport(Feb2017)

RESUMENEJECUTIVO

Introducción

1 LasdiscusionesenEuropayenAméricadelNortesuelenenfocarseentemáticasdealfabetización científica como los alimentos transgénicos, la resistencia a losantibióticos, la energía verde, etc. Estas discusiones casi siempre dan por sentadoquelasnecesidadesesencialesbásicasdelaspersonasestáncubiertas,yquepuedentomardecisiones libremente.Elestudioconfirmóqueenelmundoendesarrolloesnecesarioresolvercuestionesmásenrelaciónconlasupervivenciaylavida,talcomoelaguayelsaneamiento,elVIHyelSIDA,lasaludmaternaeinfantil,laeducaciónylaseguridadalimentaria.

Elprocesodeinvestigación2 Despuésdeunaextensainvestigacióndocumentalserealizóunprocesodeconsulta

exhaustivo. Se utilizó la red mundial de NIDA como base inicial para promover laparticipación;paramásprofundidad,trabajamosconimportantesactoresenmateriadeciencia.Seutilizóunaampliavariedaddecanalesdecomunicación.Se incitóal ldebateyaladiscusiónentornoalacuestióndelasdefiniciones.Elprocesoculminócon un llamado a recomendaciones de actividades que ilustraran iniciativasinnovadoras prácticas que pudieran ser adaptadas y reproducidas en diferentesculturasycontextos.

¿Quéeslaalfabetizacióncientífica?

3 Varios términos diferentes son utilizados para describir los ámbitos de interacciónentre la ciencia y el público. El estudio incluyó debates y discusiones sobre lostérminos utilizados más comúnmente, por ejemplo, la comprensión pública de laciencia,laalfabetizaciónensaludylaalfabetizacióncientífica.Elinformepresentaelconsensoalcanzadoy tambiéndescribeel creciente– y relacionado - ámbitode lacienciaciudadana.

4 Esnecesarioreconocerlaclararelaciónqueexisteentrelaalfabetizacióncientíficayla alfabetización en salud, para ofrecer una perspectiva más amplia. Unaalfabetización científica redefinida incluiría referencias a la amplia variedad dehabilidadesycompetenciasquetienenquecrearseparabuscar,comprender,evaluary utilizar la información, incluyendo las habilidades para entender conceptos ycontenidoscientíficos,ademásdelainvestigaciónensalud.

Estetipoderelaciónentrealfabetizacionesnosllevaalconceptodela“cuestióndelaalfabetización”,unpre-requisitoesencialparatenerauténticasinteraccionesconlosmúltiples actores y/omúltiples sectores, que tambiénes esencial para alcanzar losobjetivosdedesarrollosostenibledelaagendadehoyendía.


5 Dado el papel cada vez más central que ocupan la ciencia y la tecnología en lassociedadesmodernas,laeducaciónformaldeberíaprepararalamayoríadelagentea ser científicamente alfabetizada, pero para la gente que no ha recibido dichapreparaciónlapreguntaes:¿cómosepuedellenaresevacíodeconocimientos?¿Esposible pensar en equipar a los adultos con una “caja de herramientas” básica decompetencias sobre ciencia y tecnología? El estudio confirmó que también senecesitanocasionesparaelaprendizajepermanenteencontextos informales.Estasocasiones de aprendizaje tienen más posibilidades de ser exitosas si estánrelacionadasconcuestionesespecíficasqueseanrelevantesparalasvidascotidianasdelosindividuosydelascomunidadesensuspropiaslocalidades.

Alfabetizacióncientíficaenlospaísesendesarrollo

6 Lamayoríadelosencuestadosreconocieronqueunaccesoamplioa la informacióncientíficaeslaclaveparaquelagenteentienda,participeyrespondaalosretosqueplanteaeldesarrollo.Además,sehanotadoquelacomprensióndecuestionescomolaevolución, lapérdidadebiodiversidad, las implicacionesdelas investigacionesengenética, el calentamiento global y muchos otros temas, es esencial para que laspersonasse impliquen.Tambiénsehanotadoqueparapasara laacciónen temasimportantesesnecesarialaalfabetizacióncientífica.

7 Losencuestadossubrayaronelpapelquejuegaelcontenidolocalenlaalfabetizacióncientíficadeindividuosycomunidadesenlospaísesendesarrollo.Además,tambiénseindicóquemuchasdelasintervencionesinternacionalessuelendarporsentadoeluso del inglés. Sin embargo, los esfuerzos que hace la alfabetización científica enemplear la comunicación oral, textos simples y actividades en idiomas locales dancomo resultado mucha más implicación, participación e impacto. El uso de losidiomaslocalesenuncontextoculturallocalnosepuedesubestimar.

8 Unaamplia variedadde fuentesdentrode labúsquedabibliográfica, apoyadasporlos encuestados y por estudios de caso ilustrativos de este estudio, indican que laeducacióncientífica,encontextosformaleseinformales,puedecontribuirdemanerasignificativa al entendimiento de la ciencia y a la promoción de la alfabetizacióncientífica. Sin embargo, las expectativas no han sido alcanzadas y los profesorescompetentes y motivados siguen siendo escasos y muchas veces, las reformas decurrículonohansidoimplementadascomoestabaprevisto.

9 Aunqueengeneral,esciertoque“cuantomáspróspero,mássano”,elanalfabetismopuede ser un indicador mucho más fuerte de mala salud pública que un sueldopromediobajo.AsísucedeenlaIndia,dóndeelestudiomostróquelamejoradelaalfabetizaciónenelmarcodeunprocesodereduccióndelapobrezatieneunmayorimpactosobrelasaludpública.


10 Las políticas de la Declaración de Daejeon sobre Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación(Science,TechnologyandInnovation,STI)paralaeramundialydigital,queemergende la Reunión Ministerial de la OCDE, Daejeon, 2015, declararon que secomprometen a apoyar a la STI para el fomento del crecimiento sostenible, lacreación de empleos y la mejora del bienestar. Los Objetivos del DesarrolloSostenible(theSustainableDevelopmentGoals)tambiénreconocieronquelacienciaamplía la comprensión de la naturaleza y de la sociedad. Estos dos foros políticoscrearondisposicionesrelevantesparalaalfabetizacióncientífica.

En la práctica, las políticas nacionales, como la de China que tiene un plan firme paramejorarlaalfabetizacióncientífica,muestranunmayorpotencialparaincrementarelconocimiento científicoy lashabilidadesdepensamiento relevantespara cubrir lasnecesidades durante emergencias, como en casos de terremotos, para construirconocimiento y acciones, por ejemplo reduciendo la degradación ambiental ypromoviendo la innovación y la creatividad mediante avances tecnológicos ycientíficos.

Conclusiones

11 Elestudioconcluyóqueenelcontextodelmundoendesarrollo,senecesitannuevasdefiniciones de la alfabetización científica para asegurarse de que la comunicaciónpúblicasobrecienciaytecnologíaabordanecesidadesreales.

12 Se estima necesario seguir trabajando, a nivel mundial, en la descripción, lacomprensiónylaclarificacióndelasrelacionesentrelasalfabetizacionesespecíficas,las“multi-alfabetizaciones”ysusrelacionesconlosdiferentestiposdealfabetización,paralograrcomunicardemodotransversalentrelosdistintos“silos”.

13 El estudio confirmó que hay una fuerte necesidad de mejorar la alfabetizacióncientífica en los países en desarrollo, donde el reconocimiento y la adopción depolíticas coherentes y de acciones siguen siendo esporádicos y sin cohesión. Estorequiereunaatencióncontinuapara fortalecer lasbasesprácticas y teóricas, tantoparaapoyarlosplanesdelasaccionescomoparasuimplementación.

14 Hay numerosos aspectos de la vida en los países en desarrollo sobre los cuales laalfabetización científica podría tener un impacto benéfico, como la seguridadalimentaria, la salubridad alimentaria, la prevención de enfermedades, la saludmaterna, la gestión del agua, la seguridad y la sanidad en entornos urbanos, laagriculturayeldesarrollorural, ladietay lanutrición.Entreellos,seargumentóenfavordequelasnuevasiniciativasseenfoqueninicialmenteentresáreasprioritarias:

• elcambioclimático;

• labiodiversidad,ladegradacióndelmedioambienteysuconservación;

• lasaludmaterna,lareproducciónylasprácticasdeparto


Recomendaciones

15 Intensificar la cooperación entre los organismos estratégicos que trabajan en esteámbito - como la Colaboración Inter Academias (the Inter Academies Partnership,IAP),elConsejo Internacionalpara laCiencia (the InternationalCouncil forScience,ICSU), el Grupo de Trabajo en alfabetización informacional de la Federacióninternacionaldeasociacionesdebibliotecas (Federationof LibraryAssociationsandInstitutions Working Group on Information Literacy, IFLAWGIL), la ConferenciaEuropea de Información sobre Alfabetizaciones (the European Conference onInformation Literacies, ECIL), la FAOy laWHO -paraestablecerunentendimientomásclarodelasrelacionesentrelasdistintasalfabetizacionesbásicasyespecíficasyparaidentificarestrategias,programascooperativos,proyectosyactividadesquevanadesarrollaryautilizarlaalfabetizacióncientíficaparaayudarmejoraquelasnecesidadesbásicasseansatisfechas.

16 Tambiénsehacenrecomendacionesparaelapoyoalosproyectospilotoslocalizados,bienestructuradosycuidadosamenteevaluados,diseñadosparareforzarlabasededatosyestimularlaampliaciónolaadaptacióndeprácticasexitosas.

17 Serecomiendatambiénqueseconsideremostrardequémodossepuedepersuadira la gente para que mejoren su alfabetización científica, mejorando lainfraestructura de servicios que la apoya, por ejemplo introduciendo espacios yeventos para fabricar objetos relacionados con la ciencia en las escuelas, lasbibliotecas,losmuseosyloslocalescomunitarios.

18 La mayoría de los participantes con los que la investigación se contactórecomendaron (ypidieron)que se formaseuna red sobrealfabetización científica,para facilitar el intercambio de experiencias y planear actividades, para reducir laduplicación de los esfuerzos, mejorar la resolución de carencias específicas, paratomarladelanterayreuniralasorganizacionesclavesconlosprincipalesinteresadospara que desarrollen políticas, hagan conocer las actividades y los recursos quepuedenseradaptadosoreplicados.

19 Elestablecimientodeunpremioanualparareconocerunlogroexcepcionaly/ounainnovaciónenunaactividaddealfabetizacióncientífica.Nosehaencontradoningúnpremio ya existente en este ámbito y durante las discusiones informales que setuvieron en las entrevistas se confirmó que tal premio tendríamuchos beneficios,permitiríahacerconocer iniciativas innovadoraspodríanseradaptadaso replicadaslocalmente,enunpaís,enunaregiónytalvezmundialmente.


CONTENTS

PrefaceAcknowledgements

RESUMENEJECUTIVO

ACRONYMS

SECTION1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................1

SECTION2 THERESEARCHPROCESS..............................................................................4

SECTION3 WHATISSCIENCELITERACY?.......................................................................53.1 Termsappliedtopublicscienceactivityinthedevelopedworld...............................53.2 Scienceandthepublic.................................................................................................53.3 PublicAppreciationofScience(PAS)...........................................................................63.4 ScienceLiteracy(SL)....................................................................................................63.5 HealthLiteracy(HL).....................................................................................................83.6 CitizenScience(CS)....................................................................................................11

SECTION4 SCIENCELITERACYINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES.........................................144.1 Formaleducation......................................................................................................154.2 Basicliteracy..............................................................................................................164.3 Access........................................................................................................................164.4 Gender.......................................................................................................................174.5 Internationalpolicies.................................................................................................174.6 Thelinktoinnovation................................................................................................194.7 Nationalpolicies........................................................................................................194.8 Scienceindevelopingcountries................................................................................20

SECTION5 SCIENCELITERACY:MAJORAREASOFIMPACTOPPORTUNITY..................215.1 Climatechange..........................................................................................................215.2 Biodiversity,environmentaldegradationandconservation.....................................235.3 Maternalhealth,reproductionandbirthpractices...................................................23

SECTION6 CONCLUSIONSANDRECOMMENDATIONS.................................................27

CASESTUDIES...............................................................................................................29

BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................31


ACRONYMS

AAAS AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience

ASEAN AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations

BIREME LatinAmericanandCaribbeanCenteronHealthSciencesInformation

CAST ChinaAssociationforScienceandTechnology

CILIP CharteredInstituteofLibraryandInformationProfessionals

CS CitizenScience

CGIAR GlobalAgriculturalResearchPartnership

CTA TechnicalCentreforAgriculturalandRuralCooperation

ECOSOC EconomicandSocialCouncil(oftheUnitedNations)

ECIL EuropeanConferenceonInformationLiteracy

FAO FoodandAgricultureOrganisation

GAPMIL GlobalAllianceforPartnershipsonMediaandInformationLiteracy

HIFA HealthInformationForAll

HL HealthLiteracy

IAP InterAcademiesPartnership

ICSU InternationalCouncilforScience

IFLA:WGIL InternationalFederationofLibraryAssociationsWorkingGroupon InformationLiteracy

IL InformationLiteracy

MIL MediaandInformationLiteracy

PUoS PublicUnderstandingofScience

SDG’s SustainableDevelopmentGoals

SL ScienceLiteracy

STI Science,TechnologyandInnovation

UN UnitedNations

UNECA UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica

UNESCO UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization

WFP WorldFoodProgramme

WHO WorldHealthOrganisation

ScienceLiteracyinDevelopingCountries:LandscapeSurvey–SummaryReport(Feb2017) 1

SECTION1. INTRODUCTION

Tofunctionwell in the21stcenturyapersonanywhere intheworldmustpossessawiderange of abilities and competencies, in essence many ‘literacies’. These literacies - frombeingabletoreadsimplenoticesinanewspapertounderstandinginformationprovidedinmany formats by an external source or service provider - are multiple, dynamic, andmalleable. Some types of literacy may be designated ‘issue literacies’, such as those forscienceandhealth.

Almost fifteen years ago, the workshop Public Understanding of Research in DevelopingCountries1 assessed that “In developing countries, modern science and technology offerhope for addressing the pressing needs of improved nutrition, public health, safety andshelter”butwentontosaythat“oftenwhensomethingseemsobvious,it’sagoodideatolookmore closely”. The workshop concluded that new definitions of science literacy arerequiredtoensurethatpubliccommunicationofscienceandtechnologyaddressestherealneeds of people and societies in the developing world. This study has come to similarconclusions.

Discussions in Europe and North America often focus on science literacy topics such asgenetically modified foods, antibiotic resistance, green energy etc. They almost alwaysassumethatpeople’sessentialbasicneedsaremetandtheyare free tomakechoices. Incontrast, for populations in the developing world the need is to address issues moreimmediate to survival and life, such aswater and sanitation,AIDS andHIV,maternal andchild health, education and food security. As the Cape Town workshop concluded “Thedevelopedworldhastheluxuryofdetachedinterestinreliableknowledgeaboutthenaturalworld. Incontrast,publicunderstanding in thedevelopingworldmust focusonknowledgeuponwhichonecanactimmediately”.

Dr Elizabeth Rasekoala2, chair of the Pan-African Solidarity Education Network, has longadvocated for amore inclusive approach in theway science is portrayed, communicatedand practised in Africa, suggesting that science must relinquish three current aspects toarriveatawin-win,give-and-takesituationwheresciencebelongstoandbenefitseveryone:

• maledominance;

• Eurocentrism;

• theideathatitistheonlyanswertoallhumanity’sproblems.

Shealsostressedtheimportanceofempoweringyoungpeoplearoundtheworldwiththeknowledgethateverypartoftheworldhascontributedtothehistoryofscience.However,communicating cutting-edge science while respecting local cultures can be a difficultbalancingact.Infact,moreknowledgeofsciencemayleadtoapolarisationofviewsaboutit,shapedbyamultitudeoffactors,includingthelegal,ethical,andmoraldimensions.

1ReportfromPublicUnderstandingofResearchinDevelopingCountries,CapeTown,SouthAfrica,December20022https://theconversation.com/science-needs-to-start-speaking-to-peoples-everyday-lives-in-africa-67938


Communicating only the facts is likely to fall short. Expertise in the intricacies of sciencecommunication, its ‘political aspects’ diverse social settings and responses, can make adifference.Understandingandrespectingaudiences,acardinalruleofeffectiveandsociallyinclusive communication, usually involvesmutually beneficial dialogue between scientistsand communities, rather than a one-way, top-down flow of information. Engagement ofinterestentailsrelevance:aconnectionbetweenscienceandeverydaylivesnotcentredonthe promotion of science itself, but rather embedding it in society and facilitatingparticipation.

Fine examples exist of science communication crossing cultural boundaries by bringingtogether current and traditional knowledge, for example in African children’s storybooksaboutsubjectssuchasthenightsky,participativeeducationaltheatreaboutHIVprevention,science-art collaboration, the use of first languages and the inclusion of indigenousknowledgesystemsinareassuchasdrought-tolerantcropsornewmedicines.

Inthecontextofscienceliteracyindevelopingcountries,otherdebatesaroundthemeaningof the ‘literacies’ are also very relevant. A basic definition of ‘traditional literacy’ is theabilitytoreadandwrite.Argumentshavealsobeenadvancedfor itsexpansionto includethe integrationof listening,speaking,reading,writing,critical thinking,culturalknowledgeandrelatedskills.

People working within the field of information literacy propound a generic role notdissimilartothatoftraditionalliteracy,asanunderpinningfactorindifferenttypesofissueliteracy.Traditional literacymaybeheldlikewisetounderpininformationliteracy-orviceversa.Thebeginningsofapossiblestructureofliteraciesissuggestedbutnotyetclear.

Healthliteracy,forexample,hasemergedasaconceptthatinvolvesthebringingtogetherofpeoplefromboththehealthand‘traditional’literacyfields,buildingontheideathatbothhealth and literacy are critical resources for everyday living: our level of literacy directlyaffectsourabilitytonotonlyactonhealthinformationbutalsototakemorecontrolofourhealthasindividuals,familiesandcommunities.

The relationships between issue literacies can themselves be complex. Health literacy isseen by some as a subset of science literacy and literacy in technology is frequentlyassociatedwithdigital literacy.Similar complexitieshavearisen regarding the relationshipbetweeninformationliteracyandmedialiteracy,resultinginthecompositenotionofMediaand Information Literacy (MIL), which itself has several distinct emphases. Specific issueliteracies may spawn clearly-delineated sub-literacies e.g. maternal health literacy. Acommon threadmaybe that all issue literacies tend to involve social, cultural, emotionalaspectsthataffectthewayinwhichpeopleengagewiththem.

Somethinkinghastendedtowardamultipleliteraciesapproach(‘multi-literacies’)inwhichthe complementary nature of different types of literacy is established leading tocollaboration.However,furtherworkisneededinthisdirectiontoachievesuchaclarificationandtoimprovecommunicationacross‘silos’.


Issueliteracymaybeseenanessentialpre-requisiteforauthenticmulti-stakeholderand/ormultisectoral interactionsandpartnerships.ThegradualdevelopmentofpublicknowledgeabouttheHIV/AIDSepidemicanditsroleininformingactivism,individualandcollaborativeactionisheldtobeastrongexampleofthisoutcome.

Lanceteditor-in-chiefRichardHortonhasrecentlyarguedforaholistic‘planetaryhealth’asanapproach,specificallylinkinghealthwithothersustainabilityissuesrelevanttothewholeof society such as education, adolescence, gender, justice, environment, human-causedchangestoclimateandotherdimensions,speakingofa‘vision…foraplanetthatnourishesandsustainsthediversityoflifewithwhichwecoexistandonwhichwedepend….thehealthof human civilizationand the stateof thenatural systemsonwhich it depends…. connecthumanity’senvironmentalimpactontheplanetwiththesurvivalofhumancivilizationitself.beingstewardsforallthethingsthatsurroundus’3.

In conclusion, while one question in our minds during this brief survey relates to thepossibleneedforredefinitionofscience literacy inthecontextofdevelopingworld, thereareotherimportantissuesincludingtheneedtoaddressfragmentationofapproachesandachievemoreintegratedapproaches,tomakedialoguemoreproductiveandtounderstandindividual,complementaryandlaterallyconnectedissues.

3Hornton,RKeynoteAddress,DukeGlobalHealthInstitute’s10thanniversarysymposium,October5th2016


SECTION2.THERESEARCHPROCESS

The survey started inmid-September 2016,with an extensive literature search. The nextstagewascommunicationwithrelevantcommunities,stakeholdersandindividualsthroughemail,listservpresence,Facebook,Twitter,Linkedinetc.,followedbyconsultationthroughonline fora, in workshops, through meetings and participation in conferences. Thefoundation was NIDA’s global network, with a non-sector specific database of 7,311institutions,networks,individualsworkingacrossthefieldof'development'andaspecialistdatabase of 1,918 organisations and individuals with roles, programmes, and initiativesacrossallaspectsoftheInformationandKnowledgeforDevelopmentsector.Atotalof76countrieswererepresented.

In the lightof thesubjectmatter,anespecialeffortwasalsomadeto involve thesciencecommunitythroughnetworksandrelatedbodies,forexample,AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancement of Science (AAAS), the InterAcademies Partnership (IAP), the InternationalCouncil for Science (ICSU) family, national academies and science associations, andmanyother organisations, drawing on NIDA’s access to science and practising scientists. Thesecondcommunitywere thoseengaged in literacy inwayoranother: GlobalAlliance forPartnerships onMedia and Information Literacy (GAPMIL), ECIL (EuropeanConferenceonInformation Literacy), CODE – Rewriting the Story for Global Literacy, IFLA WGIL (theInternational Federation of Library Associations and Institutions Information LiteracySection, CILIP (Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals): InformationLiteracyGroup,theInternationalLiteracyAssociationandmanyindividualprogrammesandactivities. The third community were those engaged in international development – atinternational,regional,national,provincialandlocallevel. ThisincludedtheUNbodies,awiderangeofmulti-lateralandbi-lateralagencies,individualfoundations,NGOs,networks,institutionsandorganisationsandindividualswithinAsia,AfricaandLatinAmerica.

Intotal,over1,500responseswerereceivedtothecommunicationprocesswhichinvolvedat the outset sending out a brief introduction to aims and objectives, methodology andcontactpoints,invitinginvolvement&participationandmentioningtwospecific2aspects:definitions;andrequestingrecommendationsofinnovativeinitiativesofgoodpracticethatwerefelttobearpotentialforadaptationandreplication.


SECTION3. WHATISSCIENCELITERACY?

3.1 Termsappliedtopublicscienceactivityinthedevelopedworld

Astandarddefinitionofscienceis:theintellectualandpracticalactivityencompassingthesystematicstudyofthestructureandbehaviourofthephysicalandnaturalworldthroughobservationandexperiment4.

• A number of different terms are used to describe the fields of interactionsbetweenscienceandthepublic.Duringtheinitialstageofthisstudyitwashelpfultodefinethosethatareusedmostcommonly,forexample,PublicUnderstandingof Science (PUoS), Health Literacy and Science Literacy. The expanding – andrelated-phenomenonofCitizenScienceisalsodescribedbelow.Intheprocess,anumberofquestionsarose,including:

• What is the common threador succinctly expressed relationshipbetween thesedefinitionsofneighbouringfields?

• Whatarethekeydifferentiatorsbetweenthem?

• Whatactionisneededforthemtointeroperatebeneficially?

• Towhat extent are they applicable in developing countries?What are themainconstraints?

3.2 Scienceandthepublic

Among the relevant articles of the Daejeon Declaration on Science, Technology, andInnovationPoliciesfortheGlobalandDigitalAge5(2015)werethat:

• public understanding of science, as well as public engagement and trust in keyscienceand technology institutions,arenecessary for society to fullyexploit theopportunitiescreatedbyinnovation;

• policies are needed that support the positive transformational impact of digitaltechnologiesonresearchandinnovation(andlimitanyanticipatedrisks),soastopromote"openscience".

Atleastthreetermsaregenerallyusedtoencompassrelationshipsbetweenscienceandthepublic: Public Appreciation of Science (PAS), Public Understanding of Science (PUoS) andScience(andTechnology)inSociety(STS).

4https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/science5http://www.oecd.org/sti/daejeon-declaration-2015.htm


3.3 PublicAppreciationofScience(PAS)

Scienceoftenholdsanesteemedplaceamongstcitizensandprofessionalsanddrawsbroadpublic support for government investment in scientific research. However, lack ofknowledge of scientific concepts canmean that people do not fully appreciate the valuescientificendeavourhasfortheirownlifeandforsociety.Citizensandscientistsoftenseescience-relatedissues,suchasthesafetyofGMfoods,animalresearchandnuclearpowerthroughdifferent setsofeyes.Many scientistsbelieve thatpolicy regulationson landuseandcleanairandwaterarenotalwaysguidedbythebestscience.

PAS seeks to overcome this by getting science to be taken more seriously in the publicsphereandovercominganti-science sentiments in themedia,on the Internet andamongordinary people. It seeks to engage people in and encourage enthusiasm and respect forsciencebyseeingvalueorconnectionstothemselves,therebystimulatingimprovementsinScienceLiteracy.

PublicUnderstandingofScience(PUoS)addressesmanyaspectsofthe inter-relationshipsbetween science (including technology and medicine) and the public including: popularrepresentationsof science, scientific andpara-scientificbelief systems, science in schools,historyofscience,educationofpopularscience,scienceandthemedia.

Whilst related to PAS, PUoS more frequently covers the methods used by the scientificcommunity to present their scientific outputs to the public, for example by repackagingmaterial into articles and books in popular formats, everyday language and illustrations;organising science fairs, establishing science centresandpartnering in theorganisationofmuseumexhibitions.

Science (and Technology) in Society (STS) is a relatively new interdisciplinary concept,referringtoroleofscienceandtechnologyforthebenefitofhumanity.Itemergesfromtheconfluenceofavarietyofdisciplinesandsub-disciplineswithaninterestinviewingscienceand technology as socially embedded enterprises. When introduced into the EuropeanUnionresearchframeworkintheearly2000s,theScienceandSocietyprogrammeincludedthefollowingthematicareas:scientificadvice;governanceandreferencesystems;ethicsinscience; uncertainty, risk, and the precautionary principle; S&T - culture, young people,scienceeducationandcareers;scienceawards;women&science.

3.4 ScienceLiteracy(SL)

Science(orScientific)Literacy(SL)itselfcommonlyrelatestotheabilitytothinkscientificallyandtousescientificknowledgeandprocessestobothunderstandtheworldaroundusandtoparticipateindecisionsthataffectit.

The skill of being able to think scientifically about evidence - and the absence of it - inrelation to claims that are made in the media and elsewhere is vital to daily life. Smallamounts of accurate, relevant scientific information have the potential to transformindividual,familyandcommunityabilitiestoshapetheirownworld.


Ascientificallyliteratepersoncanbedefinedassomeonewhohasthecapacityto:

• understand,reflectuponandreasonaboutscientificconcepts,factsandprocessesrelevant to environmental and social issues and required for personal decisionmaking;

• ask, find, or determine answers to questions derived from curiosity abouteverydayexperiencesandnaturalphenomena;

• poseandevaluateargumentsbasedonevidenceandapplyconclusionsfromsuchargumentsappropriately;

• evaluate the quality of scientific information on the basis of its source and themethodsusedtogenerateit;interpretwithunderstandingitemsaboutscienceinthepopularmedia;

• identify scientific issues underlying national and local decisions and expresspositions thatare scientifically and technologically informedaboutdaily life, thenaturalworldandchangesmadetoitthroughhumanactivity;

• converse and communicate clearly and engage in reasoned discourse aboutscienceandtechnology.

• Given the growing centrality of science and technology in modern societies, itfollows that formal education should equip most people in this way. Clearly,improvedscienceeducation in formal schoolinghasan important role toplay increatingfavourableconditionsforcontinuingscienceliteracy.Butforpeoplewhohavenotbenefittedfromthistodate,thequestionishowcantheknowledgegapbefilled?Isitfeasibletothinkintermsofequippingadultswithabasic‘toolbox’ofknowledgeandskillsabout scienceand technology?Or is it likely tobemoresuccessful to relate these efforts to specific issues which are relevant to theeveryday lives of individuals and communities in their own localities? In eithercase,opportunitiesforlifelonglearningininformalsettingsarealsoneeded.

• Equalopportunityisessential,toensurethatwomenandmenparticipateinandbenefitfromadvancesequallyascitizensandascontributorstothesocietiestheylivein.Itisparticularlyurgenttoboostthescientificliteracyofwomenandgirls.Amajorityoftheworld’s1billionpeoplelivinginpovertyarewomenandchildren.Exclusion from science and technology and its potential benefits helps toperpetuate the vicious cycle in which they are trapped. Technological change,especiallywhenitisdesignedtoimprovethequalityoflife,hasoftenbeenmoredirectedtothetasksthatmenperform.Empoweringwomentousetechnologiesandunderstandsciencecanbenefitsocialandeconomicdevelopmentasawhole.

• A report, Science Culture: Where Canada Stands6, released by the CanadianCouncilofAcademies in2014, found that42percentofCanadianshaveabasiclevel of scientific literacy necessary to understandmedia reports about science,puttingCanadafirstamong35countrieswithsimilaravailabledata.Ayearearlier,in launching a national science literacy initiative, the government of Chinaestimatedthat3.6%ofitspopulationwerescientificallyliterate.

6http://www.scienceadvice.ca/en/assessments/completed/science-culture.aspx


3.5 HealthLiteracy(HL)

Healthliteracyrefers,broadly,totheabilityofindividualstogainaccessto,understandanduse information in ways which promote and maintain good health for themselves, theirfamiliesandtheircommunities.Whiledifferentdefinitionsareusedandhealthliteracyisanevolving concept, there is agreement that health literacymeansmore than simply beingable to read pamphlets, make appointments, understand food labels or comply withprescribedactionsfromadoctor,althoughtheabilitytoobtain,read,understandandusehealthcare information to make appropriate health decisions and follow instructions fortreatmentisimportant.

Health Literacy also implies the degree to which people are able to access, understand,appraise and communicate information to engage with the demands of different healthcontexts inordertopromoteandmaintaingoodhealth.Thismoredevelopedperspectivedefineshealth literacy as thewide rangeof skills, and competencies that peopledevelopovertheirlifetimestoseekout,comprehend,evaluate,andusehealthinformationtomakeinformedchoices,reducehealthrisks,andincreasequalityoflife.

Itincludestheabilitytounderstandscientificconcepts,content,andhealthresearch;skillsin spoken, written, and online communication; critical interpretation of mass mediamessages;navigatingcomplexsystemsofhealthcareandgovernance;andknowledgeanduseofcommunitycapitalandresources,aswellasusingculturalandindigenousknowledgein health decision making. Health literacy is seen as a social determinant of health thatoffersapowerfulopportunitytoreduceinequitiesinhealth.

Specific typesofhealth literacy includematernalhealth literacy,definedas: the cognitiveand social skills that determine the motivation and ability of women to gain access to,understand,anduseinformationinwaysthatpromoteandmaintaintheirhealthandthatoftheirchildren.

eHealth literacy is a term that describes the relativelymodern concept of an individual'sability to search for, successfully access, comprehend, and appraise desired healthinformationfromelectronicsourcesandtothenusesuchinformationtoattempttoaddressaparticularhealthproblem.

Society as awhole is responsible for improving health literacy, butmost importantly thehealthcare, public health professionals and public health systems. Where there areadequatelevelsofhealthliteracy,thatiswherethepopulationhassufficientknowledgeandskillsandwheremembersofacommunityhavetheconfidencetoguidetheirownhealth,peopleareabletostayhealthy,recoverfromillnessandlivewithdiseaseordisability.

Health literacy is important in addressing health inequities, since those at lower levels ofhealth literacy are often the ones who live in poorer socio-economic communities. Notbeing aware of information relevant to improving their health, or how to access healthresourcescreateshigher levelsofdisadvantage.Forsomepeople,a lackofeducationandhealthliteracythatwouldflowfromeducationpreventsempowermentatanytimeintheirlives.


Weak health literacy skills are associated with riskier behaviour, poorer health, less self-managementandmorehospitalizationandcostsillustratedbyrecentrepeatedincidentsofdeath and paralysing disease through cyanide poisoning caused by eating cassava inNigeria7.Strengtheninghealth literacyhasbeenshowntobuild individualandcommunityresilience,helpaddresshealthinequitiesandimprovehealthandwell-being.

Health literacy is also not just a personal resource; higher levels of health literacywithinpopulationsyieldsocialbenefits,too,forexamplebymobilizingcommunitiestoaddressthesocial, economic and environmental determinants of health. This understanding, in part,fuelsthegrowingcallstoensurethathealthliteracynotbeframedasthesoleresponsibilityof individuals, but that equal attention be given to ensure that governments and healthsystems present clear, accurate, appropriate and accessible information for diverseaudiences.

Thescopeofhealthliteracyhasalsobeenseenashavingthreedistinct‘levels’8:

• Functional literacy: skills that allow an individual, for example, to read consentforms, medicine labels, and health care information and to understand writtenandoralinformationgivenbyphysicians,nurses,pharmacists,orotherhealthcareprofessionalsandtoactondirectionsbytakingmedicationcorrectly,adheringtoself-careathome,andkeepingappointmentschedules.

• Conceptual literacy: the wide range of skills, and competencies that peopledevelop over their lifetimes to seek out, comprehend, evaluate, and use healthinformation and concepts to make informed choices, reduce health risks, andincreasequalityoflife.

• Health literacy as empowerment: strengthening active citizenship for health bybringing together a commitment to citizenship with health promotion andprevention efforts and involving individuals in: understanding their rights aspatientsandtheirabilitytonavigatethroughthehealthcaresystem;actingasaninformed consumers about the health risks of products and services and aboutoptionsinhealthcareproviders,andactingindividuallyorcollectivelytoimprovehealth through the political system through voting, advocacy ormembership ofsocialmovements.

Healthliteracyisimportantforpopulationhealthbecauseitcanbeneficiallyimpact:healthoutcomes, rates of chronic disease, health care costs, health information demands; andhealthinequalities.

TheUnitedNationsECOSOCMinisterialDeclarationof2009provideda clearmandate foraction:“Westress thathealth literacy isan important factor inensuringsignificanthealthoutcomes and in this regard, call for the development of appropriate action plans topromotehealthliteracy.”

7http://ipbo.vib-ugent.be/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/CCDN-News-20-December-2012.pdf8http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/7gchp/Track1_Inner.pdf


Knowledgeandunderstandingremainpowerfultoolsinhealthpromotion.Improvinghealthliteracy in populations provides the foundation on which citizens are enabled to play anactive role in improving their ownhealth, engage successfullywith community action forhealth,andpushgovernmentstomeettheirresponsibilitiesinaddressinghealthandhealthequity. Meeting the health literacy needs of the most disadvantaged and marginalizedsocietieswillparticularlyaccelerateprogressinreducinginequitiesinhealthandbeyond.

Health inequities are endemic to every region of the world, with rates of diseasesignificantly higher amongst the poorest and most excluded groups. As a result, thepopulationsleastabletowithstandthemultidimensionalcostsofillnessarealsothosemostlikelytoendurethem.This injustice isnotmerecoincidence–thepooraremore likelytolive,work,studyandplayinenvironmentsthatareharmfultohealth.Healthliteracyeffortscan uniquely reduce inequities in health and beyond, as the case studies in these pagesillustrate.

Thirtyyearsago, theOttawaCharter forHealthPromotionrecognizedtheneedtoenablepeople to increase control over and to improve their health and well-being by ensuringhealthier,sustainableenvironmentswherepeoplelive,work,studyandplay.Social justiceandequitywerehighlightedascorefoundationsforhealth,andtherewasagreementthathealth promotion is not simply the responsibility of the health sector. SubsequentWHOglobal health promotion conferences have reiterated these elements as key for healthpromotion.

The2030AgendaforSustainableDevelopment,theworld’sambitiousanduniversal“planofaction for people, planet and prosperity” offers a new opportunity to involve multiplestakeholderstoensurethatallpeoplecanfulfil theirpotential–to live inhealthandwithdignity and equality. While there is no specific target on health literacy within theSustainable Development Goals (SDGs), efforts to raise health literacy will be crucial inwhether the social, economic and environmental ambitions of the 2030 Agenda forSustainableDevelopmentarefullyrealized.Increasedhealthliteracygainedthroughhealtheducation and various forms of communication, as well as actions taken through healthsystemsandotherpolicies,havethepotentialtosupportachievementoftargetsrelatedtoSDG3onhealthwhileadvancingawiderangeofotherSDGs

The Shanghai Declaration on Promoting Health in the 2030 Agenda for SustainableDevelopment9 includes a new focus on health literacy - a term encompassing the use ofinformation and knowledge in healthcare, and particularly the application of healthinformationandknowledgeineducationatalllevels.

9http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/9gchp/shanghai-declaration.pdf?ua=1


Itscommitmentsincludeto:

• recognize health literacy as a critical determinant of health and invest in itsdevelopment;

• develop, implement and monitor intersectoral national and local strategies forstrengtheninghealthliteracyinallpopulationsandinalleducationalsettings;

• increase citizens’ control of their own health and its determinants, throughharnessingthepotentialofdigitaltechnology;

• ensure that consumer environments support healthy choices through pricingpolicies,transparentinformationandclearlabelling.

3.6 CitizenScience(CS)

By themid-20thcentury, sciencewasdominatedby researchersemployedbyuniversitiesandgovernmentresearchlaboratories.Subsequentcallsforademocratizationofscienceinthetraditionofnature-lovingamateurslikeDescartes,Newton,Leibniz,Buffon,andDarwin,haveledtotheevolutionofcitizenscienceoverthepastfourdecades.

Citizen science is now usually defined as scientific work undertaken by members of thegeneralpublic,often incollaborationwithorunderthedirectionofprofessionalscientistsand scientific institutions. This type of public engagement in scientific research activitiesinvolves citizens actively contributing to science either with their intellectual effort orsurrounding knowledge or with their tools and resources. It often involves publicparticipation in data gathering or analysis of existing data and can be seen as bothcontributingtoandbenefittingfromscienceliteracy.

Large volunteer networks of non-scientists often allow scientists to accomplish tasks thatwouldbetooexpensiveortimeconsumingtoaccomplishthroughothermeans.Participantsprovideandinterpretexperimentaldataandfacilitiesforresearchers,raisenewquestionsandco-createanewscientificculture.

Inthisprocess,volunteersacquirenewlearningandskills,anddeeperunderstandingofthescientificworkinanappealingway.Science-society-policyinteractionsareimprovedleadingtoamoredemocraticresearch,basedonevidence-informeddecisionmakingandtherebysupporting Science Literacy. Many citizen science projects serve education and outreachgoals.Theseprojectsmaybedesignedforaformalclassroomenvironmentoran informaleducation environment such as museums. Recent projects place more emphasis onscientificallysoundpracticesandmeasurablegoalsforpubliceducation.

Theuseofcitizensciencenetworksoftenallowsscientiststoaccomplishresearchobjectivesmore feasibly thanwouldotherwise bepossible. Answeringbig sciencequestions aroundclimate change and the diversity of life requires lots of data which researchers cannotgatheralone.


Typologies of the level of citizen participation in citizen science, range between thefollowing:

• crowdsourcing:wherethecitizenactsasasensor;

• distributedintelligence:wherethecitizenactsasabasicinterpreter;

• participatory science: where citizens contribute to problem definition, datacollectionanddataanalysis.

Characteristicprinciplesofacitizenscienceprojectinclude:

• activelyinvolvingcitizensinscientificendeavourthatgeneratesnewknowledgeorunderstanding;

• having a genuine science outcome such as answering a research question orinformingconservationaction,managementdecisionsorenvironmentalpolicy;

• boththeprofessionalscientistsandthecitizenscientistsbenefitfromtakingpartthrough publication of research outputs, learning opportunities, personalenjoyment,socialbenefits,orsatisfactionincontributingtoscientificevidence;

• citizen scientists receive feedback fromtheproject: forexample,how theirdataarebeingusedandwhattheresearch,policyorsocietaloutcomesare;

• project data and metadata are made publicly available and, where possible,resultsarepublishedinanopenaccessformat;

• citizenscientistsareacknowledgedinprojectresultsandpublications;

• programmes are evaluated for their scientific output, data quality, participantexperienceandwidersocietalorpolicyimpact;

• project leaders take into consideration legal and ethical issues surroundingcopyright, intellectual property, data sharing agreements, confidentiality,attribution,andtheenvironmentalimpactofanyactivities.

Recentstudies indicatethatthe largest impactofcitizenscience is inresearchonbiology,conservation and ecology where it is utilized mainly as a methodology of collecting andclassifying data. Citizen science networks are often involved in the observation of cycliceventsofnature(phenology),suchaseffectsofglobalwarmingonplantandanimallifeindifferent geographic areas. and in monitoring programs for natural resources. A largenumberofinitiativesresourcesandsignificantsupportstructuresintheUSAandinterestinEurope10,isnowwidening.AgrowingnumberofCitizenScienceprojectsalsotakeplaceinAfrica,SouthAmericaandelsewhereinthedevelopingworld.

Despiteclearadvantages,CitizenScienceapproacheshavedrawbacks relatedto,amongstother things, the reliability of data and statistical issues,whichneed tobe acknowledgedandremedied.

10 The action group “Citizen Science to promote creativity, scientific literacy, and innovation throughoutEurope”willbelaunchedmid-December2016,financiallysupportedbytheprogramEuropeanCooperationinScienceandTechnology(COST)http://www.ub.edu/web/ub/en/menu_eines/noticies/2016/09/064.html


TechnologyiscreditedasoneofthemaindriversoftherecentexplosionofCitizenScienceactivity,byincreasingtheoptions:

• theInternethasbeenaboontocitizenscience,particularlythroughgamification,enabling citizen scientists to gather datawhichwill be analysed by professionalresearchers;

• citizenscientistscanbuildandoperate theirown instruments togatherdata fortheirownexperimentsoraspartofalargerprojectandlearnhowtoinvestigateenvironmentalconcernsusinginexpensiveDIYtechniques;

• videotechnologyhasenabledexpandedcitizenscience;

• freeandopensourceframeworksarecommonfeaturesofCSprojects;

• mobile technology andpersonal devices have further boosted the opportunitiesfor citizen science: in the last few years, expanding evenmore rapidlywith thedevelopment of smartphones, allowingmore information to be shared throughdigitalmedia.

Participants create and run projects where volunteers help with image classification,transcription and geocoding. Armed with phones that have built-in GPS receivers,volunteerscanreadilyprovidegeo-location informationaboutspeciesorsituations inrealtime. In the future,more phones could be outfittedwith smart sensors,whichwould letpeoplemeasureandrecordenvironmentaldata,suchasair-qualitylevelsandtemperaturereadings.

Alternative definitions of citizen science placemore emphasis on science communicationand scientific citizenship: in this context, CS is more closely related to PAS (see above),includingtheconceptofscientistswhoareengagedinthedemocraticandpolicyprocessesand/orwhoseworkischaracterizedbyasenseofresponsibilitytoservethebestinterestsofthewidercommunity.

In this idea, CSprojects aim topromotepublic engagementwith the research, aswell aswithscience ingeneral.Collaboration incitizenscience involvesscientistsandresearchersworking with the public. Community-based groups may generate ideas and engage withscientistsforadvice,leadershipandprogrammecoordination.

Evidence is increasingly produced to demonstrate strong economic worth and monetaryvalue in scientific fields such as biodiversity. Ultimately, citizen science allows for moreresearch to be accomplished globally and connects people in aworldwide environmentalmovement.


SECTION4.SCIENCELITERACYINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

‘Scienceformanyissuchanalienissue,thepreserveofschoolandtheeducatedelite’11.

Severaldebatesshapingthepost-2015DevelopmentAgendahaverecognisedthatscienceliteracy at the citizen’s level in developing and transitional countries is also essential forincreasing the possibility of sustainability and for the protection and conservation ofirreplaceableglobalresources.

Citizens in developing countries still have limited access to reliable and current scientificinformation in their native language and at their level of understanding (i.e., withouttechnical jargon). Illiteracy remains widespread and images also remain important incommunicatingknowledge.

Broad access to scientific information is a key for people to understand, participate andrespondtothechallengesthatdevelopmentposes.Understandingofissuessuchasglobalwarming, lossofbiodiversity, evolution, implicationsof genetic research, andmanyothertopics isessential forpersonal involvement.Theyaffecteveryoneandthebetter theyareunderstood,thebetterandmoreappropriateactionsinresponsewillbe,whethertheseareactivisminpubliccausesorchangesatthepersonallevel.Takingactiononmanyimportantissues requires science literacy. Traditional knowledge had to be often complemented byscientificknowledgefromvarioussourcesinordertomakemeaningfulconnections.

Whereas industrialized nations have easy access to scientific information, access indevelopingcountrieshasbeenmarginalatbest.

Traditionally,therewereseveralreasonsforthis:

• therehavebeenmanymorebooksandsciencepaperspublishedinEnglishaboutissuesofrelevancetodevelopingcountriesthanintheirnativelanguages;

• many scientists in developing countries have had difficulties in trying to publishtheirresearchresultsinAmerican,Europeanorglobal-scopejournals;

• Librariesindevelopingnationswerenotabletobuyexpensivescientificjournals.

Ithasforlongbeenargued12thatindustrializednationscanhelpimprovescienceliteracyindevelopingcountriesby:

• givingtheirinstitutionsaccesstocurrentscientificliterature;

• translatingscientificinformationfromEnglishtootherlanguages;

• publishingpapersbyscientistsfromthesecountries;

• creatingliteraryexchangesbetweenscientistseverywhere.

11QuotefromaDirectorofaNationalLibraryServiceinAfrica12ImprovingScienceLiteracyandConservationinDevelopingCountriesCarlosL.delaRosa,2000.http://www.actionbioscience.org/education/delarosa.html


Overtheyears,significantactionshavebeentakentowardsthisend,including:

• personal relationships and exchanges between scientists and educators indevelopingcountries

• literaryexchangesbetweeninstitutionsandorganizations

• informationsharinganddonationsofbooksandjournals

• subsidiesforpublicationofkeyworksinnativelanguagesatreasonablecost

• supportforthepreservationanduseofindigenousknowledge.

The emergenceofwidespread access to the Internet, providing access to a vast rangeofresources and information relevant to understanding science, increasingly supported bytranslation tools, has impacted this situation, but digital skills and information navigationnecessarytousetheseresourcesarenotyetuniversal.

One result is that societies have struggle to keep up with the effects that accelerateddevelopment have on their environment. A society that is conscious of effects of actionsupon natural balance is likely to bemore effective in putting into practice the tenets ofsustainabledevelopment.

Respondentsemphasisedtherolethatlocalcontentplaysinpreparingscientificallyliterateindividuals and communities in developing countries. It was additionally recognised thatmanyinternational interventionsoftenassumeuseofEnglish.However,respondentsgaveexamplesofscienceliteracyeffortsusingoralcommunication,forexampleintheNairobi'sKibera slum communities, simple text for flash cards and posters in the Pacific Islands,animation in local languages, for example the global programme of Scientific AnimationsWithout Borders (SAWBO) transforms extension information on relevant topics such asagriculture,disease,andwomen'sempowerment, into2D,2.5Dand3Danimations,whicharethenvoiceoverlaidintolocallanguagestorequest,byalargeteamofvolunteers(over90languagesareinvolvedatthetimeofwritingthisreport).Anotherinterestingexampleisthat of Biofertilizers and Biofuels of ‘My Land, Colombia’, which uses a combination oftraditional and scientific knowledge to identify, and promote through SL, efficient andrelevant uses for by-products of coffee processing and sugar cane production for thecommunity. Respondents felt that local content in local languages in the local culturalcontextgainsmuchgreaterinvolvement,engagement,andimpact.

4.1 Formaleducation

Therehasbeenan increasingunderstandingthatteachingandlearninggoodschoolsciencemay produce extensive contributions to economic development. The importance ofscientifically literate citizens andworkers is likely to increase further as a result of the fastintroductionofnewtechnologies.


Valuableinformationisavailableindevelopingcountries,severalofwhichhaveattemptedtoimplement significant science education reforms, ranging from the use of low-cost/no costequipment to deliver hands-on science instruction to using extremely high technology-highcostmethodsofenhancingscienceinstructionmethodsthat,althoughmorecommonlyusedin industrialnations,arenowspreadingtowealthierdevelopingcountries.WorkonScienceLiteracyAssessmentistakingplace,forexample,inIndonesia13.Awiderangeofstudiessuggestthat,whetherinhomogenousorlanguage-diversesettings,science educators canmake a significant contribution to both understanding science andpromoting literacy.Educators,however,havenotalwayshadaccess toaccurate, relevantandup-to-dateinformationonmostissuesrelatedtoscience.InternationalbodiessuchasUNESCOhavesoughttoremedythisformorethan50yearsbysupportingprogrammestodevelopscienceeducationatsecondaryandhighereducationlevels. Aslongagoas1995,UNESCO recommended that by 2001 all countries should have in place appropriatestructuresandactivitiestofosterscientificandtechnologicalliteracyforall,seeingscienceliteracy at the citizen’s level in developing countries as essential for the sustainabledevelopmentandfortheprotectionandconservationofirreplaceableglobalresources.

Despite increased enrolments in science courses, expectations have often not beenmet.Well trained and motivated science teachers have remained in short supply in manycountries and curriculum reforms have not been implemented as planned. Lack ofresources,poorcoordinationandinadequateplanningareidentifiablecauses.

4.2 Basicliteracy

Pro-market policies for developing countries have long been based on the belief thatincreasing average income is key to improving public health and societal well-being.However,researchonIndia14suggeststhatalleviatingpovertyandincreasingliteracyhas a greater impact on public health and thatwhile it is broadly true that “wealthier ishealthier” illiteracy is a much stronger predictor of poor public health than low averageincome.Apoordistrictcanenjoyrelativelygoodpublichealthifithasahighliteracyrate,actingasabase,enablingpopulationstounderstandmedicinelabelling,accesshealthcare,andengagewithpublichealthprogrammes,reportingailmentsetc.

4.3 AccessAwiderangeoftrustedpointsofpotentialandactualaccesstoscientificknowledgeexist,theseinclude:informationandscienceliteracyprogrammes,includingbirthingcentres,ruralfieldstations,communityandrefugeeservicepoints,museums,sciencecentresandpubliclibraries.

The advent of electronic information, particularly the Internet andothermeans of globalinformationaccesshavetransformedthewaysinwhichpeoplecanobtaininformation.Thecapacity of broadcast media to promote understanding of science remains somewhatunder-exploited.

13http://www.ijese.net/makale/73614http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/literacy-not-income-key-to-improving-public-health-in-india


4.4 Gender

A majority of the world’s 1 billion people living in poverty are women and children.Exclusion from science and technology and its potential benefits helps to perpetuate theviciouscycle inwhich theyare trapped.Discriminationagainstwomen in scienceexists insocieties where there is a strong history of patriarchy. Empowering women to usetechnologies and understand science can benefit social and economic development as awhole.

Anarrayofinitiativeshasemergedacrossthedevelopmentspectrumseekingtoempowergirls, in response to both concerns about inequitable progress and faith in the socialdividendsofinvestingingirlsandwomen.Thedevelopmentcommunityfocussedongirlsasthebestcatalystsforsocialchangeforsomeyears. Ithas,however,beenarguedthatthisapproach also assumes that girls have - or can be given - the power to transform theircircumstances, and ignores the vast structural impediments to change, over which girlsthemselves have little influence. It can also create a narrow and idealisedmodel ofwho‘girls’ are, what they want and what challenges they face including reducing teenagepregnancy,birthpractices,reproductionandmaternalhealth,economicempowermentandviolenceprevention.

Both development agencies and community programmes drew attention to ongoinganalysisoftheeffectivenessofwhetherinvestmentingirl’sandwomen’sprogrammesisthemost effective catalysts for change or whether approaches via family and communityactivities are more long-lasting and successful. Whichever model is utilised it appearsprobablethatimprovementsinhealth/scienceliteracyhavearoletoplayinmeetingmoreequitableprogress.

Consultingordinarycitizensonwhatscienceshouldbedoneandhowitshouldbeappliedcould especially benefit women, since they are rarely involved in research projects andrarelygetachancetovoicetheirneeds.

4.5 Internationalpolicies

Noting that theDaejeonDeclarationonScience,Technology,and Innovation (STI)PoliciesfortheGlobalandDigitalAge15emergingfromtheOECDMinisterialMeetingDaejeon2015,WorldScienceForumstatedacommitmenttosupportscience,technologyandinnovationtofostersustainableeconomicgrowth,jobcreationandenhancedwellbeing.Itnotedthatachieving these goals will require adequate investment, and policy and regulatoryenvironments that support strong and well-connected global science and innovationsystems, and which also enable creativity and innovation throughout the economy andsociety, recognising that changes in science and innovation systems, influenced bydigitisation and globalisation, require that national and international policy agendas andinstrumentsbeupdated.

15http://www.oecd.org/sti/daejeon-declaration-2015.htm


ThiswasbasedonavisionthatSTIimprovethequalityoflifeforallcitizensastheyincreaseemployment, productivity and economic growth in a sustainable manner over the longterm;providenewopportunitiesforinvestment,bothforstart-upsandestablishedfirms,indeveloped and developing countries; and are essential to meeting global and societalchallenges,suchasenvironmentalsustainability,climatechange,developingnewsourcesofenergy, food security and healthy ageing, hence achieving the Sustainable DevelopmentGoals agreed by the United Nations16. Moreover, science enlarges our understanding ofnatureandsociety.

AmongprovisionsrelevanttoScienceLiteracy:

• In addition to agreeing that STI policies are being revolutionised by the rapidevolution of digital technologies, producing an increased reliance on ‘openscience’, the Declaration highlighted the opening of new avenues for publicengagement and participation in science and innovation (‘citizen science’);research co-operation between businesses and the public sector and theircontributiontothetransformationofhowinnovationoccurs(‘openinnovation’).

• Itwasagreedthatscience,technologyandinnovationhavebecomemoreglobal,withemergingcountriesbecomingmajoractorsandmany issuesreachingglobalscale, likeclimatechange, foodsecurity,neglecteddiseases,globalhealth issues(e.g. dementia) and pandemics (as illustrated in the recent Ebola outbreak) andrecognised that science is increasingly important to informpolicies anddecisionmakingacrossabroad rangeofareas, from long-termenvironmentalandpublicwelfareissuestoemergencydiseaseoutbreaksandnaturaldisasters.

• Public understanding of science, as well as public engagement and trust in keyscience and technology institutions, are seen as necessary for society to fullyexploittheopportunitiescreatedbyinnovation.

• The scientific and technological advances required to address new healthchallengeswouldbe facilitatedby collaboration among governments, academia,patients,andindustrythroughouttheR&Dandregulatoryprocesses(forinstancethrough data sharing, citizen science, crowdsourcing, virtual platforms forencouragingpeer-to-peernetworksandothercollaborativeresearch).

TheSustainableDevelopmentGoalslikewisepresentanopportunitytogivecitizensasayinshaping local science activity and the innovations that follow from it. The explosion ofscience initiatives now taking place across the continent in thewake of the SDGsmeanslocal people need a say inwhat research is being done, helping ensure Africa’s researchagendasupportswellbeingandhealthygrowthonthecontinent17.

16http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/17http://www.scidev.net/global/sdgs/news/sdgs-citizen-science-africa.html


4.6 Thelinktoinnovation

It is elsewhere argued that developing countries are the most efficient innovators18,achieving results in areas such as scientific research, infrastructure and technologyproductionwithrelativelylowinputs.Bymeasuringtheratiobetweeninnovationinputsandoutputsonthese indicators, the indexfoundthateightdevelopingnations -Mali,Guinea,Swaziland,Indonesia,Nigeria,Kuwait,CostaRicaandVenezuela-areamongthetoptenmostefficient innovators.However, an "innovationdivide"persistsbecauseoverall innovation levelsstilllagwellbehindthoseofrichernations.

The fact that the listof the top25 innovators remainsunchanged fromthepreviousyearandsolelycompriseshigh-incomecountriesshowsthatdevelopingnationsstillfaceseriousobstacles to progress, the report says.One of the biggest brakes on progress in low andmiddle-income countries is identified as lack of collaboration between the researchcommunityandtheprivatesector.

4.7 NationalpoliciesIn2013,Chinaannouncedafirmplantoincreasethepublic’sscientificliteracyaspartofitsobjective for knowledge-intensive services to contribute to 20 percent of GDP by 2020.Among measures to be taken were greater efforts in the education, publicity andpopularizationofscience, intendingtoraisetheproportionofscientifically-literatecitizensto10percentby2020.A2015surveybytheChinaAssociationforScienceandTechnology(CAST) revealed that the proportion of scientifically-literate citizens has almost doubledfrom 3.27 percent in 2010 to 6.2 percent last year, higher inmajor cities (e.g. Shanghai18.7%),similartolevelsintheU.S.andEuropeattheturnofthecentury.

ThecentralauthoritiesalsoissuednationalstandardstomeasureChinesecitizens'scientificunderstandinginvolvingnotonlyscientificknowledgebutalsorelevantthinkingability:‘forexample,when an earthquake or an emergency happens, people need to have the basicabilitytosavethemselvesorothers’.Bytheendof2014,Chinahadmorethan1,100scienceandtechnologymuseums.

However,inacountrythathasanonlinepopulationof710million,theInternetisnowthepreferredchannelforpeopletogainscienceinformation.TheCASTsurveyfoundthatover53percentofChinesepeopleobtainscientificknowledgeonlineandforthosewithabetterscientific understanding it rises to over 91 percent. Science-related websites, digitalmuseums,anddigitallibrariesareallseenasplayingapartinthecampaignandaneedtodraw inmore private funding is identified. The plan targets youngsters, farmers,migrantworkers and public servants as key groups targeted in the science promotion campaign,with changes called for in the science education of young Chinese. A national policy topromotemassinnovationandcreativitythroughthewideintroductionofmakerspaceswasalsoannouncedin2015.

18http://www.scidev.net/global/innovation/news/developing-nations-hailed-as-most-efficient-innovators.html


4.8 Scienceindevelopingcountries

Therearebynow,asubstantialnumberofCitizenScienceprojectsinAfrica,SouthAmericaand elsewhere. The involvement of volunteers in supporting professional scientists tocollect data stretches from Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania to Argentina,Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Peru and embraces projects on astronomy, water security,climatechangeimpacts,floraandfaunaspeciesdocumentationandbiodiversityingeneral,loggingactivity,cropdisease,healthepidemiologyandtestingnewcancertherapies.

TheSDGofferachancetoshapescienceagendatomeettheneedsofpeopleandcanbeabeaconforinnovationinthewayresearchprogrammesaredesignedtoincludethepeoplewhoaremeanttobenefit.Thegoalshavecreatedarenewedinterestinresearchamongthedevelopmentcommunity,whichmaymakeiteasierforresearchersindevelopingcountriestoconnectwithapopulationalreadyinterestedinscience.

MoreandmoreAfricansarebecomingcitizenscientists–andthebenefitsarehugebothforthemasindividualsandforscienceonthecontinent.GatheringenvironmentaldataisakeyfocusofAfricancitizenscience.InSouthAfrica,KenyaandUganda,forinstance,volunteersmonitorandrecorddataoneverythingfrommangroveecosystemstobeacherosion;alongwithavarietyofanimalsandinsectslikeseaturtles,bats,owls,frogs,lizardsandbutterflies.

Thecontributionofcitizensciencegoesbeyondgatheringorunravellingdata.Enthusiasticvolunteers also bring their computer equipment and technological skills to assist withnumbercrunchinganddataanalysis.Theycanfillinknowledgegapsbyprovidingscientistswithextrahands,eyes,computers,cameras,smartphonesandvehicles.

NeverthelessthereareanumberofcriticismswithinCS,revolvingaroundthequalityofdatacollectedbynon-expertsand thepotential for conflictsof interest–ordinarypeoplewhoare opposed to fracking, for instance, might get involved in projects just to gatherinformationthatsupportstheirstance.

Inclusivityisalsoaparticularchallengewhenitcomestocitizenscienceprojects.Itcanbedifficult to involvepeoplewhodon’t have their own transport or access to smartphones,computers and internet; or where literacy rates are low. Some initiatives in Africa aregettingcreativetoaddresstheseproblems.TheExtremeCitizenScienceresearchgroupintheDemocraticRepublicofCongoisworkingwithcommunitiestowardthisend.

Despiteitslimitations,citizensciencehasanimportantplaceinAfrica.Itisawayofdrivingpublicengagement;of creating linkagesanddialoguebetween scienceand society. It caninspire people to take an interest in science and enthuse young people about careers inscience.Italsohelpsmakescienceapartofeverydaylifeandrepresentsavitalsteptowardsdemocratisingscience.


SECTION5.SCIENCELITERACY:MAJORAREASOFIMPACTOPPORTUNITY

Thesurveyconfirmedthattherearenumerousaspectsoflifeindevelopingcountriesuponwhichscience literacycouldhaveabeneficial impact including: foodsecurity, foodsafety,disease prevention, maternal health, water management; safety and sanitation in urbanenvironments;agricultureandruraldevelopment;dietandnutritionandothers.

As formany initiatives, evidenceof the impact of science literacy activities on individualsandsocietyisneededtoencourageadoptionofgoodpracticeelsewhere.Severalareasofconsiderablepromisehaveemerged.

Thecaseisarguedhereforeffortstofocusinitiallyonthreemainareaswheretheresearchsurveyidentifiedthattheneedforscienceliteracyisespeciallypressingandwhereshort-to-mediumtermbenefitsmaybeachievable.

Thethreeareasare:

• climatechange;

• biodiversity,environmentaldegradationandconservation;

• maternalhealth,reproductionandbirthpractices.

5.1 Climatechange

"Livingwith climate change not only suggests the need for improved scientific literacy, italsosuggests theneed for improved literacy–betterunderstandingofhow languageandcommunication works in public life, the interplay between language and action in theworld."MikeHulme,King’sCollegeLondon,October2016

Climatescienceliteracyhasbeenidentifiedasanindividualsub-literacywithinthescienceliteracy issue, defined as ‘an understanding of your influence on climate and climate’sinfluenceonyouandsociety’19.Withinthis,aclimate-literatepersonisseentobesomeonewho:

• understandstheessentialprinciplesofEarth’sclimatesystem;

• knowshowtoassessscientificallycredibleinformationaboutclimate;

• communicatesaboutclimateandclimatechangeinameaningfulway;and,

• is able tomake informed and responsible decisionswith regard to actions thatmayaffectclimate.

19https://www.climate.gov/teaching/essential-principles-climate-literacy/what-climate-science-literacy


This rich topic canbeapproachedatmany levels, fromcomparing thedailyweatherwithlong-termrecords toexploringabstract representationsof climate incomputermodels toexamininghowclimatechange impactshumanandecosystemhealth.Learnersofallagescanusedatafromtheirownexperiments,datacollectedbysatellitesandotherobservationsystems, or records from a range of physical, chemical, biological, geographical, social,economic,andhistoricalsourcestoexploretheimpactsofclimateandpotentialadaptationandmitigationstrategies.

TheClimateEducationandLiteracyInitiativelaunchedbytheWhiteHouseOfficeofScience& Technology Policy (OSTP) in 2014 is an important example of strategic efforts in thisdirection20.Guidanceonteachingclimateliteracyhasalsobeenproduced21.

Climatechangeposesaseriousthreattodevelopmentandpovertyreductioninthepoorestandmostvulnerableregionsoftheworld.TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC) concluded a decade ago that human activity (primarily related to fossil fuelconsumption)islargelyresponsible.

Whileclimatechangewillaffecteveryone, it isexpectedtohaveadisproportionateeffectonthoselivinginpovertyindevelopingcountries,affectingaspectssuchaswaterresources,agriculture and forestry, food security, human health, Infrastructure (e.g. transport),settlements: displacement of inhabitants and loss of livelihood, coastal management,industryandenergy,disasterresponseandrecoveryplans.Africa,Asia,LatinAmericaandtheSmallIslandStateshaveallbeenidentifiedasregionsofconcern.

This iscompoundedbythefactthatdevelopingcountriesareoften lessabletocopewithadverse climate impacts such as changes in rainfall patterns, increased frequency andseverity of floods, droughts, storms and heatwaves, changes in growing seasons, waterqualityandquantity,sea level riseandglacialmelt.Action is requiredtobuildcapacity toadaptortomitigateclimatechangee.g.by introducingnewcropvarietiesresistanttotheeffects of drought and to build on traditional coping mechanisms, indicating a need forincreasedawarenessandclimatescienceliteracy.

‘The Paris Agreement (COP21) and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)requireawide-rangingmembershipofpeoples,aglobalvisionofthefuture,leadingtoaprofoundtransformationofattitudesandbehaviours indecadestocome.Changesofsuchdepth,markedbyurgencyandthefutureoftoday’syouth,cannotbeachievedwithoutsubstantial transformations in formal education, alongside informal education, otheraspectsofcitizens'information.ThisneedisstructurallyrecognizedbytheArticle12oftheParisAgreement,followingArt.83oftheUNFCCFrameworkConvention’22.

20https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/climateed-dec-3-2014.pdf21http://cleanet.org/clean/literacy/climate/index.html22 Seminar '' Education and Climate '' Friday, November 11th 2016- Training and NationalMeetings Center(CFRN),-Rabat.Morocco.http://www.interacademies.net/File.aspx?id=31050


5.2 Biodiversity,environmentaldegradationandconservation

Researchshows that10%of theworld'swildernesshasvanished in thepast twodecadesinvolvinglarge-scalelossesofpristinelandscapes,particularlyinSouthAmericaandAfrica.Wild areas are often ignored in international conservation agreements, despite theirecologicalandculturalvalue.

Mostoftheseuntouchedspacesarefound inNorthAmerica,northAsia,northAfricaandAustralia. They are often home to indigenous peoples as well as endangered plants andanimals.About20%oftheworld'slandareaisclassedaswilderness.Bythis,scientistsmeanlandscapes free of large-scale human disturbances such as housing, development andindustry.

In Brazil, The Information SystemonBrazilianBiodiversity (SiBBr)23was launched in 2014"aiming to encourage and facilitate the publication, integration, access and use ofinformation about the biodiversity of the country. Its approach is now extended toincorporatecitizenscience.Projectscovermarinemegafauna,cropdiseasesandthegeneticrichesofsoilfromtheperspectiveofantibioticsdevelopment.

WhilstInternationalpolicymechanismsarerequiredtorecognisetheactionsneeded–suchas increased investmentandrewilding, tomaintainwildernessareasbeforemuchmore islost, widespread science literacy among citizens is required to enhance diagnosis andimplementation.Thereareincreasingopportunitiesforactioninthisrespect.

5.3 Maternalhealth,reproductionandbirthpracticesMaternalhealthliteracyhasbeendefinedas:thecognitiveandsocialskillsthatdeterminethemotivationandabilityofwomentogainaccessto,understand,anduseinformationinways that promote and maintain their health and that of their children. Specifically, itinvestigatesthefeasibilityofusingtheconceptofhealth literacytoguidethecontentandprocessofantenatalsupportactivities.

Women today are having half asmany children as theirmothers and grandmothers. Theglobalaverageisnowdownto2.5childrenperwomanandcontinuestofall.However,thisfigure is not accurate for women in countries where they have little control over theirreproductivewellbeing.

Worldwide, approximately 529,000 women die during childbirth or from complicationsduringpregnancyeachyear–onewomandiesevery90seconds–andmillionsmoreareleftwith life-alteringdisabilities. Insomecountries,one insevenwomendies inpregnancyorchildbirth. Approximately 90 percent of these deaths occur in developing countries. Thematernal death rate in these developing regions is approximately 300 times higher thanthoseindevelopedcountries.

23https://www.rnp.br/en/noticias/sibbr-completa-ano-seis-milhoes-registros


The risk of a woman dying in pregnancy and childbirth depends on the number ofpregnanciesshehasinherlifetime-thehigherthenumberofpregnancies,thegreatertherisk of pregnancy-related death. The differences in thematernalmortality rates betweenrich and poor countries, according to the World Health Organization, are the healthindicator of the disparity between the two. The direct causes of maternal deaths arehaemorrhage, infection, sepsis, eclampsia, obstructed labour, hypertensive disorders inpregnancy,andcomplicationsofunsafeabortion.

Successivepregnancies-onetoosoonafteranother-doesnotgivethemotheradequatetime to recover after losing nutrients such as iron and folate due to pregnancy andbreastfeeding leading to maternal depletion syndrome. Back-to-back pregnancies candeplete themother'sessentialnutrients,puttingherathigher risk foranaemiaandothercomplicationssuchasuterinerupture,whichinturnputsbabiesatriskoflowbirthweightand preterm birth. In Niger, a woman gives birth to an average of nearly eight children.Uganda,Mali and Somalia are close behind,with an average of six to seven children perwoman.Eachpregnancyincreasestheriskofcomplicationsanddeath.

Foreverywomanwhodies,another20sufferillnessorinjury.Birth-relateddisabilitiesthataffectmanymorewomengountreated,likeinjuriestopelvicmuscles,organsorthespinalcord.Anotherrisktoexpectantwomenismalaria. Itcanleadtoanaemia,whichincreasesthe risk for maternal and infant mortality and developmental problems for babies.Nutritional deficiencies contribute to low birth weight and birth defects as well. HIVinfectionremainsacontinuingthreat.

At least 20% of the burden of disease in children below the age of 5 is related to poormaternalhealthandnutrition,aswellasqualityofcareatdeliveryandduringthenew-bornperiod.Andyearly8millionbabiesdiebeforeorduringdeliveryorinthefirstweekoflife.Further, many children are left motherless each year. These children are 10 timesmorelikelytodiewithintwoyearsoftheirmothers'death.

UNICEFhas identified the root causeas lying inwomen'sdisadvantagedposition inmanycountries and cultures and in the lack of attention to, and accountability for, women'srights.Educationandhealthliteracyarepivotaltosavingthelivesofmothersandtheirnew-bornsandimprovingmaternalandneonatalhealththansimplymedicalintervention.

Theabilityofwomentocommandresourcesandmake independentdecisionsabouttheirfertility, their health and healthcare also has an impact on maternal mortality. Wherewomenandgirlsareaffordedalowstatusinsocietytheirhealthneedsareoftenneglected.Additionally, lack of education and understanding around health-related issues cancontribute to delays in seeking care when it is needed or to life-threatening pregnancycomplicationsbeinginappropriatelymanaged.

InruralAfricaandelsewhere,womenstillhave littletonocontrolovertheirreproductivehealth,althoughtheyarewellawareoftheeffectsofnumerouspregnancies.Theyalsohavemultiplepregnanciesbecausemanyoftheirchildrendieduetonew-borncomplicationsandchildhooddiseases,eventhoughtheymayknowtheyareatrisk.


According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the first step in reducing maternaldeathsisensuringthatwomenhaveaccesstofamilyplanningandsafeabortion,whichcanreduceunwantedpregnanciesandwomenresortingtounsafeabortions.However,inmanycases, although they would like to limit family size, they don't have access to effectivecontraceptionthatisaffordableandacceptable.

Mostmaternaldeathsareavoidable,asthehealthcaresolutionstopreventormanagecomplicationsarewellknown.Sincecomplicationsarenotpredictable,allwomenneedcarefromskilledhealthprofessionals,especiallyatbirth,whenrapidtreatmentcanmakethe

differencebetweenlifeanddeath.For instance,severebleedingafterbirthcankillevenahealthy woman within two hours if she is unattended. About 62 percent of women indeveloping countries receive assistance from a skilled health worker when giving birth,whichmeansthat45millionwomengivebirthathomewithoutassistance.

Insomecountries, traditionalbirthassistantsalsoadvisewomenontheuseof traditionalmedicine,forexample,towidenthebirthcanalandtoprecipitatelabour.Ifsomethinggoeswrongduringlabour,theyrelyontraditionalbeliefsorwitchcrafttoexplainthemishapandmay expect the woman in labour to confess her purported 'bad' behaviour. They lackunderstanding of the causes of obstetric complications during childbirth, and haveinadequate knowledge of the appropriatemanagement of labour. Some traditional birthassistants are, however, in favour of providing support to labouringwomen inmaternityunitsandlearningaboutchildbirthcarefrommidwives,providinganopportunitytoensurethatcareduringchildbirthisclinicallysafeandculturallysensitive.

Clean birth practices can prevent sepsis, one of the leading causes of bothmaternal andnew-born mortality. Evidence suggests that clean birth kits (CBKs) in countries such asPakistan,aspartofpackagethatincludeseducation,areassociatedwithareductioninnew-born mortality, omphalitis, and puerperal sepsis. However, questions remain about howbesttoapproachtheintroductionofCBKsineachcountry.

Inthefieldofbirthandreproductivehealth,thereisevidencethatwomen(andsomemen)arekeentounderstandmoreabouttheirbodiesandwhat'shappening.Knowledgevariesbetween some women knowing nothing at all about eating well, menstrual cycles,contraceptionandpregnancytoothershavingagoodunderstandingofhowdrinkingmorewatermightmakethemfeelstrongerandhowtheygetpregnant.Illiteracyiswidespreadsothat tools such as images, oral interactions, simulations and games are important incommunicatingknowledge.Engaginglocalbirthattendantswhoareknownandrespectedinthecommunityisoftenmosteffective.

Researchshowsthesinglemostimportantinterventionforsafemotherhoodistomakesurethat a trained provider with midwifery skills is present at every birth, that transport isavailable to referral services, and that quality emergency obstetric care is available.Homebirth and out-of-hospital birth centres have been proven to have as safe or safer,outcomes thanhospitals fornormaldeliveries.The important factor inwhether childbirthwillbesafeorunsafeforawomanisthree-fold:theoverallhealthofthewoman,herplaceinsociety,andthepresenceofaskilledbirthattendant.


Part of the problem is that there is a worldwide shortage ofmidwives: only 60% of thewomen in theworldhave amidwife, or doctor or nursewithmidwifery skills to assist attheir childbirths. Aswomenandmidwives gainmoreautonomy, theymove tohumanizebirth,understandingthatthewomangivingbirthisahumanbeing,notamachineandnotjustacontainerformakingbabies.

Atthesametime,forthosewomenwithaccesstoahospital,insomecountrieselectiveC-sectionsforhospitalbirthshavebecomecommonplace.Avarietyoffactors influencethis.Theconvenienceofperforminga60-minutecaesareanprocedureversusattendingtoalonglabour anddeliverymay leadmanydoctors to see the time savedasofhigh importance.Elsewhere, the doctor-patient relationship means that women receive nearly all of theirinformation about childbirth from their doctor, rather than from prenatal classes oractivities.

Helpinggovernmentsprovideaqualityprimaryschooleducationalsobenefitsmaternalandinfant health – particularly education for girls. Educating girls for six years or moredrastically and consistently improves their prenatal care, postnatal care and childbirthsurvivalrates.Educatingmothersalsogreatlycutsthedeathrateofchildrenunderfive.Aneducatedmotherismorelikelytosendherchildrentoschool.

Despite recommendations supporting optimal breastfeeding, the number of womenpracticing exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) remains low, and few interventions havedemonstrated implementation and impact at scale. Initiatives such as Alive & Thrive(A&T)24, supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the governments ofCanada and Ireland, aims to save lives, prevent illness, and ensure healthy growth anddevelopmentthroughoptimalmaternalnutrition,breastfeedingandchildfeedingpractices.Alive&Thrivehasdevelopeda four-componentapproach toguide itswork in large-scaleinfant and young child feeding (IYCF) programme, including: advocacy, interpersonalcommunication(IPC)andcommunitymobilization,masscommunication,andstrategicuseofdata. Presently active inBangladesh,Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, India,Nigeria, SoutheastAsia(Cambodia,Indonesia,LaoPDR,Myanmar,Thailand,Timor-Leste,Vietnam,Philippines).

24http://aliveandthrive.org/


SECTION6.CONCLUSIONSANDRECOMMENDATIONS

This initial reviewof the science literacy ‘landscape’ led to the conclusion that there is astrongneed for improved science literacy indeveloping countries,where recognition andadoption of coherent policies and actions remains sporadic and lacking cohesion. Thisrequires continued attention to strengthening the practical and theoretic basis for bothadvocacyandimplementation.

Taking intoconsideration theevidenceandrecommendationsgatheredduring this reviewthree priority areas where the need for science literacy is especially pressing remain asdescribedinSection5above:

• climatechange;

• biodiversity,environmentaldegradationandconservation;

• maternalhealth,reproductionandbirthpractices.

Suitableactivitiesmaytakeanumberof forms.Werecommendconsiderationbegiventosupportforthefollowing:

1 One ormore localised, well-structured and carefully evaluatedpilot projects inaspectsofmaternalandreproductivehealthandbirthpracticesinpoorruralandurban settings. A number of possible locations have been identified including:Kerala (India)andVietnam(wherea further,moreholisticapproachtowomen’sand familywell-being is foreseen). Pilotprojects in the fieldsofclimatechangeand biodiversity, environmental degradation and conservations should also beencouraged. All pilots shouldbedesigned to strengthen theevidencebaseandstimulate scaling up or adaptation of successful practices, including thepreparationoflocalisedtrainingandcontentresources.

2 Projectsandactivities todemonstrateways inwhichpeoplecanbeattracted toimprovetheirscience literacyby improvingtheservice infrastructuresupportingit,forexamplebyintroducingscience-orientedmakerspacesandmakereventsinschools,libraries,museumsandcommunityvenues.

3 Service-levelandtechnicalactivitiesdesignedtoextendandstandardisethebasisfor citizen science activities, building on their success to date, so that a morepermanent human resource is engaged in many more localities in developingcountriesinsupportofclimatechangeawareness,biodiversityandenvironmentalconservationandotherscience-relatedissues.Theextensionofcitizensciencetoaspects ofmaternal health and birth/reproduction practices could represent anareaofactivityatoncechallengingandbeneficialtoevidencegathering.


4 Intensifiedcooperativeworkbetweenstrategicorganisationsinthefieldsuchas:theInterAcademiesPartnership(IAP),theInternationalCouncilforScience(ICSU),the Federation of Library and Information Professionals Working Group onInformation Literacy (IFLA:WGIL), the European Conference on InformationLiteracies(ECIL),FAOandWHOdesignedtoestablishaclearerunderstandingofthe relationship between the various basic and issue literacies, as a way ofcoordinating and easing their implementation and support in practice, possiblydefining and moving towards a ‘multiliteracies’ approach, capable of beingadaptedtotheameliorationofanyissuewithascientificbasis.Suchapproachesarelikelytobenefitfromworkingcloselywithpeoplewhoarealreadyworkinginsciencecommunication.

5 The majority of participants with whom the research came into contactrecommended(andasked)thataScienceLiteracynetworkbeformedtofacilitatesharingofexperience,tomapactivitiesinordertoreduceduplicationofeffort,toincreasetargetedgap-filling,totakealeadinbringingtogetherkeyorganisationsandstakeholderstodeveloppolicies,toshowcasegoodpracticeanddeveloplinkstoresourcesthatbearpotentialtobeadaptedandreplicated.Developingcountrypartnerswouldknowtowhomtheycouldturnforadvice,resources,partnershipandco-funding;thefundingcommunityatlargewouldbeabletogettoknowwhois doing what where, what works, what does not; the community at large andbeyondwould knowwhere resources andmaterialsmay already be developed,where are the large gaps ...in other words a network with a clearing-housefunction.

6 Establishmentofanannualaward torecogniseoutstandingachievementand/orinnovation in a science literacy activity. The research was unable to find anyexisting award in the field and informal discussionsduring interviews confirmedthat the presence of such an Award would have many benefits in enablingshowcasing of innovative initiatives holding potential for adaptation andreplicationlocally,withincountries,withinregionsandperhapsglobally.


CASESTUDIES

The final stage in the landscape survey was to collect examples of recent or ongoingpractical innovative initiatives that have been proven to meet their objectives. Actionswhichhadthepotentialtobeadaptedtoarangeofdifferentcultures&contextswereofparticularinterest.

InlinewiththeTermsofReferenceforthesurvey,fivewereinitiallyinvitedtopreparecasestudiestoillustratethelandscapesurvey.However,giventhelevelofresponseitisplannedthat over thenext 3-4months the followingworkwill continue and the followingwill beincludedasselectedexamples:

Health-Medical

e-Bug-Educationalresourcesonhygieneandinfectionforclassroomandhomeuse.http://www.e-bug.eu.html/andhttp://www.nida-net.org/en/activites/information-literacy/science-literacy/innovative-initiatives-scienceliteracy/e-bug/

CASA-Communicationtrainingwithmedics,patientsassociationsandpatientsinHIVandAIDShttp://www.casaproject.info/team-casa/andhttp://www.nida-net.org/en/activites/information-literacy/science-literacy/innovative-initiatives-scienceliteracy/CASA-project/

ScientificAnimationsWithoutBorders(SAWBO)-Training,researchandcreationofeducationalmaterialsforAgriculture,health,women’seducation. http://sawbo-animations.org/home/andhttp://www.nida-net.org/en/activites/information-literacy/science-literacy/innovative-initiatives-scienceliteracy/sawbo/

EbolaPaulRichards,Wangingen:positiveebolahttp://africanarguments.org/2016/05/19/how-black-bin-bags-and-common-sense-helped-end-ebola-and-what-we-can-learn-from-it/

Science

PuebloScience-Scienceliteracythroughtrainingteachers–Philippines&adaptedtoGuyanaandalsointernationalsummerschools–biochemistry,chemistryetc.http://puebloscience.org/

Unizulu-ScienceeducatorsandlearnersinKwaZulu-Natalschoolshttp://unizulusc.org/index.php/home

Zoouniversehttps://www.zooniverse.org/projects:

alternative:http://earthjournalism.net/projects/citizen-science-sensors


Environment

NamibDesertEnvironmentalEducationTrust(NaDEET)-ProtectingNamibia'senvironmentbyeducatingpeopletoliveasustainablelifestyle.http://www.nadeet.org/andhttp://www.nida-net.org/en/activites/information-literacy/science-literacy/innovative-initiatives-scienceliteracy/NaDeet/

KyrgyzMountainsEnvironmentalEducationandCitizenScience-Apilotproject/researchCAMPAlatooPublicFoundation&UniversityofCentralAsiahttp://camp.kg/en/andhttp://www.nida-net.org/en/activites/information-literacy/science-literacy/innovative-initiatives-scienceliteracy/NaDeet/

‘BiofertilizersandBiofuelsof‘MyLand’,Colombia’http://agrocombustiblesveredales.fresnodigital.info/

ClimateChangeLaFondationLamainàlapâte-TheFoundationLamainàlapâteisafoundationforscientificcooperationfoundedin2011bytheAcadémiedesSciences,theÉcoleNormaleSupérieure(Paris)andtheÉcoleNormaleSupérieureofLyon.TheFoundation’sactivitiesarecarriedoutwithinFranceandinternationally,providingassistanceandprofessionaldevelopmentdesignedtohelpimplementinquiry-basedlearning.http://www.fondation-lamap.org/

HAGAMOS“¡HagamosunMILAGROporelaire!”(“Let’smakeamiraclefortheair!”)http://www.mce2.org/en/outreach/hagamos

FeedingandNutrition/MaternalHealth

alive&thrive-Advocacy,education,programimplementation,andknowledgepartnershipsaroundinfantandyoungchildfeeding(IYCF)andmaternalnutrition.http://aliveandthrive.org/ andhttp://www.nida-net.org/en/activites/information-literacy/science-literacy/innovative-initiatives-scienceliteracy/alive-thrive/

TheeHealthpioneersofLaos–UsingmobilephonesandSDcardstodisseminatehealthmessage.e.g.https://blogs.unicef.org/east-asia-pacific/the-laos-e-health-pioneers/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6dhzAUL5THce.g..Meenadeworminghttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZddjtK5WMw


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Funkhouser,DavidWhattheWorldThinksofClimateChange,EarthInstitute,UniversityofColombia,2015.

Ganatra,H.ANeonatalInfectionsintheDevelopingWorld.2010http://www.seminperinat.com/article/S0146-0005(10)00104-7/abstract?cc=y

GAPMIL(GlobalAllianceforPartnershipsonMediaandInformationLiteracy).Personalcommunications,listserv,meetingsreportsetc.andwww.unesco.org/new/en/gapmil/

Grant,MandLapp,DTeachingScienceLiteracy.EducationalLeadership,ASCD,2011.

Gustetic,Jetal.CitizenScienceisEverywhere,includingtheWhiteHouse.2015https://www.whitehouse.gov/blog/2015/03/25/citizen-science-everywhere-including-white-house


HealthInformationforAll:(HIFA)personalcommunications,groupspostings,THETPartnershipdiscussionandVideo&AnimationHealthContentforCitizens:TheChallengesforContentProducers12November2016http://www.hifa.org/news/video-animation-health-content-citizens-challenges-content-producers

HealthLiteracyEuropehttp://www.healthliteracyeurope.net/

Heiser,JScientificLiteracyLinkedtoRejectingClimateChangeTheory.NewAmerican,2012http://www.thenewamerican.com/tech/environment/item/11586-scientific-literacy-linked-to-rejecting-climate-change-theory

Hill,SAppreciatingScience:ANewApproachtoScienceinourWorld:SoundsSciencey.CommitteeforSkepticalInquiry,2012.http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/appreciating_science_a_new_approach_to_science_in_our_world

Hornton,RKeynoteAddress,DukeGlobalHealthInstitute’s10thanniversarysymposium,October5th2016

Hundley,V.AetalCleanbirthkitstoimprovebirthpractices:developmentandtestingofacountryleveldecisionsupporttoolhttp://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2393-12-158

IATTCommunityEngagementWorkingGroup(CEWG)oftheInter-AgencyTaskTeam(IATT)forPreventionandTreatmentofHIVInfectioninPregnantWomen,MotherandChildren.“PositiveHealth,DignityandPreventionforWomenandtheirBabies:AtreatmentliteracyguideforpregnantwomenandmotherslivingwithHIV”http://emtct-iatt.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Treatment-literacy-PMTCT_facilitators-manual_ENG.pdfApril,2016

IFLAhttp://www.ifla.org/

IFLAInformationLiteracySectionInfoLit:IFLAInformationLiteracySectionDiscussionListInfoLit-Lhttp://www.ifla.org/about-information-literacy

IFLARegionalOfficeforAfricaAfrica-Lhttp://www.ifla.org/regional-office-africa

IFLARegionalOfficeforAsiaOceania–Asia-Lhttp://www.ifla.org/regional-office-asia-and-oceania

IFLARegionalOfficeforLatinaAmericaandtheCaribbeanhttp://www.ifla.org/regional-office-lac

InterAcademiesPanel(IAP)GlobalIAPScienceEducationProgramme.Personalcommunicationsandnetworkmembersviawww.interacademies.net/

InternationalCouncilforScience(ICSU)Personalcommunications.2016


ILIG(TheInternationalLibraryandInformationGroup)ofCILIP.Personalmeetingsandhttp://www.cilip.org.uk/about/special-interest-groups/international-library-information-group

Jedy-Agba,Elima,MD,ValerieMcCormack,PhD,ProfClementAdebamowo,MD,ProfIsabeldos-Santos-Silva,PhDStageatdiagnosisofbreastcancerinsub-SaharanAfrica:asystematicreviewandmeta-analysis

Kanj,MandMiticWworkingdocumentfordiscussionatthe7thGlobalConferenceonHealthPromotion,"PromotingHealthandDevelopment:ClosingtheImplementationGap",Nairobi,Kenya,26-30October2009http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/7gchp/Track1_Inner.pdf

Kramer,DScientistsshareblameforpublic’signoranceofscience.Phys.Today65(7),23(2012);doi:10.1063/PT.3.1635

Kronzer,V.L.Screeningforhealthliteracyisnottheanswer:It’squickerandlessstigmatizingtomakeallcommunicationclearerBMJ2016;354doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i3699(Published05July2016)

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LancetGlobalHealth,Volume4,No.12,e923–e935,December2016DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30259-5

Let’sTalkScienceWhyisScienceLiteracysoImportant?http://www.letstalkscience.ca/about-us/why-science

Liebenberg,LTheOriginofScience:theEvolutionaryRootsofScientificReasoninganditsImplicationsforCitizenScienceCapeTown,SouthAfrica,2013www.cybertracker.org

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MedicalAidFilmsLeadingSafeChoiceshttp://www.medicalaidfilms.org/new-film-ground-breaking-project-royal-college-obstetricians-gynaecologists-leading-safe-choices-programme/?utm_campaign=RCOG&utm_source=HIFA&utm_medium=Network

Metka–CentreforMediaEducation(Finland)personalcommunicationsandhttps://kavi.fi/en/media-education-and-audiovisual-media

MinnesotaSTEMTeacherCenterLiteracyinSciencehttp://scimathmn.org/stemtc/resources/science-best-practices/literacy-science


Monroy,ESustainableDevelopmentGoalsinScienceMuseums.MIDE,MuseoInteractivodeEconomíahttp://www.iscsmd.org/2016/07/27/sustainable-development-goals-in-science-museums/July27,2016

Muir,JWhatisScienceLiteracy?https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/glowblogs/eportfoliojm/2016/02/22/what-is-science-literacy/

MythriSpeaksTrustwww.mythrispeaks.orgMenstrualHygiene:Blog,Films;Videos,Resourceshttps://www.facebook.com/search/top/?q=mythri%20speaks&em=1

NamibDesertEnvironmentalEducationTrust(NaDEET):ProtectingNamibia'senvironmentbyeducatingpeopletoliveasustainable*lifestyle.Personalcommunicationsandhttp://www.nadeet.org/

NationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaDevelopingCountriesInitiativeshttp://www.pnas.org/site/aboutpnas/developingcountries.xhtml

TheNationalAcademiesofSciences,Engineering,andMedicineScienceLiteracyandthePublic’sPerceptionofSciencehttp://nas-sites.org/PC/2016/08/16/science-literacy-and-the-publics-perception-of-science/

TheNationalAcademiesofSciences,Engineering,andMedicineScienceLiteracy:Concepts,Contexts,andConsequences,2016https://www.nap.edu/catalog/23595/science-literacy-concepts-contexts-and-consequences

NationalGeographicSocietyCitizenSciencehttp://nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/citizen-science/

NaturalHistoryMuseum.CitizenScience:Answeringthebigsciencequestionsaroundclimatechangeandthediversityofliferequireslotsofdata,andourresearcherscan’tgatherthisalone.Youcanhelp.http://www.nhm.ac.uk/take-part/citizen-science.html

NepalMakerSummitMay2016https://kathmandumakerfaire.com/nepali-maker-summit/

NuffieldFoundationTwenty-firstcenturyscience:scientificliteracyhttp://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/twenty-first-century-science/scientific-literacy

Nutbeam,Don.1998Healthpromotionglossary.HealthPromot.Int.,13(4):349-364.doi:10.1093/heapro/13.4.349

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Padma,T.V.ScienceacademiesacrossSouthAsiaandAfricaareadvocatingforbetterscienceeducationandgenderequity

PatientInformationForumMeetingthehealthinformationneedsofpeoplewithlearningdisabilitieshttp://www.pifonline.org.uk/producing-accessible-health-information-people-learning-disabilities-snapshot-view/

Penwell,VAHiddenTragedy:BirthasaHumanRightsIssueinDevelopingCountrieshttp://www.midwiferytoday.com/articles/HiddenTragedy.asp

PuebloSciencehttp://puebloscience.org/

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Ramanauskaite,EgleCameratrapsforcitizensciencehttps://hackaday.io/project/11088-camera-traps-for-citizen-science

Ramnath,AWomeninScienceinDevelopingCountrieshttps://www.yahoo.com/news/women-science-developing-countries-112300689.html

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RockefellerFoundationhttps://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/

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SciDevNetBorrowingthefuturefromourchildrenhttp://www.scidev.net/global/education/editorials/borrowing-the-future-from-our-children.html2013

SciDevNetCanvisitingsciencecentresboostscienceliteracy?http://www.scidev.net/global/communication/scidev-net-at-large/can-visiting-science-centres-boost-science-literacy.html

SciDevNetSDGscouldboostcitizenscienceinAfricahttp://www.scidev.net/global/sdgs/news/sdgs-citizen-science-africa.html

SciDevNetDon’twaitforcrisestoreachpublicwithsciencehttp://www.scidev.net/global/cooperation/opinion/crises-science-public-engagement-sdgs.html

SciDevNetLet’sthinkbeyondlighthttp://www.scidev.net/global/energy/editorials/beyond-light-based-technologies.html

SciDevNetSciencemuseumsandUNESCOjointomeetSDGs.

ScientificAnimationsWithoutBorders(SAWBO)Personalcommunicationsandhttp://sawbo-animations.org/home

Cholerapreventionanimationavailableforanyeducationaluses.ThisanimationhaspreviouslybeentranslatedintoCreoleandFrenchwithaccentsfromHaiti.Belowarewhereyoucanviewanddownloadtheanimations:

CholeraPreventioninCreole(accentfromHaiti)-http://sawbo-animations.org/video.php?video=//www.youtube.com/embed/PMmRDXNloSw

CholeraPreventioninFrench(accentfromHaiti)-http://sawbo-animations.org/video.php?video=//www.youtube.com/embed/G6aMoE8hamk

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StockholmEnvironmentInstituteCitizenscienceandairpollutionmonitoring(inKenya)https://sei-international.org/video-archive/3416


UNESCOClimateChangeforSustainableDevelopment,UNESCO,Paris,2014

UNESCO-IHEInstituteforWaterEducation.PhDonCitizenScience(full-time)http://unesco-ihe.org/sites/default/files/gt20_phd_fellowship_announcement.pdf

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USClimateLiteracy:TheEssentialPrinciplesofClimateScience

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lowresolutionhttps://downloads.globalchange.gov/Literacy/climate_literacy_lowres_english.pdf

Versiónenespañol:UNENFOQUECLIMÁTICO,PARATODASLASEDADES,UnaGuíaparaIndividuosyComunidades,SegundaVersión:Marzo2009

altaresoluciónhttps://downloads.globalchange.gov/Literacy/climate_literacy_highres_spanish.pdfbajaresoluciónhttps://downloads.globalchange.gov/Literacy/climate_literacy_lowres_spanish.pdfTheEnergyLiteracyFramework

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USNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAgency:EnvironmentalLiteracyProgram

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UnizuluScienceeducatorsandlearnersinKwaZulu-Natalschools

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W5PublicAppreciationofScience&Technologyhttp://www.w5online.co.uk/education/career-paths/general/public-appreciation-of-science-and-technology/

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WorldHealthOrganisationMandateforHealthyCities.Geneva,November2016http://www.who.int/healthpromotion/conferences/9gchp/healthy-cities/en/

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Zoouniverseanditsprojectsfromhttps://www.zooniverse.org/projects

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