Migracion Aves

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THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF GIS DATABASE FOR THE STUDY OF

MIGRATORY BIRDS IN KUALA GULA NATIONAL PARK

KAREN LUM

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA


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PSZ 19:16 (Pind. 1/97)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS

JUDUL: THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF GIS DATABASE FOR THE STUDY

OF MIGRATORY BIRDS IN KUALA GULA NATIONAL PARK

SESI PENGAJIAN: 2005/2006

Saya KAREN LUM(HURUF BESAR)

mengaku membenarkan tesis (PSM/Sarjana/Doktor Falsafah)* ini disimpan di Perpustakaan

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut :

1. Tesis adalah hakmilik Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

2. Perpustakaan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja.3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara

institusi pengajian tinggi.

4. **Sila tandakan (

)

(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau

kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam

AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972)

(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan

oleh organisasi/badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)

(TANDATANGAN PENULIS)

Disahkan oleh

(TANDATANGAN PENYELIA)

Alamat Tetap:

216, Jalan Perajurit,

Taman Ipoh Baru

31400, Ipoh

Perak.

Tarikh: 19 Dec 2005

Assoc Prof. Mohd Safie Mohd

Nama Penyelia

Tarikh: 19 Dec 2005

CATATAN: * Potong yang tidak berkenaan.

** Jika tesis ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada pihak berkuasa/organisasi

berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh tesis ini perlu dikelaskan sebagai

SULIT atau TERHAD.

Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana secara

penyelidikan, atau disertasi bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan, atau

Laporan Projek Sarjana Muda (PSM).

SULIT

TIDAK TERHAD

TERHAD


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I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my

opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality

for the awards of degree of Master of Science

(Geoinformatic)

Signature :

Name of Supervisor : Assoc Prof. Mohd Safie Mohd

Date : 19 Dec 2005


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THE DEVELOPMENT AND USE OF GIS DATABASE FOR THE STUDY OF

MIGRATORY BIRDS IN KUALA GULA NATIONAL PARK

KAREN LUM

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Science (Geoinformatic)

Faculty of Geoinformation Science and Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

DECEMBER 2005


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I declare that this thesis entitled GIS in managing biodiversity and sustainability of

migratory birds is the result of my own research except as cited in reference. This

thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in

candidature of any other degree.

Signature : .

Name : KAREN LUM

Date : 19 Dec 2005


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To my beloved parents,

Lum Chee Cheong & Foong Siew Yin

Thanks for the dim of light when all I see were darkness

Thanks for giving me the best things in my lifeand finally

Thanks for your sacrifices to make me a better person each day.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Associate

Professor Mohd Safie Mohd for his guidance all through the year. Thank you for all

the inspiration that youve given me since the day I took up the courage to continue

my master degree.

Besides that, I would like to say a thousand thanks to my housemate Shu

Kian Kok for spending his precious time whenever I faced obstacles especially in the

programming part. To my best friend Teak Yung thanks for lending me your ears

whenever I need someone to share my ups and down. Not forget to Lisa, for giving

me the right spirit and enthusiasm in completing this research.

Last but not the least; I would like to express my gratitude towards Encik

Mokthar and Encik Saiful for providing me the facilities in CGIA lab.

Thank You...


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ABSTRACT

Migratory birds are one of the living organisms that should be protected.These birds from northern hemisphere fly as far as 26 000 km a year across thecontinent for survival during the winter season. In addition, the migratory birds haveconsistently stopped by at Malaysia during the roosting season from November toMarch every year because they are attracted to the richness of Matang MangroveForest. The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (Kuala Gula) has carried outobservation on the arrival of these migratory birds. The process of data collectionhad started since 1993, however, there is still no analysis had been carried out on thetrend of bird migration for the past decade. The aim of this study is to develop a GISdatabase for the Department of Wildlife and National Parks (Kuala Gula) in order tofacilitate the study of biodiversity and sustainability of migratory birds. Meanwhile,the objectives of this study is to find out the requirement of Department of Wildlifeand National Park (Kuala Gula) ; build a GIS database for the migratory birds and

performed analysis on the observed data. The methodology flows from needassessment to data collection, database development and system integration, andfinally results and analysis on trend of bird migration, ecosystem properties,environment sensitivity analysis, morphometrics analysis and spatial statisticanalysis on the distribution of the migratory birds. Database for managing

biodiversity and sustainability of migratory birds has been developed using ArcView3.2, MapObject 2.0, Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, AutoCadMap 2.0 and S-Plus 2000.The result is a migratory birds database with statistical results on the trend of birdmigration. From the results of trend of bird migration, the endangered species ofmigratory birds can be identified. Subsequently, from the endangered species beingclassified, it can provide guidelines and procedures in maintenance of the mangroveareas.


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ABSTRAK

Perkembangan dalam bidang bioteknologi telah banyak membantu kerajaandalam usaha mengurangkan peratusan kepupusan hidupan terancam seperti burungmigrasi. Burung migrasi dari hemisfera utara terbang sejauh 26 000 km setiap tahunmerentasi kontinen semasa musim sejuk dari bulan November sehingga Mac. Burungmigrasi ini akan berhenti di Hutan Simpan Matang semasa musim berehat keranatertarik dengan kawasan paya bakau yang kaya dengan pelbagai jenis hidupan.Jabatan Perhilitan Kuala Gula telah menjalankan operasi pemerhatian dan

pengumpulan data semasa ketibaan burung migrasi ini, bermula sejak tahun 1993,namun masih tiada analisis pernah dijalankan untuk mengetahui haluan proses

penghijrahan burung migrasi di Malaysia.Tujuan kajian ini dijalankan adalah untukmembangunkan satu pangkalan data burung migrasi untuk Jabatan Perhilitan KualaGula supaya kajian terhadap kepelbagaian hidupan dan langkah pemuliharaan dapatdijalankan. Sementara itu, objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menjalankan kajiankeperluan pengguna, membangunkan satu pangkalan data GIS untuk burung migrasidan menjalankan analisis terhadap data burung migrasi. Metodologi kajian ini

bermula dari kajian keperluan pengguna iaitu Jabatan Perhilitan Kuala Gula,seterusnya pembangunan pangkalan data dan pengintegrasian sistem dan akhirnya

analisis terhadap haluan penghijrahan burung migrasi, kepekaaan persekitaran, datamorphometricsdan akhir sekali analisis statistik spatial terhadap penyebaran burungmigrasi ini. Satu pangkalan data untuk pengurusan dan pemulihan burung migrasitelah dibangunkan dengan menggunakan ArcView 3.2, MapObject 2.0, MicrosoftVisual Basic 6.0, Autocad Map 2.0 dan S-PLUS 2000. Hasil daripada tren

penghijrahan burung migrasi ini, burung yang diancam kepupusan, spesis baru,penghijrah tetap dan kitar hayat burung migrasi ini dapat diketahui. Hasil analisismenunjukkan burung yang diancaman kepupusan dapat dilindungi serta kawasanyang peka bagi burung migrasi ini perlu diberi perhatian sekiranya ada

pertembungan dengan projek pembangunan di sekitar kawasan tersebut.


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CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

FRONTPAGE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES ` xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study 1

1.1.1 Issues on biodiversity and 3

sustainability

1.1.2 Genetic, species and ecosystem 5diversity

1.1.3 Endangered species of birds 6

1.1.4 The concept of ecosystem and 7

environment protection

1.1.4.1 Ecosystem properties 7

1.1.5 Environment protection 8

1.1.6 Kuala Gula the bird sanctuary 9


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1.2 Problem Statement 11

1.3 Aim and Objectives 12

1.4 Area of study 13

1.5 Scope of study 14

1.6 Importance of study 15

1.7 Related research 16

1.8 Summary 18

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 20

2.2 Mangrove forest in the world and wetlands in 21

Malaysia

2.2.1 Classification of wetlands and mangrove 21

forests

2.2.2 Geo-historical change of wetlands in the 24

glacier age

2.2.3 General description of Matang mangrove 25

Forest

2.3 The wetlands international 28

2.4 Birds in Matang Mangrove Forest 29

2.5 Early ideas about migration 30

2.5.1 The concept of bird migration

33

2.5.2 Techniques for studying bird migration 34

2.5.2.1 Direct Observation 35

2.5.2.2 Aural 35

2.5.2.3 Preserved Specimen 36

2.5.2.4 Marking 36

2.5.2.5 Radio Tracking 38

2.5.2.6 Radar Observation 39

2.6 Life cycle of the migratory birds 47


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2.7 Ecosystem in Kuala Gula wetlands 50

2.7.1 Preferences of food for the migratory birds 54

2.7.2 The interdependent of component in an 55

Ecosystem

2.7.3 The changing ecosystem in Kuala Gula 55

wetlands

2.8 Environment threats to migratory birds 56

2.9 Issues on sustainability in Malaysia 57

2.10 Definition of GIS and its implementation in

managing biodiversity and sustainability issues 58

2.10.1 GIS application 58

2.9.2 Components of GIS 59

2.9.3 Geographical referenced data 60

2.9.3.1 Spatial data 61

2.9.3.2 Attributes data 61

2.9.3.3 GIS operation 61

2.9.3.4 Benefits of GIS 63

2.11 GIS application in managing biodiversity and 63

sustainability issues

2.12 Research on bird migration around the world 66

2.13 Research on migratory birds in Malaysia 69

2.14 Trend of bird migration 71

2.15 Research on Environment Sensitivity Index 72

2.16 Summary 73

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 74

3.2 Need assessment 76

3.2.1 User requirement for data 76

3.2.2 User requirement for database 76

3.2.3 User requirement for user-interface 77


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3.3 Data collection 77

3.3.1 Spatial data collection 77

3.3.2 Attribute data collection 78

3.4 Database designation 78

3.4.1 Conceptual Design 79

3.4.2 Logical Design 81

3.4.3 Physical Design 83

3.4.3.3 Software for this study 84

3.5 Database development 87

3.5.1 Spatial data entry 87

3.5.1.1 Scanning 88

3.5.3.2 Digitizing 88

3.5.1.3 Editing 89

3.5.1.4 Topology creation 89

3.5.1.5 Viewing 90

3.5.2 Attribute data entry 91

3.6 User interface creation 92

3.6.1 Menu 95

3.6.1.1 Menubar 96

3.6.1.2 Toolbar 98

3.6.2 The database 99

3.6.2.1 Distribution of migratory birds 100

3.6.2.2 Food preferred by the 102

migratory birds

3.6.3 Picture of the migratory birds 105

3.7 Application testing 106

3.8 Summary 106

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction 108

4.2 Trend of bird migration 109


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4.2.1 Distribution of migratory birds 109

4.2.2 Total species of migratory birds found 112

in Kuala Gula wetlands according to

year basis

4.2.3 An overview on the trend of bird 114

migration in Kuala Gula wetlands

4.2.4 The new species found in Kuala Gula 116

wetlands

4.2.5 The species that has stop visiting Kuala 118

Gula wetlands

4.2.6 The endangered species of migratory 119

birds in Kuala Gula wetlands

4.2.7 The constant visitor to Kuala Gula 123

wetlands

4.2.8 Situation in Kuala Gula wetlands after 126

the roosting season

4.3 Environment Sensitivity Analysis 127

4.3.1 Distribution of migratory birds 127

4.3.2 Conservation of the mangroves area for the 130

migratory birds

4.3.2.1 Spatial analysis to determine the

131

sensitive area for the migratory

birds

4.3.2.2 Simple query to find out the 136

sensitive lot for the migratory

birds

4.4 An overview of shorebird banding in Asia 138

4.4.1 Series of codes use in ageing birds by 139

CISRO Australia

4.4.2 Analysis on morphometrics data 141

4.5 Spatial statistic on the distribution of migratory 148

birds


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4.7 Summary 155

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction 157

6.2 Results and analysis 157

6.3 Recommendations 158

6.4 Conclusion 159

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 166-165

APPENDICES 166-233


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LIST OF TABLES

NO TITLES PAGE

2.1 Classification of wetlands 22

2.2 Mangrove forests in the world 23

2.3 Mangrove forests in South East Asia 23

2.4 Productive and unproductive forest area in each division 26

in Matang Mangrove Forest.

2.5 Comparative statement of area for each forest reserve 26

2.6 Life Cycle of the migratory birds 49

2.7 The level of consumerism and its species composition 53

2.8 Preferences of food for the migratory birds according to family 54

2.9 A classification of GIS activities 62

3.1 Source of spatial data 78

3.2 The menu and its description 97

4.1 Total species of migratory birds recorded from field observation 113

from 1993-2004

4.2 Trend of bird migration for the migratory birds in 115

Kuala Gula wetlands

4.3 The new species to Kuala Gula wetlands 117

4.4 The trend of extinct species in Kuala Gula wetlands 118

4.5 The endangered species of Black-capped Kingfisher in Kuala 120

Gula wetlands

4.6 The endangered species of Blue-tailed bee-eater in Kuala Gula 121

wetlands

4.7 The Common tern, a constant visitor to Kuala Gula wetlands 123

4.8 Marsh Sandpiper, a constant visitor to Kuala Gula wetlands 124


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4.9 Location of interest for the migratory birds 130

4.10 GIS operation provided by geoprocessing wizard in ArcView

132

4.11 Code, age and description of the migratory birds 140

4.12 Morphometrics data for year 1993 in Tanjung Piandang 142

4.13 Morphometrics data for year 2004 in Tanjung Piandang 143

4.14 Moult score for the migratory birds in 1993 and 2004 147


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LIST OF FIGURES

NO TITLES PAGE

1.1 Kuala Gula and the surrounding mangrove areas 13

2.1 Summer and winter homes of the Black-and-white Warbler. 41

2.2 Isochronal migration lines of the Black-and-white warbler. 42

2.3 Migration of the Blackpoll Warbler. 43

2.4 Migration of the Cliff Swallow. 44

2.5 Migration of Pacific coast forms of the fox Sparrow. 45

2.6 Distribution and migration of Arctic Terns. 46

2.7 Distribution and migration of Harris' Sparrow. 47

2.8 Life cycle of the migratory birds 48

2.9 Food pyramid in Kuala Gula wetlands 52

2.10 The physical component of GIS 60

3.1 Methodology flow chart 75

3.2 The symbol for Conceptual Design 79

3.3 Entity Relationship Diagram for Migratory birds database 80

3.4 The Logical Design of Migratory Birds database 81

3.5 The steps of conversion from hardcopy to digital copy 88

3.6 Spatial data entry into ArcView 3.2 90

3.7 Attribute data in ArcView 3.2 92

3.8 The login form for the system 93

3.9 The front page of the system 94

3.10 The main form for handling map layers 95

3.11 The menu editor to create the menubar 96

3.12 The toolbar dialogue box 98

3.13 The image list dialogue box 99


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3.14 The sub menu of the database 100

3.15 The list of the migratory birds

101

3.16 Distribution of migratory birds according to year basis 102

3.17 Food preferred by the migratory birds 103

3.18 Prey of the migratory birds 104

3.19 The interface for the picture of the migratory birds 105

4.1 The distribution of migratory birds from 1993-2004 109

4.2 The landuse in Larut Matang, Selama dan Kerian in 1993 111

4.3 The landuse in Larut Matang, Selama dan Kerian in 2000 112

4.4 Total species of migratory birds according to year basis 114

4.5 New species of migratory birds found in Kuala Gula wetlands

117

4.6 The trend of extinct species in Kuala Gula wetlands 119

4.7 A small group of migrant in Kuala Gula wetlands 122

4.8 Total number of migratory birds according to month basis for 126

year 1993 in Kuala Gula wetlands

4.9 Distribution of migratory birds in the 90s 128

4.10 The distribution of migratory birds from 2000-2004 129

4.11 The attributes of migratory birds from 1993-2004 133

4.12 The results of merge operation 133

4.13 Attributes of migratory birds located inside the forest reserved 134

in Matang Mangrove Forest

4.14 The results from clip operation 135

4.15 The attributes of migratory birds and cadastral lot in a new 136

theme

4.16 Simple query to find out the sensitive lot for the blue-tailed 137

bee-eater

4.17 The results of selected cadastral lot for the endangered species 137

of migratory birds

4.18 Primary, secondary and tertials moult for the migratory birds 144

4.19 Standard system for scoring moult 145

4.20 Shorebird wing in moult 146


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4.21 Moult score for five selected species of migratory birds in 147

1993 and 2004

4.22 First step to count the first order of spatial neighbours for 149

the distribution of migratory birds

4.23 Step to count the spatial autocorrelation for the distribution 149

of migratory birds

4.24 Results of spatial autocorrelation for the distribution of 150

migratory birds in Kuala Gula wetlands and surroundings

mangroves area

4.25 . The two-tailed test for Moran, I analysis 152

4.26 Number of migratory birds in Kuala Gula wetlands and 153

surrounding mangroves area

4.2.7 Colour classification of the distribution of migratory birds 154

in Kuala Gula wetlands and surrounding mangroves area.


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APPENDICES

NO TITLES PAGE

A Application testing 166-170

B Picture of the migratory birds 171-179

B List of migratory birds in Kuala Gula wetlands 180-181

C Source codes for the system of migratory birds 183-233


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GIS Geographical Information System

DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid

CBD Biological diversity

IGO Intergovernmental organization

IAS Invasive alien species

PA Protected areas

ABS Access and benefit sharing

CEPA Education and public awareness

CHM Clearing-house mechanism

DANIDA Danish International Development Assistance

PERHILITAN Department of Wildlife and National Park

JWRC Japan Wildlife Research Center

TCBO Thunder Cape Bird Observatory

IWRB International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau,


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The Department of Wildlife Peninsular Malaysia has been established to

give Malaysians an effective and capable service in conserving and managing

sustainable use of habitat and species diversity in Peninsular Malaysia. On the

other hand, the Department of Environment Malaysia plays an important role in

ensuring the uniqueness; diversity and quality of the environment are preservedtowards maintaining health, prosperity, security and well-being for the present and

the future. The Department of Environment has declared 5 June as World

Environment Day as a reminder for us to protect the environment.

Environment interacts with all kinds of living objects. The issues on

environment are a growing interest nowadays because it plays a vital role in the

continuity of human-being existence. There are a lot of environmental issuesnowadays such as pollution, deforestation, global warming, biodiversity and

sustainability and so forth.

Pollution is not a new issue to our society nowadays. The air, water and

sound pollution can create negative effects on human health such as food poisoning,


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asthma and respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia, headaches,

nausea and allergic reactions. Long-term health effects can include chronic

respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain,

nerves, liver, or kidneys.

Development is the key to civilization and the only way for development is

deforestation. However, deforestation without careful planning will create a great

disaster to human being such as landslide, flood and global warming. The negative

effect of deforestation is getting more attention from our society and many

precautions had been taken to minimize the possibility of this occurrence such as

the enforcement of laws and forest reservation plannings.

The issue on biodiversity and sustainability is another issue being discussed

by our society. The risen in awareness is due to people realizing on the importance

of species dependency in this world. Every species living on the earth interacts

with one another in which the air, water and sunlight plays an important role as

external resources to make the cycle complete. Nobody can guarantee the

continuity of existence for every species including human beings. However, there

are numerous precautions that can be taken to prolong the extinction period of every

species. For example, careful management on the conservation and protection of

the endangered species will definitely help to decrease the percentage of extinction.

The goals of sustainable development in Malaysia are not being met, partly

because of the lack of access to advanced technology for environmental monitoring

as well as for biodiversity and sustainability management practices. Geographic

Information Systems (GIS) is a unique and important tool for monitoring the

degradation of tropical ecosystems.


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1.1.1 Issues on Biodiversity and Sustainability

Biological diversity means the full range of variety and variability within

and among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. In

addition, biological diversity encompasses community diversity, species diversity,

genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Life comes in an almost infinite variety

of fascinating and enchanting forms, from microscopically small unicellular species

to giant whales and elephants. In turn, species are formed by different kinds of

populations, these by different kind of individuals and these by different types of

organs, tissues, cell, and genes.

Biodiversity is therefore not an entity, a resource, but a property, a

characteristic of nature. Species, populations, certain kinds of tissues are

resources, but not their diversity as such. But diversity is a defining characteristic

of life. Without diversity life is not conceivable, just like a ball without roundness

is not conceivable, or a diamond without hardness is not a diamond. There is so

much diversity, and it takes so many forms we ask in disbelief, where does this

diversity come from? Fundamentally it derives from the properties of a variety of

macromolecules, most notably DNA and proteins. Their characteristics make

biodiversity possible. Biodiversity underpins the processes that make life possible.

Healthy ecosystems are necessary for maintaining and regulating: atmospheric

quality, climate, fresh water, marine productivity, soil formation, cycling of

nutrients and waste disposal (Reid and Laird, 1993).

Malaysia is the world's 14th ranking mega-diversity country as stated in a

report by Association of Southeast Asian Nation. To give one an idea how

valuable biodiversity is, experts have estimated that more than 40% of the world's

economy and 80% of the needs of the world's poor are taken from biodiversity

(Iluminado, 2003).


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In addition, Malaysia has 2.12 million hectres of national and state parks,

wildlife sanctuaries, turtle sanctuaries and wildlife reserves. Some 3.43 million

hectres are also protected as water catchments area (Sorensen, 2002).

Recently there is a regional conference on Biological Diversity (CBD) that

took place from 9-20 February 2004, at the Putra World Trade Centre in Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia. Over 2,300 participants attended, representing 161

governments, as well as UN agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs),

intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), indigenous and local communities,

academia and industry. The meeting had came out with a decision which had

adopted 33 decision on biodiversity and tourism; monitoring and indicators; the

ecosystem approach; biodiversity and climate change; sustainable use; invasive

alien species (IAS); the Strategic Plan; mountain biodiversity; inland water

ecosystems; marine and coastal biodiversity; protected areas (PAs); access and

benefit-sharing (ABS); technology transfer and cooperation; Article 8(j) (traditional

knowledge); incentive measures; communication, education and public awareness

(CEPA); scientific and technical cooperation and the clearing-house mechanism(CHM); financial resources and mechanism; and national reporting.( Damodaran,

2004)

In April 2003, Wetlands International commenced on a two-year

conservation project at Kuala Gula wetlands, with funding from Danish

International Development Assistance (DANIDA) (Asian Waterbird Census 1997-

2001).

An article taken from the Star Newspaper (5 March 2005) has stated that

nine companies would be charged in the court in connection with the degradation

around the Bukit Cahaya Seri Alam Agriculture Park. Besides, the Selangor

Government has also announced that local councils would no longer have the


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power to approve any development projects near by environment sensitive places.

Menteri Besar Datuk Seri Dr Mohamad Khir Toyo was ordered to take immediate

action by Prime Minister Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, who expressed

outrage over the degradation of Bukit Cahaya after seeing the destruction from the

air in a 45-minute helicopter ride.

The main causes for loss of biodiversity in Malaysia are habitat destruction,

over harvesting and pollution. As of early 1995, the National Policy on Biological

Diversity was in the final phase of formulation before being endorsed by the

Cabinet. The aim of this national strategy is to maintain plants and animals in their

original habitats as well as outside of their original habitats in facilities such as

botanical gardens. The purpose is to ensure long-term food security and

preservation of the unique biological heritage of Malaysia (Natural Resources

Aspect of Sustainable Development in Malaysia).

1.1.2 Genetic, Species and Ecosystem Diversity

Genetic diversityis the combination of different genes found

within a population of a single species, and the pattern of

variation found within different populations of the same species.

Species diversityis the variety and abundance of different types

of organisms, which inhabit an area.

Ecosystem diversityencompasses the variety of habitats that

occur within a region, or the mosaic of patches found within a

landscape (Solbrig, et. al, 1994).


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1.1.3 Endangered Species of Birds

Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development chief technical

adviser Kim Worm Sorensen said the rate of extinction today is six species per

hour. In rainforests, the extinction rate is 50,000 species a year (Sorensen, 2002).

Meanwhile, an article in the Star newspaper stated that forty species are globally

threatened in Malaysia. This places Malaysia on the 10th spot on the list of Asian

countries with the most number of bird species at risk of extinction. Of the 40

species, three are considered critically endangered, four are endangered and 33 are

vulnerable. During the last century, some species of birds have gone extinct, such

as the green peafowl in Peninsular Malaysia and the white-shouldered ibis in

Sarawak (Malaysia's Avifauna - The endangered ones).

Although biodiversity loss primarily centers upon the destruction of entire

ecosystems, some species are more at risk, and more critically endangered than

others. The biological value of some is not immediately obvious, but each has its

own unique place in the ecosystem, and the depletion or loss of one species can

have unexpected and devastating knock-on effects on others.

There are a few local birds, which are under the category of endangered

species such as the Milky Stork and Lesser Adjucant. It is recorded that about 5500

Milky Stork left in the world and 100 left in Malaysia. The three critically

endangered species are the Christmas Island frigatebird, White-rumped vulture;

Chinese crested tern and Silvery wood pigeon. The four endangered ones are

Storms stork, Nordmanns greenshank, Bornean peacock-pheasant and white-

winged duck.

Malaysia has important populations of many threatened rainforest birds.

These include three species endemic to the peninsula: the mountain peacock-


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pheasant, Malayan whistling-thrush and the Malaysian Peacock-pheasant. The

coastal and inland wetlands host globally threatened resident and migratory water

birds such as the milky stork, lesser adjutant, and storms stork, spotted greenshank,

spoon-billed sandpiper and Chinese egret (Sim, 2003.

1.1.4 The concept of Ecosystem and Environmental Protection

A simple definition by Transley (1935), ecosystem is an assemblage ofbiotic and abiotic components making up an interdependent system. Abstraction of

nature such as the ecosystem concept can be used in both a general way and a local,

specific way. For example, one can discuss the tall grass prairie ecosystem as an

abstract representation of an ecosystem type that once covered much of the former

Prairie Peninsula. But one can also use the ecosystem concept to describe, analyze,

and predict behavior of a specific representation of a general ecosystem type, such

as prairie relict consisting of only a few acres along a railroad in Rowa (Reiners,

1995).

1.1.4.1Ecosystem Properties

When analyzing and modeling environmental systems at the ecosystem

level, it is useful to focus on certain structural and functional properties. A list of

very general ecosystem properties, each of which can be subdivided for more detail

and definition of particular ecosystem is as follows:

Climate at appropriate space and time scales

Soils


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Water regime (hydrology, chemistry)

Species composition

Physical structures (dimensions, distribution of live and dead

biomass, photosynthetic area)

System energetic (physical energy budgets, biological energy

flows)

Nutrient budgets and cycles

Regulatory processes

Topological relationships (influences from neighboring

ecosystem)

(Reiners ,1995)

The ecosystem in Kuala Gula is the main attraction for tourism. The

richness of mangrove has attracted the migratory birds to stop by and find their food

there. The mangrove contains of many living organism such as birds, fish,

mollusks, crustaceans, frog, worms, prawn, insects, grass and so forth interacts with

one another. Air, water and sunlight play an essential role in completing the circles

of ecosystem.

1.1.5 Environment Protection

Efforts to draft legislation on the protection of wildlife in PeninsularMalaysia dated as far back as 1869. The first legislation was the Straits Settlement

Ordinance No. 3 of 1894, which covers only a few species. 1955 was a historical

year for the Wildlife Department as the Wild Animals and Birds Protection

Ordinance No.2 of 1955 was passed. In 1972, the Wildlife Protection Act No. 76 of

1972 was drafted and was subsequently passed by the Parliament and obtained

Royal Approval on 28 April 1972. The Act was published and gazetted on 4 May


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1972.

With the Wildlife Protection Act No. 76 of 1972, the Wild Animals and

Birds Protection Ordinance No.2 of 1955 were abolished. Wildlife conservation

activities in Peninsular Malaysia come under the administration of the Federal

Government. The Wildlife Department was later known as the Department of

Wildlife and National Park or PERHILITAN in short (Department of Wildlife and

National Parks).

1.1.6 Kuala Gula The Bird Sanctuary

Kuala Gula wetlands are located in the district of Kerian, about 45 km from

Taiping, in the state of Perak. Kuala Gula is located towards the north of the

Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve. Matang is the single largest tract of mangrove

forest in Peninsular Malaysia. It covers an area of 40,000 ha. Matang was firstprotected in 1906 and is rated as the best managed mangrove forests in the world.

Kuala Gula and its associated wetlands (mudflats, mangroves, rivers and

estuaries) extend to approximately 12,000 ha. It is an important area for fisheries as

a majority of the local community at Kuala Gula is involved in this thriving

business. There are about 600 families involved in the harvesting of fish, shrimp

and shellfish, cockle farming, aquaculture as well as in the processing of shrimp andfish products. The mangrove is a rich breeding ground for various aquatic lives,

including shrimps, cockles and mud crabs.

Kuala Gula mangroves are known best as a roosting and feeding site for

migratory water birds. 48 migratory water birds including the Little EgretEgretta


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garzettaand Great Egret Casmerodius albus, and many waders such as the

Common Redshank Tringa totanus, Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia,

Eurasian CurlewNemenius arquata, Common SandpiperActitis hypoleucosand

Mongolian Plover Charadrius mongolus, as well as threatened resident water birds

such as the Lesser AdjutantLeptoptilos javanicus and the endangered Milky Stork

Mycteria cinereahas been recorded in Kuala Gula. These resident birds are nesting

in this wetland. Birds of prey are also very common here, especially the Brahminy

Kite,Haliastur indusand Crested-serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela.

The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (PERHILITAN) have

established Kuala Gula as a bird sanctuary since 1970. These water birds migrate

from the Northern to Southern Hemisphere especially from Siberia and Mongolia

and stopover at Kuala Gula for feeding at the mudflats and mangrove forests in the

wintering months. Every year approximately 5,000 visitors came to Kuala Gula for

bird watching. Thousands of birds can be seen in Kuala Gula wetlands especially

during the migratory and wintering season from September to April of the

following year. During non-migratory season, you can see the resident water birdssuch as the Lesser Adjutant and Milky Stork.

Besides that, Kuala Gula lies close to two sites (Pulau Kelumpang and Pulau

Trong Bird Sanctuary) that have been reserved as Bird Sanctuaries within the

Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve. Both are island reserves that harbour probably

the only viable population of the globally endangered Milky Storks in Malaysia. It

is recorded about 5,550 left in the world and 100 left in Malaysia, and in a recentsurvey the wildlife officer of Kuala Gula Office observed 10 Milky Storks in Pulau

Kelumpang. Kuala Gula is also a wildlife sanctuary. Mammals are also found in

the mudflats and forest area. They are the Smooth Otter Lutra perspicillata,

Silvered-leaf Monkey Trachypithecus cristatus, Long-tailed Macaque Macaca

fascicularis and Ridgeback Dolphin (Sim, 2003).


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1.2 Problem Statement

The migratory birds from northern hemisphere stop by in Malaysia before

continuing their journey to other countries such as Australia during roosting season

from November to March every year. For instance, from a group of migratory

birds, there will be a few species which are categorized under endangered species

due to the low rate of number found compared to other species. These endangered

species need to be protected from any further harm to minimize the possibility of

extinction.

Department of Wildlife and National Parks Malaysia (DWNPM) has

conducted an early study on migratory birds in Matang Mangrove Forest in a joint

venture research program with the Japan Wildlife Research Center (JWRC). The

avifauna population was studied using three methods namely; direct observation,

mist netting, and line transect surveys by scientists from both organizations in 1993-

1995.

Although authority in Department of Wildlife and National Park, Kuala

Gula still carry out field observation to collect the data of migratory birds till now,

no analysis has been carried out on the data. In addition, there is still no GIS

implementation in managing the data of migratory birds. As a matter of fact, the

trend of bird migration in Malaysia has not been discovered. The statistical analysis

on the endangered species of migratory birds for the last decade can give us an idea

on how the trend of bird migration has been changed.

Geographical Information System is a computer system to manage the

process and to analyze the geographical referenced data. There are some popular

analysis provided by the GIS softwares namely, spatial analysis, 3D analysis and

network analysis. Spatial analysis such overlay can be used to obtain an output that


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fulfills the criteria of two layers. This analysis can be used to find out the sensitive

area for the migratory birds.

In addition, GIS provides the function of spatial and attribute linking. By

using GIS, the data from field observation can be linked to the map of the study

area. GIS plays important roles in managing the sustainability of the mangroves

area, which indirectly brightens up the future of the migratory birds to Malaysia.

Besides the sustainability purpose, Kuala Gula the bird sanctuary has

attracted thousands of tourists every year just to have a glance of the spectacular

view of those colourful migratory birds. For this reason alone, the need to protect

the sensitive area for the migratory birds is undeniably significant to promote the

tourism in Malaysia.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to develop a GIS database for Department of

Wildlife and National Park, Kuala Gula in order to facilitate the study of the

migratory birds.

Meanwhile the objectives of the study are listed as follows;

To assess the need of the Department of Wildlife and National Park,

Kuala Gula for database development

To build a GIS database for the migratory birds

To perform analysis using;

Trend of bird migration

Ecosystem in Kuala Gula wetlands


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Environmental Sensitivity

Morphometrics data

Spatial statistics on the distribution of migratory birds

1.4 Area of Study

Area of study is comprises of Kuala Gula and surrounding mangrove areas.

Figure 1.1: Kuala Gula and the surrounding mangrove areas


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1.5 Scope of study

The scope of this study is basically related to software, data types, analysis

to be performed and the designation of user interface. Several software being used

which includes ArcView 3.2, MapObject 2.0, Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0, AutoCad

Map 2.0 and S-Plus 2000.

The most important data for this study is the distribution of migratory

birds within the study area from 1993 to 2004. The limitation for this data is the

total number of migratory birds being recorded is just estimation because there is no

consistency in date and time for observation. The data from 1998 and 2001 are not

available; therefore they are excluded from the analysis because no fieldwork was

carried out during these four years.

On top of that, morphometrics (measurement taken from a bird structure)

data of the migratory birds is needed for this study to find out the age of the

migratory birds to Kuala Gula wetlands. The availability of the data is from 1992

to1995 and 2002 to 2004.

The cadastral lot for Kuala Gula wetlands is very important for the analysis

on environment sensitivy in study area. Meanwhile, as an additional knowledge,

the list of the migratory birds together with their picture is important for

identification purposes.

Three main analyses for this study include: trend of bird migration,

environment sensitivity analysis and spatial statistic on the distribution of migratory

birds. All three analyses require the use of GIS functionalities in order to obtain the

results. Meanwhile, an additional analysis on the morphometrics data for the

migratory birds will be carried out as an additional knowledge on the shorebird


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banding in Asia.

Finally, a friendly user-interface has been created for the authority in

Department of Wildlife and National Park, Kuala Gula.

1.6 Importance of Study

This study is of paramount important to find out the location of the

migratory birds. In addition, this study can provide the information about the trend

of bird migration in Malaysia. From the database being created for the distribution

of migratory birds from 1993 to 2004, the new species, endangered species and the

constant visitor of migratory birds to Kuala Gula wetlands can be identified. The

total number of migratory birds being discovered every year would be summed up

so that comparison can be made for a period of a decade. This analysis is very

important to explain whether the ecosystem in Kuala Gula wetlands is still well-preserved.

From the migratory birds database, the date of arrival for the species of

migratory birds has been jotted down in the database. From there, a temporal

analysis can be performed on the seasonal arrival of these migratory birds. The

results on this analysis can provide a valuable information for bird lovers in

Malaysia so that they can carry out bird watching activities at the peak season of thearrival of these migratory birds.

Environmental sensitivity analysis is utmost important to find out the

sensitive areas for the migratory birds. These sensitive areas for the migratory birds

need to be protected in order to prolong the extinction period. GIS operation such as


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buffer and overlay is performed so that the government can carry out

conservation activities affectively.

Apart from that, spatial statistic on the distribution of migratory birds can

provide a result concerning the spatial patterns on the distribution of migratory

birds. There are three types of spatial patterns namely, clustered, dispersed and

random. The nature of spatial autocorrelated data that is the data that is not random

in space. This result is important to provide an indication whether the places of the

distribution of migratory birds share the similar characteristic.

Finally, this study is significant towards sustaining the migratory birds to

Malaysia. This is to ensure the migratory birds from northern hemisphere will

continue to visit Kuala Gula and the surrounding mangrove areas in the future so

that the ecosystem in the study area can be preserved.

1.7 Related Research

There are numerous related studies on migratory birds and trend of bird

migration. The pioneer study for migratory birds in Malaysia was conducted

between September 1993 to January 1995 by the Department of Wildlife and

National Parks (DWNP) and the Japan Wildlife Research Center (JWRC) in the

joint venture research program on the biodiversity of Wetland in Malaysia.Scientists from both organizations also conducted studies on migratory birds

population during their annual migration. The studies on avifauna were conducted

at various locations in the Matang mangrove forest reserve during the three years

study period. Bird observation was conducted along the rivers especially Sungai

Gula, Sungai Selinsing and Sungai Kelumpang. The avifauna population was

studied using three methods namely; direct observation, mist netting, and the line


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transect surveys. The study was conducted from 15 September to 7 October 1993

for the first phase, from 7 to 17 for the second phase and from 18 to 21 January

1995 for the third phase. A total of 78 species from 33 families were recorded

during the first phase of study, 75 species from 36 families in the second phase, and

only 37 species from the third phase respectively (Satoo, 1995).

A study by Oliver in 1999 was to design a GIS database to produce an ESI

map to determine the environmental sensitivity areas when oil spill occurs. It is

also a decision making tool for the management in prevention and clean up before

or after the oil spill occurs.

An extension from the study by Oliver, a team from Universiti Teknologi

Malaysia (Ibrahim Busu, Norkhair Ibrahim, Ghazali Desa and Surya Asnarius) with

a cooperation of the Japanese Wildlife Research Center (JWRC) has produced an

ESI map for oil spills. This study has been conducted to develop the ESI maps

based on standard Sensitivity Index, which is produced by the NOAA and Coastal

Resources for East Coast Peninsular Malaysia. The primary objectives of this study

were to design and develop ESI database, to design and produced ESI maps for

study area using GIS technology and to analyze the advantages of using GIS

approach to produce ESI maps as compared to conventional method. The final

results of this study include the ESI system and ESI maps. The maps produced are

divided into three major types, which is Sensitivity Index for the Shoreline,

Biological Resources and Human-Use Resources.

Besides that, North American Breeding Bird Survey had carried out a

research on trend of bird migration in America. The aim of the research is to find

out the change of population of local and migratory birds. Of the 245 species

considered, 130 have negative trend estimates, 57 of which exhibit significant

declines. Species with negative trend estimates are found in all families, but they


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are especially prevalent among the mimids (mockingbirds and thrashers) and

sparrows. A total of 115 species exhibit positive trends, 44 of which are significant

increases. Flycatchers and warblers have the largest proportions of species with

increasing populations (Peterjohn, et. al, 1992).

Futhermore, Debbie Badzinski (2003) has carried out a research on trend of

bird migration for 63 species of migrant birds, and eight species of irruptive or

partial migrants at Thunder Cape Bird Observatory (TCBO) from 1995-2002.

These indices were calculated from daily estimated totals of birds passing through

the designated area. This result had came out with three conclusions, which were

summarized as follows;

i) Spring population trends (1995-2002). Based on spring population

trends, 81% (35/43) of species have declined and only 19% have

increased at TCBO between 1995-2002.

ii) Fall population trends(1995-2002). The majority of fall migrants at

TCBO also had decreasing population trends from 1995-2002. Seventy-three percent (45/62) of fall migrants declined, and only 27% increased

(17/62).

iii) Combined spring/fall population trends(1995-2002). Combined

spring/fall trends were calculated for 39 species at TCBO. Eighty-one

percent (31/38) of species at TCBO declined and only 18% (7/38) of

species had positive trends from 1995-2002.

1.8 Summary

This chapter presents introductory discussion of this study. The discussion

covers the background of study, issues and problem statement, aims, objectives,


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scope of study and importance of study. Some of the related researches to this study

were also briefly discussed.

Chapter 2 is devoted to literature studies which includes among others; early

ideas of bird migration, the concept of bird migration, techniques for studying

migration, food for the migratory birds in Malaysia, environment treats to migratory

birds, issues on sustainability in Malaysia, GIS in managing biodiversity and

sustainability, research on bird migration around the world, research on migratory

birds, trend of bird migration and Environmental Sensitivity Index in Malaysia.

Chapter 3 discussed about the methodology used in this study whereas the

results and analysis of this study is discussed in chapter 4. At the end, conclusion

and recommendations have been discussed in Chapter 5.


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Literature review for this chapter is very useful for identifying researches

that had been carried out on bird migration and thus can be used as guidelines for

this research. The author carried out this task for about three month by interviewing

the authority in Department of Wildlife and National Park, Kuala Gula, Perak and

by reading some relevant books/articles/ newspaper/journal/internet resources etc.

The content of this chapter gives a brief explanation on the study area (Matang

Mangrove Forest), biodiversity and sustainability issues in Malaysia, implementing

Geographical Information System (GIS) for the better management of biodiversity

and sustainability and last but not the least researches that had been carried out by

local and foreign researchers on the issue of biodiversity and sustainability of bird

migration.

2.2 Mangrove forest in the world and wetlands in Malaysia

According to Odam (1970), wetlands are considered as priceless area for

human, but the wetlands and mud flat area are actually rich diversity area as a


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connection area of land ecosystem and aquatic. According to Whittaker (1975),

wetlands occupy 3.5% of the world because net primary production of the wetland

ecosystem is 3 times higher than average ones. People living near the wetlands

areas can be used food as resources such as shellfish, crustacean; fishes and so on

depend on the high productivity of the area. Also, they use the plants resource such

as nipa and mangrove tree for the architecture material and firewood. However,

converting wetlands into agriculture land or residential areas by large scale by

progress of large-scale earth technique used mechanical power. The wetlands in

South East Asia also are not an exception and the conversion from the wetlands to

other types of land cover such as plantation areas; fishponds and residential areasare mushrooming. According to Kunihuda (1994), the mangrove areas of each

country decreased half of the primary area in last two decades in Thailand,

Malaysia, Myanmar and Bangladesh (Satoo, 1995).

2.2.1 Classification of Wetlands and Mangrove Forest

Whittaker (1975) has classified ecosystem and net production of the world

and calculated of the wetland area about 200 million km2except tundra area.

(Satoo, 1995). Table 2.1 shows classification of the wetlands.


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Table 2.1: Classification of the wetlands

1) SubtidalMarine

2) Inter tidal

1) SubtidalEstuary

2) Inter tidal

Lagoon

Salt Water

Salt lake

1) PerennialRiverine

2) Temporary

1) PermanentLacustrine

2) Seasonal

1) Emergent

Fresh water

Palustrine

2) Forested

Aquaculture/ Marineculture

Agriculture

Salt Exploitation

Urban / Industrial

Man-made Wetlands

Water-storage areas

Source: Satoo, 1995

Table 2.2 shows the distribution areas of the mangrove forest in each

region. The total area of mangrove forest in South East Asia is 41, 000 km2and

occupies 25 % of it in the world (IUCN, 1983; Kaigai Ringyo Consultant, 1990).


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Table 2.2: Mangrove forest in the world

Region Area (km2) ( % )

Eastern Asia and South East Asia 4162.0 25.5

Southern Asia and Middle East 1017.6 6.2

Oceania 1698.6 10.4

Eastern part of Africa 547.8 3.4

Western part of Africa 2711.0 16.6

Central America 1558.0 9.6

Caribbean 445.4 2.7

South America 4073.2 25.0

Total 16313.0 100

Source: Satoo, 1995

Table 2.3shows the area of mangrove forest in nine countries in South East

Asia. Indonesia occupies about 50% of the area of mangrove forest on the coast of

Sumatra and Papua New Guinea. Malaysia has large mangrove area in northern

Borneo and occupies second position of the area of existence mangrove in South

East Asia countries.

Table 2.3: Mangrove forest in South East Asia

Country Area (km2) (%)

Philiipine 246.7 6.0

Vietnam 320.0 7.8

Cambodia 10.0 0.2


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Table 2.3: Mangrove forest in South East Asia (continued)

Country Area (km2) (%)

Thailand 163.4 4.0

Malaysia 652.2 15.9

Brunei 7.0 0.2

Singapore 1.8 0.0

Indonesia 2176.6 53.2

Myanmar 517.1 12.6

Total 4094.8 100

Source: Satoo, 1995

2.2.2 Geo-historical change of wetlands in the glacier age

Geo-historical change of the wetlands in the glacier age Peninsula Malaysia

is mainly researched through the study on Sunda Sea. Furukawa (1992) stated that

sea level of the Sunda Sea dropped 72 meters in the last glacier age and major part

of continental shelf around Peninsula Malaysia were land area. Traces of major

rivers in the glacier age are found in the continental shelf area around the Peninsula.

Sea level rise after the last glacier age and the Sunda Sea was formed.

Transgression with rise of sea level in 2 to 3 meters occurred in 6000 years ago in

the Sunda Sea. Transgression and regression caused large mudflat and fresh water

swamp around coast area of the Sunda Sea. Continental slope is so gentle that little

down of sea level lead to large mudflats along the coast. Large mud flats were

made in the regression period in the Holocene epoch. Front line of the mud flats

followed the regression sea level, and the recent wetlands along the coast area were


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made in Peninsula Malaysia The Matang Mangrove area might also built after those

geo-historical changes (Satoo, 1995).

2.2.3 General Description of Matang Mangrove Forest

Matang mangrove forest is located on the coast along the straits of Malacca

in western area of Taiping, Perak. The mangrove forest spread in estuary area of

the Gula, Trong and Sangga Besar rivers. The mangrove forest stretches about the40 km for the north and south, and 11 km for east and west and covers a land area

approximately 40, 711 hectare. Although there are small fisherman villages such as

Kuala Gula, and Port Weld on the coast and rafts for fish farming are scattered in

the rivers, major part of the area is managed as production forest or reserve.

The Matang mangrove came under forest management from beginning of

20

th

century and logging and charcoal production were continued undermanagement plans of Perak State Forestry Department. The traditional

management plan for the mangrove forest over a period of thirty years, which was

framed in the colonial era, is applied now with some revision. Expected yield of

mangrove trees for charcoal processing is 177 tones per hectare and 146 tones per

hectare for firewood (Perak State Forestry Department, 1981). The mangrove forest

area is divided into productive forest and unproductive area. Table 2.4 shows the

area of the productive and the unproductive forest in three divisions.


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Table 2.4: Productive and unproductive forest area in each division in Matang

Mangrove Forest

Division Forest

component

Productive Unproductive Total(ha)

Port Weld 1-50, 62-64 17, 053 3, 902 20, 955

Kuala Trong 51-61, 65-68 10, 390 687 11, 077

Sungai Kerang 87-108 7, 326 1, 353 8, 679

Total (ha) 34, 769 5, 942 40, 711

Source: Satoo, 1995

Table 2.5 shows the comparative statement of area for each forest reserve in

Matang Mangroves (hectares).

Table 2.5:Comparative statement of area for each forest reserve (continued)

Range Forest Reserve Compt

No

Area in

1990

Area in

1980

Area in

1970

Kuala

Sepetang

Pulau Gula 1-3 1294.2 1299.0 1280.6

Cabai Malai 4-6 1231.3 1244.5 1220.6

Pulau Kelumpang 7-11 3913.2 3811.6 3673.7

Sungai Baharu 12-15 954.8 956.6 930.8

Sungai Sepetang 16-18 848.7 860.0 864.34

Pulau Kecil 18A 42.1 42.1 42.1

Pulau Selinsing 19-26 2948.3 3002.2 2963.1

Jebong 27-29 881.9 892.5 883.4


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Range Forest Reserve Compt

No

Area in

1990

Area in

1980

Area in

1970

Pulau Sangga Besar 30-38 3356.8 3362.6 3336.8

Pulau Sangga Kecil 39-41 1199.4 1186.6 1210.5

Telok Kertang 42-45 1187.3 1216.6 1282.6

(i) Sungai Limau 46-50 1927.9 1988.8 2002.4

(i)Pulau Trong Utara 62-64 1078.2 1093.7 1112.1

20864.1 20956.8 20803.1

Kuala

Trong

(ii) Sungai Limau 51-53 974.5 978.7 997.0

(ii) Pulau Trong

Utara

56-61 1575.6 1574.5 1559.5

(iii) Pulau Trong

Utara

65 285.6 308.5 307.3

Trong 54-55 708.0 723.5 723.5

Pulau Trong Selatan 66-80 5170.8 5343.1 5505.3

(i) Sungai Temerlok 81-86 2103.1 2146.9 2136.410817.6 11075.2 11229.0

Sungai

Kerang

(ii) Sungai Temerlok 87-89 666.5 679.7 693.0

Pulau Sungai Nibong 90-92 802.7 823.8 825.1

Pulau Pasir Hitam 93-102 4790.2 4908.9 5107.7

Sungai Tinggi 103-108 2209.9 2266.6 2297.1

8469.3 8678.0 8922.9

Total(ha) 40,151.0 40,711.0 40,955.0

Source: Satoo, 1995


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2.3 The Wetland International

Wetlands International is a world organization to manage the wetlands

around the world. This organization was formerly known as the International

Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau (IWRB). Wetland International has

coordinated the Asia-Pacific Migratory Water bird Conservation Committee that

implements the Asia-Pacific Migratory Water bird Conservation Strategy.

The first strategy was carried out between 1996 and 2000, actively

supported by the governments of Australia and Japan. The strategy has been highly

successful in promoting international activity related to flyway co-operation for

waterbirds. The strategy has helped in the establishment of three networks of

internationally important sites:

East Asian-Australasian Shorebird Site Network (1996)

North East Asian Crane Site Network (1997) East Asian Anatidae Site Network (1999) which focuses on promoting

conservation of important wetlands in the breeding grounds of the waterbird

family (that covers swans, geese and ducks) in the northern hemisphere.

The strategy has also raised awareness of the need to conserve migratory

waterbirds and their habitats in the Asia-Pacific flyways through a series of

initiatives implemented at local and international levels.

According to the Wetlands International report, Numbers and distribution

of water birds and wetlands in the Asia-Pacific region Results of the Asian

Waterbird Census: 1997-2001, more than 5, 700 sites from 26 countries have been


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counted at least once, since AWCs inception on the Indian sub-continent 17 years

ago.

The five-year Census surveyed 1, 392 sites in 22 countries at least once.

This included 61 wetlands of international importance or popularly known as

Ramsar sites, 32 Migratory Waterbird Network Sites in the East Asian-Australasian

Flyway and 43 Important Bird Areas, with the highest count of 4, 571, 522 birds

from 770 sites registered in 2001. The Census reported that 82 sites in ten

countries supported more than 20, 000 birds each and of the 82, 22 are Ramsar

sites. A total of 291 species of waterbirds and 15 species of wetland-dependent

raptors were recorded. 37 species were recognised as globally threatened: two

critically endangered, eleven endangered and 24 vulnerable (The Star, 15th

June

2004).

2.4 Birds in Matang Mangrove Reserve

The mangrove forest of Matang is locally as well as internationally known

for its wide arrays of resident and waterbirds. Its wetland habitats and extensive

mudflats are rich in various forms of marine fauna, which are a constant source of

food for many species of migratory and resident waterbirds. From the total of 650

species of birds recorded in Peninsular Malaysia, more than 195 species can be

found in Matang, of which 48 are migratory birds.

Matang also has a large population of migratory coastal waterbirds believe

to be anywhere in the range of 75, 000 to 180, 000 during the annual cold wintering

months up to North from July to April. They are believed to visit the same site

every year, provided their habitats are not disturbed. Some of the migratory birds

came as far as Northern Russia and hemisphere making a stopover in China then to


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Matang for resting and refueling before continuing their journey to Indonesia and

Australia. The most common of the migratory waterbirds are Common Redshank,

Mongolian Plover, Black-tailed Godwit, Terek Sandpiper, Curlew Greenshank,

Bar-tailed Godwit and Grey Plover.

Matang also have a large variety of mangrove forest birds. Among the most

commonly observed are the Stork-billed Kingfisher and the Collared Kingfisher.

The majestic Brahminy Kite (Haliastur Indus) is a common sight anywhere in

Matang.

The Mangrove Forest of Matang is also a stopover for many migratory

forest birds. They would stop in Matang before flying towards lowland and hill

forest towards the mainland. In addition, many species of colourful local land birds

can be seen in the forest of Matang the whole year round. They include many

species of Sunbird, Flowerpecker, Flycatcher, Kingfisher, Myna and Woodpecker

(Noramly, 2002).

2.5 Early ideas about bird migration

The migrations of birds have probably attracted the attention and aroused

the imagination of humans since the African genesis. Recorded observations on the

subject date back nearly 3, 000 years to the times of Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus, and

Aristotle. In the Bible, there are several references to the periodic movements of

birds, as in the Book of Job (39:26), where the inquiry is made: "Doth the hawk fly

by Thy wisdom and stretch her wings toward the south?" The author of Jeremiah

(8:7) wrote: "The stork in the heavens know her appointed time; and the turtledove,

and the crane, and the swallow, observe the time of their coming." The flight of

Migratory Quail that saved the Israelites from starvation in their wanderings


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through the Sinai wilderness is now recognized as a vast migration between their

breeding grounds in Eastern Europe and western Asia and their winter home in

Africa.

Aristotle, naturalist and philosopher of ancient Greece, was one of the first

observers whose writings are known to discuss the subject of bird migration. He

noted cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to the marshes at the headwaters

of the Nile, and pelicans, geese, swans, rails, doves, and many other birds likewise

passed to warmer regions to spend the winter. Pliny the Elder, a Roman naturalist,

in his "Historic Naturalist, " repeated much of what Aristotle had written on

migration and added comments of his own concerning the movements of European

species of starlings, thrushes, and blackbirds.

Aristotle also must be credited with the origin of some superstitious beliefs

that persisted for several centuries. One of these, that birds hibernated, became so

firmly rooted that the eminent nineteenth century American ornithologist, Dr.

Elliottq Coues, listed in 1878 the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the

hibernation of swallows. The students of Aristotle believed the disappearance of

many species of birds in the fall was accounted for by their passing into a torpid

state where they remained during the cold season, hidden in hollow trees, eaves, or

in the mud of marshes. Aristotle ascribed hibernation not only to swallows, but also

to storks, kites, and doves.

Some early naturalists wrote fantastic accounts of flocks of swallows

allegedly seen congregating in marshes until their accumulated weight bent the

reeds into the water, submerging the birds, which apparently then settled down for a

long winter's nap. It was even recorded that when fishermen in northern waters

drew up their nets they sometimes had a mixed catch of fish and hibernating

swallows. Olaus Magnus, Archbishop of Upsala, published a work in 1555 entitled


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"Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalis et Natura" observing that if swallows so

caught were taken into a warm room they would soon begin to fly about but would

live only a short time.

The idea of hibernation as a regular method of spending the winter is no

longer broadly accepted for birds, although the Common Poorwill is a possible

exception. Many species, however, such as chickadees, swallows, hummingbirds,

swifts, and nightjars regularly go into torpor under cold stress on winter nights but

also even during the breeding seasons.

Aristotle also was the originator of the theory of transmutation, the seasonal

change of one species into another. Frequently one species would arrive from the

north just as another species departed for more southerly latitudes. From this he

reasoned the two different species were actually one and assumed different

plumages to correspond to the summer and winter seasons.

Probably the most remarkable theory advanced to account for migration is

contained in a pamphlet titled, "An Essay toward the Probable Solution of this

Question: Whence come the Stork and the Turtledove, the Crane, and the Swallow,

when they Know and Observe the Appointed Time of their Coming, " published in

1703. It is written "By a Person of Learning and Piety, whose "probable solution"

stated migratory birds flew to the moon and there spent the winter.

Some people who easily accepted the migratory travels of larger birds were

unable to understand how smaller species, some of them notoriously poor flyers,

could make similar journeys. They accordingly conceived the idea that larger

species (e.g., storks and cranes) carried their smaller companions as living freight.


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In some southern European countries, it is still believed these broad-

pinioned birds serve as aerial transports for hosts of small birds that congregate

upon the Mediterranean shore awaiting the opportunity for passage to winter homes

in Africa. Similar beliefs, such as hummingbirds riding on the backs of geese, have

been found among some tribes of Native Americans in the Western Hemisphere.

Such fantasies, however, are not without some empirical basis, such as the

observation of an Eastern Kingbird harassing a Great Horned Owl that actually

perched on the shoulder of the owl's outstretched wing as the owl glided toward

wooded cover.

Today we realize that birds do not migrate by "hitching" rides with other

birds and that the scope of the migration phenomenon is worldwide, not simply

limited to the Northern Hemisphere or the world's land masses. The migration

heritage is developed just as extensively in Old World warblers migrating to and

from Europe and Africa as in our wood warblers traveling from Canada and the

United States to South America and back. Although South Temperate Zone species

migrate northward to the tropics during the austral winter, no land species nesting in

the South Temperate Zone migrates into the North Temperate Zone. Some seabirds

like the Sooty Shearwater and Wilson's Storm petrel, however, migrate to North

Temperate seas after nesting on shores south of the equator (Northern Prairie

Wildlife Research Center).

2.5.1 The Concept of bird migration

The changing picture of bird populations throughout the year intrigues those

who are observant and who wish to know the source and destination of these birds.

While many species of fish, mammals, and even insects undertake amazing

migratory journeys, birds as a group are the most mobile creatures on Earth. Even


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humans with their many vehicles of locomotion do not equal some birds in

mobility. No human population moves each year as far as from the Arctic to the

Antarctic with subsequent return, yet the Arctic Terns do.

Birds are adapted in their body structure and physiology to life in the air.

Their feathered wings and tails, bones, lungs and air sacs, and their metabolic

abilities all contribute to this amazing faculty. These adaptations make it possible

for birds to seek out environments most favorable to their needs at different times of

the year. This result in the marvelous phenomenon we know as migration the

regular, recurrent, seasonal movement of populations from one geographic location

to another and back again.

Throughout human experience, migratory birds have been important as a

source of food after a lean winter and as the harbinger of a change in seasons. The

arrival of certain species has been heralded with appropriate ceremonies in many

lands. Among the Eskimos and other tribes this phenomenon is the accepted sign of

the imminence of spring, of warmer weather, and a reprieve from winter food

shortages. The European fur traders in Alaska and Canada offered rewards to the

Native American who saw the first flight of geese in the spring and all joined in

jubilant welcome to the newcomers (Shaw Creek Supply).

2.5.2 Techniques for studying migration

The following are the techniques normally used for studying bird migration.


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2.5.2.1 Direct Observation

The oldest, simplest, and most frequently used method of studying

migration is by direct observation. Size, color, song, and flight of different species

all aid the amateur as well as the professional in determining when birds are

migrating. Studies by Wells W. Cooke and his collaborators from 1888 to 1915 and

continued by his successors in the U.S. Bureau of Biological Survey (later U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service) were of particular importance in the earlier years of these

investigations in North America. Tediously compiling and comparing literally

thousands of observations of species in a given locality at a particular time of the

year sorted some of the largest and most interesting routes and patterns out.

Most recently, the National Audubon Society and Audubon and

ornithological societies have published information in their bulletins and

newsletters on direct observation of migration. In the aggregate, direct observation

has contributed much to our knowledge of migration, but this method is limited byits being largely restricted to daytime, ground-based data on birds either before or

after a period of actual migratory flight.

2.5.2.2 Aural

Another nocturnal observation method, which has potential for species

identification during the study of migration, is the use of a parabolic reflector with

attached microphone to amplify call (chip) notes. This device, when equipped with

a tape recorder, can record night migrants up to 11, 000 feet on nights with or

without a full moon. A primary disadvantage is that one cannot tell the direction a

bird is traveling. Furthermore, there may be some difficulties in identifying the


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chip notes made by night migrants, since these calls are often different from the

notes heard during the daytime. Unfortunately, the bird may not call when it is

directly over the reflector and consequently it would not be recorded.

2.5.2.3 Preserved Specimens

Reference material consisting of preserved bird skins with data on time and

place of collection exists in many natural history museums. The essentialingredient in studying migration by this method is to have an adequate series of

specimens taken during the breeding season so differences in appearance between

geographically separated breeding populations of the same species can be

discerned. Such properly identified breeding specimens may be used for

comparison with individuals collected during migration to associate them with their

breeding areas. This provides a convenient way of recognizing and referring to

individuals representative of known populations wherever they may be

encountered.

2.5.2.4 Marking

If birds can be captured, marked, and released unharmed, a great deal of

information can be learned about their movements. Many different marking

methods have been developed to identify particular individuals when they are

observed or recaptured at a later date. Since 1920, the marking of birds with

numbered leg bands in North America has been under the direction of the U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service and more recently the Biological Resources Division of the

U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Canadian Wildlife Service. Every

year professional biologists and volunteers, working under permits, place bands on


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thousands of birds, game and nongame, large and small, migratory and

nonmigratory. Each band carries a serial number on the outside and an address

where recovered bands can be sent on the inside. When a banded bird is reported

from a second locality, a definite fact relative to its movements becomes known.

The study of many such cases leads to a more complete knowledge of the details of

migration.

The records of banded birds have also yielded other important information

related to migrations, such as arrival and departure dates, the length of time

different birds pause on their migratory journeys to feed and rest, the relation

between weather conditions and starting times for migration, the rates of travel for

individual birds, and the degree of regularity with which individual birds return to

the summer or winter quarters used in former years. Many banding stations are

operated systematically throughout the year and supply much information

concerning the movements of migratory birds that heretofore could only be

surmised. The most informative banding studies are those that focus on particular

populations of birds. Examples of such planned banding programs are the extensive

marking of specific populations of ducks and geese on their breeding grounds by

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Canadian Wildlife Service, as well as

Operation Recovery, the cooperative program of banding small land birds along

the Atlantic Coast. When these banded birds are recovered, information concerning

movements and survival rates of specific populations or the vulnerability to hunting

is gained. Coloured leg bands, neck collars, or streamers can be used to identify

populations or specific individuals, and birds marked with easily observed tagscould be studied without having to kill or recapture individuals, thus making it a

particularly useful technique.

We have learned about the migratory habits of some species through

bandings, but the method does have shortcomings. To study the migration of a


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particular species through banding, the banded bird must be encountered again at

some later date. If the species is hunted, such as ducks or geese, the number of

returns per hundred birds banded is considerably greater than if one must rely on a

bird being retrapped or found dead. For example, in Mallards banded throughout

North America the average number of bands returned the first year is about twelve

percent. In most species that are not hunted, less than one percent of the bands are

ever seen again.

In 1935, Lincoln commented that with enough banding some of the winter

ranges and migration routes of more poorly understood species would become

better known. A case in point is the Chimney Swift, a common bird in the eastern

United States. This species winters in South America. Over 500, 000 Chimney

Swifts have been banded, but only 21 have been recovered outside the United States

(13 from Peru, 1 from Haiti, and the rest from Mexico). The conclusion is simply

this: whereas banding is very useful for securing certain information, the volume of

birds that need to be banded to obtain a meaningful number of recoveries for

determining migratory pathways or breeding or wintering areas may be prohibitive.

One problem in interpretation of many banding results is the fact that recoveries

may often reflect the distribution of people rather than the distribution of birds.

2.5.2.5 Radio Tracking

Radio tracking, or telemetry, is accomplished by attaching a small radio

transmitter that gives off periodic signals or beeps from a migrating bird. With a

radio receiving set mounted on a vehicle or airplane, it is possible to follow these

radio signals and trace the progress of the migrating bird. Richard Graber reported

one of the most dramatic examples of this technique in 1965. He captured a Gray-


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cheeked Thrush on the University of Illinois campus and attached a 2.5-gram

transmitter (a penny weighs 3 grams). The bird was followed successfully for over

eight hours on a course straight north from Urbana, across Chicago, and up Lake

Michigan on a continuous flight of nearly 400 miles at an average speed of 50 mph

(there was a 27 mph tail wind aiding the bird). It is interesting to note that while the

little thrush flew up the middle of Lake Michigan, the pursuing aircraft skirted the

edge of the lake and terminated tracking at the northern end after running low on

fuel while the bird continued to fly on. The limitations of radio telemetry, of

course, are the size of the transmitter that can be placed on birds without interfering

with flight and the ability of the receiving vehicle to keep close enough to the flyingbird to detect the signals. Despite this difficulty, there has been considerable

development in the technology, and encouraging results to date give promise for the

future, particularly when birds can be tracked by orbiting satellites. Yet this

technique should be used cautiously, since several studies have demonstrated that

transmitter-equipped birds have significantly lower survival.

2.5.2.6 Radar Observation

Radar was developed to identify and track aircraft electronically and was an

innovation that was critical to Englands success in the Battle of Britain during the

early years of the Second World War. Early radar observers noted, however, that

they received moving returns that could not be associated with aircraft. These radar

echoes, whimsically termed angels by observers in England, were soon

discovered to be birds. Students of migration seized upon that bird flight could be

monitored by radar after the end of the war as an opportunity to obtain information

on the movements of birds during both day and night and over extensive geographic

areas.


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Three types of radar have been used for studying birds: 1) general

surveillance radar, similar to ones located at airports, that scans a large area and

indicates the general time and direction of broad movements of birds; 2) tracking

radar that records the path of an airplane (or bird) across the sky by "locking on" to

a designated target and continuously following only that object; and 3) Doppler

radar similar to those operated by law enforcement agencies for measuring the

speed of a passing automobile or by meteorologists for detecting tornadic winds.

The data collected by radar can be electronically stored in the absence of a human

observer and can be correlated with weather data sets.

The use of radar in migration studies has been invaluable in determining

direction and speed of mass bird movements, dates and times of departure, height of

travel, and general volume, especially at night. One interesting fact to come out of

current radar work is the discovery of relatively large movements of warblers and

other small land birds migrating over oceans rather than along coastlines and in

directions about which ground-based observers were completely unaware (Northern

Prairie Wildlife Research Center).

Figure 2.1to Figure 2.7shows the flyway of a few species of migratory

birds from northern to southern hemisphere.


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Figure 2.1: Summer and winter homes of the Black-and-white Warbler.

Source: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center

Black and white Warbler is a very slow migrant; warblers nesting in the

northern part of the continent take fifty days to cross the breeding range (Northern



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Figure 2.2. Isochronal migration lines of the Black-and-white warbler.

Source: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center

Figure 2.2shows a very slow and uniform migration. The solid lines

connect places at which these birds arrive at the same time. These birds apparently

advance only about twenty miles per day in crossing the United States (Northern



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Figure 2.3. Migration of the Blackpoll Warbler. Source: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center

As the birds move northward, the isochronal lines become further apart,

which indicates that the

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