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Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 1
SCIETECH JOURNAL
TETFund/POLY/YOLA/ARJ/………..
Volume 5, No. 1, January 2020
ISSN: 1597-6998
A Journal of the
Adamawa State Polytechnic,
Yola – Nigeria
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 2
EDITORIAL TEAM
Editor-in-Chief - Prof. Ibrahim Umar, Rector, ASPY
Editor - Dr. Gabriel Teneke, ASPY
Assistant Editors - Mal. Shuaibu Bako, ASPY
- Mr. Barkindo Brendan, ASPY
- Mr. Timothy Siya, ASPY
- Binta Abubakar B. ASPY
- Gidado Bakari, ASPY
Secretary - Veno M. Yongo
EDITORIAL ADVISERS
Prof. Dimas Kubmarawa - Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola
Prof. V. V. Apagu - Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola
Dr. Patrick Blembo - Adamawa State University, Mubi
Dr. Bashir Aliyu - Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola
Dr. Tanimu Ya’u - Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Mr. Augustine Hayatu (CABS)
Mrs. Hannatu Moses Gwari (CST)
Engr. Kabiru Salihu (CET)
Hadiza Dauda (CCE)
© Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola – Nigeria
Paraclete Publishers (Academic Services), Yola – Nigeria.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 3
Foreword
arious researches are taking place in all higher institutions of learning across the
nation. This is to meet the trendy educational target for Vision 2020. Adamawa State
Polytechnic is not left behind as it is very concerned in this regard and has been
working diligently in this direction.
Scietech Journal is contributing towards solving many social problems. TETFund which is
committed to the production of journals of this nature is highly appreciated.
I am using this medium to encourage all academic staff members to avail themselves of this
forum and publish articles on topical issues in their various disciplines for their development
and that of the institution.
Finally, it is my hope that both staff and students will benefit from the series of contributions
here in. Valuable and constructive criticism for better improvement are always welcomed,
please!
Prof. Ibrahim Umar
Rector
(Editor-in-Chief)
V
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 4
EDITORIAL
ake a step at a time but steadily and you would get to your desired destiny. This edition
of Scietech Journal has passed through much impute to become a reality. Definitely
at the end of reading it, you would have gained at least an inch taller academically.
The effort of the Rector in ensuring that this journal is sustained with credibility.
Thanks to all intellectual contributors, who are well grounded in their various disciplines.
Please let’s not relent in our academic pursuits to fly higher.
I do appreciate all the erudite Editorial Advisers/Board Members for their commitment and
focus towards this realization, as well as our numerous reviewers for their valuable
assistance.
Dr. Gabriel Teneke
Editor
T
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 5
Table of Contents
Editorial Team 2
Foreword 3
Editorial 4
Table of Contents 5
List of Contributors 8
Instruction to Contributors 9
Subscription Page 10
Editorial Policy of Scietech Journal 11
1. Effect of Drilling Methods and Development on Borehole Water Quality in
Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa State, North Eastern Nigeria
12
Malgwi G. S. & Wilberforce I. K.
2. Using English Language Text Books to Improve Students' Performance in
English: An Overview of Nigerian Schools
21
Wappa, John Peter & Wada, Richard Sylvester
3. Reading Culture and The Library as Tools for Promoting Educational
Development in Nigeria
28
Bukar, Inuwa
4. The Impact of Global Positioning Systems (G.P.S.) in Surveying &
Geoinformatics and the Related Competencies Needed by Surveying
Graduates (A Case Study of Some Construction Companies in Yola
Adamawa State)
37
Bashir A. G., Bakari Gidado & Dahiru Zakari M.
5. Minority Question in Nigeria: Types of Minority and the Economy: Forms
of Inclusion/Organising Methods
51
Veno M. Yongo
6. The Impact of Large Class Size on the Effective Teaching and Learning
English Language Courses in Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
60
Bitrus Ishaya
7. Research Paper: Motivations for Craftsmen in Construction Sites in North-
eastern Nigeria
68
Salihu Kabiru & Mallum Isa
8. Development and Performance Evaluation of a Sand Chocking Machine 75
Williams A. H. & Mbudai. D.Y.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 6
9. Effective Teaching and Integrating Population Education Concepts in
Secondary Schools through English Language Studies
84
Bitrus Ishaya
10. Application of Delphi Techniques, to Investigate the Impact of Boko Haram
Activities on Educational Sector in North-eastern Part of Adamawa State of
Nigeria.
92
Bakari Adamu Mauda & Bulama H. James
11. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Education and TVET in
Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria
102
Daniel Peter & Bulama H. James
12. The Factors Responsible for Students' Performance in Oral English in
Selected Secondary Schools in Yola Metropolis
110
Wada, Richard Sylvester & Wappa, John Peter
13. Poverty Alleviation Programme on Economic Growth and Development in
Nigeria
121
Joshua D. Zoaka
14. The Need for Electrical/Electronic Graphics in Engineering and Related
Curricula
129
Mohammed Usman Michika
15. Assessing the Satisfaction of Students Studying at Adamawa State
Polytechnic, Yola
137
Bulama H. James
16. A Review of the Impact of Internet Banking in First Bank of Nigeria Plc 148
Lawal Michael Feyipitan
17. The Place of Information Management in the Attainment of Millennium
Development Goals (MDG)
165
Bulama H. James & Daniel Peter
18. The Questions of Incumbency and Who Should Finance Political Parties
Campaigns
172
Veno M. Yongo
19. Effects of Mathematics Anxiety on Students' Performance in Secondary
Schools, Adamawa State
179
Elishama, Lakam John
20. Simulation of Water Table Position in Response to Weather and Tubewell
Abstraction Using Wasim Model
192
Malgwi G. S. & William A.H.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 7
21. The Review of Flood Harzad Along River Benue in Adamawa State, Nigeria 205
Dahiru Mohammed Zakari & Bashiru G. Adamu and Mohammed Umar
22. Block Integrator with two Hybrid Points for the Numerical Solution of Stiff
and Oscillatory Differential Equations for First Order Initial Value Problems
of Ordinary Differential Equations
218
Abubakar Umaru Fotta, Binta Abubakar & Timothy Siya Kwabuggi
23. Prospects of Solid Waste Management in Yola North Local Government
Area of Adamawa State
229
Adamu, I. A.
24. Influence of Environmental Factors on Teachers Performance in Secondary
Schools in Adamawa and Taraba States
236
Mbasumai, Harrison Edan
25. Curtailing High Rate of Insecurity Through: Planning and Management
Techniques
243
Abdullahi Baba Kankamba & Ibrahim Mamman
26. War against Corruption in Nigeria through Islāmic Teaching and Learning:
An Appraisal of Islāmic Philosophy
251
Abdulkabir Olaiya Suleiman
27. Kinetic and Mechanism of Reduction of Periodate Ions by Copper (II)
Complex in Aqueous Acid Medium
261
Artimas, P. S. & Clarkson, G. P.
28. Environmental Pollution; Acid Rain 269
Clarkson G. P.
29. Standards and Accreditation for Library and Information Science
Programmes
277
Aishatu Umaru Abdullahi
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 8
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
1. Malgwi G. S. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
2. Wilberforce I.K. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
3. Wappa, John Peter Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
4. Wada, Richard Sylvester, Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
5. Bukar, Inuwa Federal College of Education, Yola
6. Bashir A. G. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
7. Bakari Gidado Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
8. Dahiru Zakari M. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
9. Veno M. Yongo Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
10. Bitrus Ishaya Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
11. Salihu Kabiru Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
12. Mallum Isa Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
13. William, A. H. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
14. Mbudai, D. Y Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
15. Bakari Adamu Mauda Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
16. Bulama H. James Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
17. Daniel Peter Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
18. Bulama H. James Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
19. Wada, Richard Sylvester Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
20. Wappa, John Peter Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
21. Joshua D. Zoaka Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
22. Mohammed Usman Michika Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
23. Bulama H. James Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
24. Lawal Michael Feyipitan Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
25. Elishama, Lakam John Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
26. Dahiru Moh’d Zakari Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
27. Malgwi G. S. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
28. William A.H. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
29. Adamu, I. A. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
30. Mbasumai, Harrison Edan Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
31. Abubakar Umaru Fotta Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
32. Tpl. Abdullahi B.K Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
33. Ibrahim Mamman Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
34. Abdulkabir Olaiya Suleiman Summit University, Kwara State
35. Artimas, P. S. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
36. Clarkson, G. P. Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 9
INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS
1. Journal papers should be in the areas of Science/Humanities.
2. An academic paper/article is not "just words for the sake of work" It should embody
ideas and facts so that anybody who encountered the paper is not the same person after
reading it.
3. Manuscript must be typewritten in English, double-spaced on A4 sized (210 x 297mm)
white papers and submitted in triplicates (and two copies). Papers submitted to the Board
must not be submitted to any other journal for consideration at the same time.
4. All papers must not exceed 12 pages (including references, illustrations, figures and
tables).
5. All manuscripts should be presented as follows:
a. Title page: On a separate sheet containing the title of the paper, followed by the
author(s) name(s) and address for correspondence.
b. Abstract: An abstract of not more than 200 words on a separate page
c. Introduction
d. Materials and Methods (if any)
e. Results
f. Discussion
g. Acknowledgment (if necessary)
h. Reference: This should only contain the list of cited publications in the text. The name-
date system should be followed in the text e.g. Adamu (2001) for a single author,
Adamu and Johnson (2000) for double authors and Adamu et al (2002) for multiple
authors. All cited authors in the text should be referenced alphabetically. The order of
listing should be author's 'name(s), year of publication in parenthesis, title of paper,
name of journal in abridged form (e.g. Jn. Eng. Geol). Volume and number in Arabic-
numerals initials and an end page number of the article (e.g. 20 (2) 16-30). Referred
articles published by one author in the same year should be distinguished by appending
alphabets to the year (e.g. Adamu 1999a, 1999b). For books, the author's name should
be written first, next the date of publication followed by the book title, edition,
publisher, town/city of publication, page or pages.
i. Figures/illustration/tables: Figures are to be given in Arabic numerals e.g. Fig. 3 plus a
caption under the figure. Photographs and photo micrographs should be glossy while line
diagrams will be drawn in Indians ink on separate transparent sheets. Tables should be
made in Arabic numerals with titles written above each table. Vertical lines should be
used on tables. All capitals are to be written in small letters.
6. Review of papers: All submitted papers will be presented to anonymous and competent
references for comments. Accepted papers will further be referred to the Editorial Board
for final decision. Authors will be requested to pay the current page charge when their
papers are assessed and accepted for publication.
7. Cost of Publication: The current assessment/review fee is two thousand naira
(N2000.00) only (non-refundable) per journal article. Corrected proofs of accepted
papers should be returned for publication.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 10
SCIETECH JOURNAL
ADAMAWS STATE POLYTECHNIC, P.M.B. 2146, YOLA – NIGERIA
SUBSCRIPTION SCHEDULE
Subscription Rate (One Copy) N1,000.00
Name: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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I hereby subscribe to the Scietech Journal for ................................................copies
starting with the………………………………………..……..issue of 20…....………..please find
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Remittance could be made in cash/certified cheque/bank draft and address to:
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Editorial correspondence and manuscript for submission, including business
correspondence, order and remittance relation to advertisements, back numbers and offprint
should be addressed to the same address above.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 11
EDITORIAL POLICY OF SCIETECH JOURNAL
ADAMAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC, YOLA – NIGERIA
The Scietech Journal of the Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola, Nigeria upholds the highest
standards of editorial integrity to our authors. As an editorial board, we recognize, respect
and adhere to the ethical conduct acknowledged by both our authors and our peers. We strive
to achieve and support the high standards in academic journal production through good
judgment and a commitment to our editorial principles, practices and process.
Our Principles
We adhere to a common set of academic publishing principles that guide our staff, our
processes and our operations. We maintain an individual and collective responsibility to
uphold these principles throughout our different volumes.
Responsibility
We believe that academic publications are the vital communication outlets of research findings
and should be held to an equal level of accountability, responsibility and integrity.
Independence
The institution or any of its organs does not influence the acceptance or rejection of any
paper. In doing this, the editorial board maintains independence on all papers sent to it. At
no time do we permit non-editorial individuals or groups to have influence over our editorial
coverage or workflow. Our editorial coverage is free of obligation and has no conflict of
interest in its creation or production process.
Integrity
Integrity is the driving force behind all that we do and it is a founding principle of Scietech
Journal. We maintain the-balance of an individual's and public right to opinion on research
findings and documentation of facts. Our commitment to integrity is reflected throughout our
editorial workflow and our fair and unbiased coverage of the events and stories of today.
Our Practices/Implementation
We have instituted clear and non-ambiguous practices to uphold our core principles. These
practices comprise our code of conduct that is expected of all levels of editorial staff.
1. We send our manuscript to three reviewers, two of which must be positive before
the manuscript is accepted.
2. Authors must pay all the editorial charges before the paper is processed for the
press.
3. Upon production, the journal copies are distributed to sister institutions, libraries
and staff of the Polytechnic.
4. The following Subscription Schedule is used in securing further readership of the
journal from interested libraries and individuals.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 12
EFFECTS OF DRILLING METHODS AND DEVELOPMENT ON BOREHOLE WATER QUALITY IN
NUMAN LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ADAMAWA STATE, NORTH EASTERN NIGERIA
By
Malgwi G. S.
Department of Agric & Bio-Environmental Engineering
&
Wilberforce I. K.
Department of Civil Engineering
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out in Numan local government area of Adamawa state, Nigeria and
was conducted to assess the water quality of both mud and air rotary drilling methods in
Numan local government area of Adamawa State in order to determine the effects of drilling
methods and development on water quality of the boreholes. Twenty boreholes (20) were
identified: ten (10) each mud drilled and ten air rotary. Data on boreholes parameters (depth,
yield etc.) were collected and a total of twenty (20) water samples were collected and taken
to the laboratory for analysis using standards method. The study was limited to the evaluation
of water quality of the boreholes drilled in Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa State
using the two methods only. The result indicates that there was no contamination of the
borehole water drilled using the air rotary drill but for the mud drill method pollutants were
contained in the water. The mud drill method borehole contains 3.1 Mg/l of Calcium
Carbonate which is the major chemical constituents of bentonide and 1.4 Mg/l of grease and
oil.
Key Words: Drilling, Development, Borehole and Water Quality.
INTRODUCTION
Water is essential to the survival of humanity because it is important for body function.
Water makes up about 75% of the total body weight (WSSC 2004; WHO, 2011). Lack of
water can lead to serious implication such as Hypertension, high cholesterol, and heart
diseases. Recent studies have also linked headaches, arthritis, and heartburn to lack of water
(Foster et al, 1998 and Jain et al, 1996, 1995). Therefore, it is recommended that one should
drink at least 20 liter of water per day (WHO, 2010). However, despite the need to ensure
sufficient water both in quantity, one of the biggest developmental challenges is the ensuring
of sufficient water quality (Ishaku et al, 2000; Eziegboet. al,2013 and Sangodoyin,1987,
1989). Providing safe water is one of the most challenging tasks facing Nigerian water sector
agencies and Numan LGA in Adamawa state is not an exception.
In recent times, water provision shows that 900 million people worldwide do not have
access to potable water supply. Of these 84% live in developing nation (WHO/UNICEF
2010). Although the world as a whole is making progress towards achieving the millennium
development goal (MDG) target of 50% access to portable drinking water by rural
communities by 2015, quite a number of percentage proportion of the population are still not
having access to sustainable safe drinking water and this is still far fetch. Boreholes are the
major source of portable water for household communities, institution and industries in the
country and Numan Local Government Area is not an exception. Methods of boreholes
drilling are mainly air rotary and mud drill which are widely used. So far no attempt has been
made to assess the effect of the drilling methods and development on borehole water quality.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 13
This study evaluates the effect of the two drilling methods and development commonly used
in Numan Local government Area Adamawa State on borehole water quality.
Air Rotary Drilling Method
The air rotary drilling method useable tool drills by lifting and dropping a string and tool
suspended on a cable. A bit is attached to the bottom of the tool and it strikes the bottom of
the hole, crushing, breaking and mixing the cuttings. A string of tool in ascending order
consists of a bit, a drill stem, jars and swivel socket which are attached to the cable. The
cable tool method of drilling often referred to as the standard method, churn drill, percussion
method as the yo-yo is one of the oldest most versatile and simple drilling devise, (Todd,
1980).This method in recent technology has been developed to use compressed air for the
removal of the cuttings in the hole and thus named air rotary drill.
Mud Drilling Method
The mud method of drilling is a process in which a hole is drilled into the ground by
rotating a drill stem with a bit attached to its end. As the bit is rotated, it loosens and removes
rock chips and cuttings and simultaneously a circulating fluid is forced down inside the hole
of the pipe (Papp, 2001, Sadiq et al. 2003). The water pumped under pressure thus clears
the hole. If the water is used as the circulating fluid, it flows from the annulus to a settling
pit where the fluid is picked up at the pump suction and re-circulated. A drill stem consist of
a bit drill collars stabilizers and a drill pipe. Bit selection depends on the anticipated formation
to be encountered and on the high strata identified in the geophysical survey.
Mud and air rotary drilling methods are the two common methods of boreholes drilling in
Numan Local government Area Adamawa state. The quality of the borehole water, however,
needs to be evaluated because of possible contamination due to chemicals, oil and grease
hence the study. This study is limited to the evaluation of the water quality of boreholes
drilled in Numan Local Government Area of Adamawa state by mud and air rotary drilled
methods only.
Ground Water Quality
The quality required of a ground water supply depends upon its purpose, (Adekeye et al,
2004; Yenika et al, 2003 and Yusuf, 2007). Thus, the needs for drinking, industrial and
irrigation water very widely. In establishing quality criteria measures of chemical, physical,
and bacteriological constituents must be specified as well as standard methods for reporting
results of water analysis, (Alexander, 2008; Ishaku et al, 1995 and Malgwi et al,1991).
Recommended limits of water quality can then be used to serve as guides for interpretation
of results of ground water quality in a basin.
Table1: Major and Minor Physiochemical Constituents of Ground Water
Source: www.wikipedia.com
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 14
Development Methods
There is only one standard development method of well development which combines
several processes and procedure. The purpose of borehole development is to obtain maximum
efficient yield of borehole. Incidental its benefits which include stabilization of the structure,
minimizing of sand pumping, and the improvement of corrosion and encrustation conditions,
(Todd, 1980). Development also removes the cake from face of the borehole and breakdown
the compacted annulus about the hole caused by drilling. Development removes the fines
from the aquifer. The method involves using water to surge back and forth through the screen.
Gravel packing the aquifer to aids the flow of water into well at higher velocities than during
pumping at design rate. Materials which are brought to stability under high development
velocities and surging will remain stable under velocities during normal pumping operation.
Proper and careful development well or borehole will improve the performance of most
well or borehole. Well development is not expensive in view of the benefits derived and only
under unusual circumstance or improper method will it cause harm.
MATERNAL AND METHODOLOGY
Study Area
Numan is a town and a Local Government Area in Adamawa State, Nigeria. The town
lies between the coordinates of 90 281 N and 120 E and it is located about 45km from Yola,
on the confluence of the Benue River, (Adamawa Diary, 2015)
Methodology
Purity of drinking water from different drilling methods remains questionable. In a bid to
ascertain the health risk local people are exposed to, this study analyses the effect of drilling
methods and development on borehole water quality in Numan Local Government Area
(LGA) of Adamawa state, Nigeria. Reconnaissance survey was followed by data collection
on location of boreholes and investigation of drilling methods and development of boreholes
within the area of study. Two methods of drilling were used for the purpose of this study.
Samples from both methods were collected. A total of twenty (20) boreholes were identified
and ten (10) samples each were collected for air drill mud drilling method respectively.
Samples were properly labelled and transported to the Geology laboratory of the Federal
University of Technology (FUTY), Yola.
Water Sampling of Borehole water from Mud Drilling Method.
The ground water sampling was carried out after it has been pumped for fifteen minutes
in order to have good representative samples, not a sample of stagnant or point water. Also,
during the water sample collection, the 1.5 litre plastic bottle was rinsed with the water being
sampled. The sample was then securely corked, stored in cool place and transported
immediately to laboratory for analysis using standard laboratory methods, (Page et al, 1982;
U S Salinity laboratory, 1984).
Samples of ground water were collected after hand pumping of boreholes sunk by UB and
Lawrenag Water Engineering Services Ltd using mud drill method, (UB Waters, 2013). The
borehole was hand pumped for fifteen (15) minutes. Plastic bottles of 1.5 litre were filled
and tightly capped, labelled and transported to the laboratory for physiochemical analysis.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 15
Well location, depth, size of casting, date, water temperature, odour, colour, turbidity and
operating condition of the well prior to sampling were noted. Table 2.1 indicates
location/borehole data and distribution of samples collected from the mud and drill method
and air rotary drill methods.
Table 2.1: Borehole Data and Sample Distribution
Borehole
No.
Location Depth of
Boreholes (m)
Static
W/I (m)
Discharge
(Q) (1/s)
Remarks
1. Dorawa I 24.9 7.83 0.3 -
2. Dorawa II 60.0 4.0 0.3 -
3. Hayin Gaba 47.50 5.35 1.5 -
4. Imbru 45.0 3.10 1.7 -
5. Kilan 26.60 4.08 0.68 -
6. Kodomti 27.2 10.4 1.3 -
7. Kwapuke 36.7 2.41 1.05 -
8. Ngblang 35.25 3.00 1.15 -
9. Nzoruwe 35.10 0.2 0.25 -
10. Pullum 17 2.52 2.52 -
11. Shafforon 30.15 2.00 0.354 Air Dril
12. PegiNgbalang 30.0 2.5 1.5 -
13. S/PegiNgbalang 40.16 3.50 0.24 -
14. PegiNgbalang 32.40 3.06 0.4 -
15. Zambun 35.00 2.21 1.2 -
16. Zangun 28.3 3.0 0.5 -
17. Kpali 30.30 8.37 0.5 -
18. Opalo 30.00 1.83 0.65 -
19. Oversear 25.4 7.7 0.28 -
20. Numan 30.6 6.80 0.38 -
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 16
Water Quality Parameters
The samples were analysed for the following parameters, PH, Total hardness (TH), Total
Dissolved Solid (TDS), Alkalinity, Conductivity, while Colour and odour were observed.
Total Hardness (TH) is a measure of the calcium and magnesium content and is commonly
expressed as the equivalent weight of calcium carbonate, (U S Salinity Laboratory staff,
1984). Thus;
𝑇𝐻 = 𝐶𝑎 × 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3
𝐶𝑎+ 𝑀𝑔 ×
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3
𝑀𝑔
Where TH is measured in ppm of CaCO3, Ca and Mg in ppm and the ratios in equivalent
weights.
Determination of total dissolved solid (TDS) was carried out by measuring the electrical
conductivity (ECw) of the ground water; samples were reported and discussed. Other
parameters were determined using standard laboratory methods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical Properties of Water
Physical properties of water were observed for the following parameters as indicated in
table 3.1
Table 3.1: Physical Parameters of Water Samples for Mud Rotary Drill.
BH No. PH Colour Taste Odour
1. 6.97 Clear Tasteless Odourless
2. 6.78 Clear Tasteless Odourless
3. 6.80 Clear Tasteless Odourless
4. 6.40 Milky Salty Odourless
5. 7.11 Clear Tasteless Odourless
6. 7.88 Clear Tasteless Odourless
7. 7.10 Clear Tasteless Odourless
8. 6.50 Clear Tasteless Odourless
9. 6.52 Clear Tasteless Odourless
10. 6.70 Clear Tasteless Odourless
WHO Limit 6.5 – 8.5 Colourless Tasteless Odourless
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 17
Table 3.1 above, indicates that sample Borehole No 4 falls outside WHO limit for drinking
water quality standards. Physical properties of water samples from air rotary drill method
were carried out by mere observation for the parameters indicated in table 3.2
Table 3.2: Physical Parameters of Water Samples for Air Rotary Drill.
BH No. PH Colour Taste Odour
1. 8.40 Clear Tasteless Odourless 2. 7.82 Clear Tasteless Odourless 3. 6.88 Clear Tasteless Odourless 4. 7.01 Milky Salty Odourless 5. 8.13 Clear Tasteless Odourless 6. 6.90 Clear Tasteless Odourless 7. 6.76 Clear Tasteless Odourless 8. 8.45 Clear Tasteless Odourless 9. 6.52 Clear Tasteless Odourless 10. 7.33 Clear Tasteless Odourless
WHO Limit 6.5 – 8.5 Clear Tasteless Odourless
Table 3.2 above, indicates that all water samples of the borehole falls within WHO limits
and standards for drinking water quality.
Physiochemical Parameters of Water Samples
Air Rotary Drilled Boreholes
Results from the air rotary drill indicate that there is no contamination of the borehole
water and it also met the standards of the water quality guidelines of WHO, (1990, 2011 and
SON, 2007). Table 3.2.1 shows the results of physiochemical properties of samples of water
from boreholes drilled by air rotary drilling methods.
Table 3.2.1: Physiochemical Properties of Water Samples from Air Rotary Drilling Method
BH No
TDS (Mg/L)
Ca (Mg/L)
Mg (Mg/L)
Na (Mg/L)
HCO3 (Mg/L)
Cl (Mg/L)
SO4
(Mg/L) Na %
ECW
µs/dm3
Remarks
1. 0.13 1.14 0.44z 0.89 1.88 0.34 0.33 33 250 Good 2. 0.10 0.21 0.05 2.42 1.20 0.68 0.67 90 240 Good 3. 6.90 0.24 0.02 7.28 2.39 2.47 2.48 96 320 Good 4. 0.57 2.49 5.81 2.83 8.87 1.13 1.02 25 245 Permissible 5. 0.90 1.20 2.00 8.10 8.10 1.00 2.60 72 252 Permissible 6. 0.25 8.30 0.75 5.96 2.46 2.73 4.47 30 432 Good 7. 0.71 2.14 0.08 12.67 1.02 12.04 1.80 85 455 Good 8. 0.50 11.40 5.70 12.90 2.80 2.80 23.00 45 243 Permissible 9. 1.65 12.37 16.71 27.75 8.55 8.55 41.74 49 342 Good 10. 3.41 9.54 14.23 32.52 9.43 9.35 44.19 52 244 Permissible
WHO Limit
1000 200 200 200 250 200 250 25 1000 -
Physiochemical Properties of Water Samples from Mud Drilling Method
Results of water samples from the mud drilling method indicate that calcium ions (Ca2+Mg2+)
are slightly high in boreholes nos 7, 8, 9, and 10.but not above the limits and standards of
UNICEF and WHO, (2004). This could be attributed to the chemical used (Bentonide) in
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 18
mud drilling method. Also, the result indicates that 328.24Mg/l of sodium was detected in
borehole no 10. This is probably due to the parent rock materials. Traces of grease and oil
were found in the water samples of boreholes Nos 2 and 3.
Table 3.2.2: Physiochemical Parameters of Water Samples from Mud Drilling Method
BH No
TDS (Mg/L)
Ca (Mg/L)
Mg (Mg/L)
Na (Mg/L)
HCO3 (Mg/L)
Cl (Mg/L)
SO4
(Mg/L) Na %
ECW
µs/dm3
Remarks
0.14 1.31 0.55 0.82 1.99 0.20 0.65 31 243 Good 0.11 0.24 0.04 2.41 1.30 0.86 0.34 79 543 Unsuitable 6.30 0.21 0.02 6.38 2.39 2.47 2.81 86 231 Unsuitable 0.47 2.54 5.32 1.94 8.82 1.18 1.01 28 345 Permissible 0.56 1.28 2.02 8.10 7.10 1.00 2.40 75 212 Doubtful 0.22 8.29 0.71 3.89 2.56 2.73 3.47 30 417 permissible 0.75 22.17 0.09 12.71 1.09 12.01 1.80 82 233 Unsuitable 0.50 11.13 5.60 12.60 2.84 2.73 21.03 41 235 Doubtful 1.60 12.47 15.39 26.72 2.57 7.88 41.74 50 413 Unsuitable 1.46 14.25 15.56 328.34 3.56 8.24 50.27 60 253 Doubtful WHO Limit
1000 200 200 200 200 250 250 25 1000 -
Bacterial Analysis
Bacteriological analysis was not conducted due to the fact that borehole water is usually safe
from bacteria due to depth of aquifer filtration and temperature that water passes through
during deep percolation.
Conclusion
This study was conducted to assess the effect of drilling methods and development on
borehole water quality in Numan Local government Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria. The
study showed a significant variation among the different methods in some of the parameters
evaluated. In most of the water samples the air rotary drilling method is considered to be the
most suitable method for good drinking water quality for domestic uses. Sampling and
analysis for physical and physiochemical properties were analyzed using standard methods
and techniques. The water samples from the mud drilling method were found to contain some
traces of bentonide and Carbonyl Methyl cellulose (CMC) which are chemicals used in mud
drilling fluid.
The physiochemical analysis carried out in the Laboratory of the Geology Department,
FUTY, Yola, indicates that values for Ca2+ and Mg2+, CaCO3 and Cl- are within the range
of WHO limits and standards for all the water samples from air rotary drilling method. Also,
the result shows that the PH values of water samples range from acidic to partially neutral
which makes the water naturally suitable for drinking. Table 3.2.
The study reveals that mud drilling method water samples contains slight traces of
chemicals, grease and oil. Also, one water sample was milky in colour which might be as a
result of improper use of drilling chemical during drilling process.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 19
Recommendations
Based on the findings from the study, the following recommendations are made:
(I) It is recommended that mud drill method of drilling boreholes must be properly developed
and back washed by contractors/drillers to ensure complete removal of chemicals and mud
that might contaminate the borehole water.
(ii) It is recommended that Government must ensure that all contractors drill and develops
boreholes to specifications and standard before handing over to clients.
(iii) Water quality analysis and reports must accompany newly designed and drilled borehole
in Numan Local Government Area and Adamawa State.
(iv) Legislations to enact laws and subsequent enforcement by Adamawa State House of
Assembly and relevant agencies and ministries as well as stake holders in the water sector is
also recommended.
REFERENCES
Adamawa State Diary (2015). Published by the Adamawa State Government.
Adekeye J.I.D. & Ihaku J.M (2004) Ground Water Contamination in Shallow Aquifer in
Jimeta, Metropolis Adamawa State, North East, Nigeria.
Alexander, P. (2008) Evaluation of ground Water Quality of Mubi town, Mubi North Local
Government, Adamawa State. N D Project Unpublished
Ezeigbo H.I Iliya G.A &Zira D.K (2013) Water Resources of Jimeta-Yola Metropolis and
environs Adamawa State Northeastern Nigeria Journal of Mining and Geology
Forster S, Adrain, L & Bain M. (1998) Ground water in Urban Development Assessing
management needs and formulating policy strategies World Bank Technical Paper
N0.390 Http://Www.Wikipedia.Com.Accessed 13th April, 2012
Ishaku J.M & Ezeigbo H.I, (2000). Water quality of Yola area N.E Nig. Water resources
Journal of (NAH) vol-II PP 39.
Ishaku M.J (1995). The hydrogeology of Yola area and environment in the Upper Benue
river basin (Adamawa state) North eastern Nigeria M.Sc. Thesis department of Geology
University Nigeria
Jain, C. Komkar and M.K. Sharma, (1996). Ground water technical report, Cs (AR).
National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, 1996.
Jain, C.K., K.K.S. Bhatia & T. Vijay, 1995. Ground water quality and evaluation in and
around Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh. Technical Report, CS (AR)172. National Institute of
Hydrology, Rorkee.
Malgwi G.S, A.Y Sangodoyin & K. Ogedengbe, (1991). Subsurface Water Quality from
stand point of irrigation and livestock, International Journal of Environmental Study No.
1, 38 PP 257.
Page A.L., Miller, RH, Keeney, D.R (1986) method of soil Analysis Part 2 chemical and
Mineralogical properties. Agronomy Monograph No.9 ASA – SSA, Madison, W.I.
Papp J (2001). Water-based drilling fluids. Hydra Drill technical notes, pp 21-25.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 20
Sadiq R, Husain T, Veitch B, Bose N (2003) Evaluation of generic types of Drilling fluid
using a risk-based analytic hierarchy process. Institute for research in construction,
National research council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Standard Organization of Nigeria (2007). Nigeria standard for Drinking water Quality.
Standards organization of Drinking water Quality. Standards organization of Nigeria,
Lagos.
Sangodoyin, A.Y. & Adelekan, B.A. (1987). Recent Development in the use of dug wells
for domestic water supply. A case study from Ibadan. Proceedings Second Conference
of Nigerian Water and Sanitation Association (NIWASA) Lagos, Nigeria. P. 19-1-
19.22.
Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1989). Interaction between surface and groundwater qualities. A case
study of Ogunpa Stream, Ibadan. Proceedings, Third Annual Conference/Symposium of
Nigeria Water and Sanitation Association Port Harcourt, 19-21st October, p. 4.1-4.27.
Todd, D.K. (1980) Ground water hydrogeology. John Willey and Sons Inc., New York,
pp: 555
U.B Umar Bahago, (2013). “Technical report on a standard hand pump borehole.”
Contributed by Water Engineering Service Limited, at Baggore, Yola South Local
Government Area, and Adamawa State.
UNICEF and WHO (2004). Meeting the MDGs Drinking water and Sanitation Target: A
Mid-Term Assessment of progress, Word Health Organization. United State Salinity
Laboratory Staff Handbook (1984). Diagnosis and improvement of saline soils.
Agricultural Handbook No. 60.
WHO (1990). Drinking water quality standard. Guidelines for drinking water Quality, 2nd
edition. World health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
World Health Organization (2011). Guidelines for drinking water Quality, 4th edition.
World Health Organization, (2010). Geneva, Switzerland: A Mid-Term assessment. Joint
monitoring programme, Gevene and New York.222 315.
WSSCC (2004). The campaign: Wash fact and figures. http://www.wsscc.org/dataweb
Yenika, M.T, Uma K.O & Obeiefuna, G.I (2003). Impact of human Activities on ground
water quality; a case study of shallow Aquifers in Jimeta – Yola, north eastern Nigeria
water resources (JNAH) 14 PP. 84-89.
Yusuf, K.A (2007). Evaluation of ground water Quality characteristics in Lagos city. J.
Applied science 7(13): 1780-1784.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 21
USING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEXT BOOKS TO IMPROVESTUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN
ENGLISH: AN OVERVIEW OF NIGERIAN SCHOOLS
By
Wappa, John Peter & Wada, Richard Sylvester
Department of English Education
ABSTRACT
The paper is aimed at improving the academic performance in Nigerian schools with interest
in using English language text books. It looks at education as a means of impacting and
acquiring knowledge through teaching and learning. It is one of the objectives of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) providing basic education through the introduction
of the Universal Basic Education (UBE). Government, parents and teachers are held
responsible for the fallen standard of education in Nigeria; and the provision of qualitative
text books to be used by teachers, students and pupils will aid improve their academic
performance in schools in Nigeria which University Press Plc has published books for all
levels of education to serve the purpose.
INTRODUCTION
Education ordinarily means the imparting and acquiring of knowledge through teaching
and learning, especially at schools or formal institutions. It is seen as the bed rock of every
successful society. A Nigerian society is not an exception, and that is why the country
accepted the issue of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) whole heartedly because
of which education is a right for all. It can easily be remembered that the Universal Basic
Education's (UBE) programme was introduced in 1999 in Nigeria as a reform programme
aimed at providing greater access to free Universal Basic Education for every Nigerian child
of school-going age and out-of- school children. It is assigned to demonstrate the will to in
working to relay on a solid foundation for basic education. The national policy on education
presents Basic Education as an ambitious educational programme aimed at eradicating
illiteracy, ignorance and poverty. It is in the real sense directed to stimulate and accelerate
national development, political consciousness and national integration. This can only be
achieved by Nigeria and Nigerians by providing basic education for the Nigerian child.
It should be noted therefore, that the enrolment of children into schools alone does not
mean that the problem of lack of sound education is solved, but it is only an indication that
half of the battle to combat illiteracy, ignorance and poverty is solved. The other half of the
battle is the provision of essential learning materials for the pupils and the students. In respect
of winning half of the battle, parents and school proprietors must be willing to provide the
needed materials for their wards, pupils and students respectively. Publishing houses should
be able to publish series of reputable text books ranging from the junior primary schools, that
is, the lower and middle basic education right through to the senior secondary schools. The
books should be written and edited by credible educationists.
Education policy has been the object of research, for importance as well as it has
instrumental value in the improvement of the society. The role of schooling determines the
importance of education which ultimately fosters economic growth as emphasized by the
theoretical economic models. The benefits of information and knowledge development in
facilitating economic transactions, productive arrangements, social interactions, and political
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 22
participation are highly important (Masino & Niño-Zarazúa, 2016). Therefore, the main aim
of teaching English language in our schools is to equip students with the techniques of
reading, listening, writing and speaking which are the four basic skills needed in language
learning. School syllabus states that English language is taught to help pupils to develop the
habit of reading, understand and derive information from materials read, to communicate
effectively in speech and writing and as well develop the desire to create literary materials,
and in achieving this, the need for textbooks cannot be ruled out (Oppong Sekyere & Akpalu,
2013). Government has made efforts to improve the quality of English language in our
schools, but no substantial results have been seen. This can be attributed to inadequate
attention on the part of government, the school administration, parents, teachers and students
to the use of English language textbooks. It is more a hidden fact that, the use of English is
deteriorating in our schools today; as no adequate provision have been made for standard
teaching materials, especially good English textbooks.
The Falling Standard of Education in Nigeria
The standard of something is said to be falling when there is drop in standard or reduction
in quality of such a thing. It is same with education, the standard of education in Nigeria is
said to be falling because, what for instance, a primary school leaver could do in time past,
a student in secondary school these days cannot do it. The standard does not just fall, it is
caused by certain factor(s). In Nigeria, the falling standard of education is caused by three
factors- the government, the teachers and the parents.
i. The government carries the larger part of the blame. The government carries the lion share
of the blame because all the other variables are dependent variables (Bello, 2010). It is
largely responsible for the fallen standard of education in the country. The government
changes educational policies concerning education frequently, leaving the teachers and
students in confusion. It equally does not equip the classrooms and laboratories properly
to enable effective teaching and learning to take place. The government allows corrupt
officers who misappropriate funds meant for institutions go scot free. The issues of
examination malpractice both students and teachers have not been tackled by the
government. The teachers' welfare in terms of remunerations is absurd and that is why
and, in most schools, there are acute shortages of qualified teachers-especially those in
English language and mathematics which are the schools' basics. Lastly, the
government shies away from implementing the 26% of the national budget be spent on
education as suggested by the United Nations (Babalola, 2006 & Dike, 2006 cited in Bello,
2010 & Usman, 2009).
ii. The parents who supposed to monitor their wards closely simply do not care about their
education, as they put more attention on making money, leaving their children's guidance
and motivation to housemaids and drivers who can do little or nothing about the academic
needs of these children. As a result of this action, the children's projects and home work
are left unattended to (Usman, 2009).
iii. The teachers on their part lack dedication to duty as they are not, most a times punctual
to their duty. They usually show teaching job a divided loyalty, because they spend most
of their time on/doing other businesses than teaching (Ayodele, 2001 &Usman, 2009).
All these have contributed to the falling standard of education in Nigeria. Unless radical
measures are taken to solve the stated problems, the academic performance of students in
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 23
Nigeria will never improve and it is worst with the teaching of English language which most
a times lacks teachers.
Therefore, it is necessary to identify policy interventions that can help in improving quality
of education and the level of students' learning in developing countries. Relying on a theory
of change typology, three main drivers of change of education quality have been proposed
by Masino & Niño-Zarazúa (2016):
i) supply-side capability interventions that operate through the provision of physical and
human resources, and learning materials; these interventions are aim at raising students'
achievements by improving infrastructure or organizational deficiencies through the
improvising of physical infrastructure, teaching materials, and training and hiring extra
teachers. Financial resources provided by governments and/or aid-funded programmes are
judicially used. It also focuses on hiring extra teachers, to decrease the prevailing high
teacher-pupil and also complement permanent teachers with younger, often more
motivated, temporary teachers
ii) The policies that are centred on incentives to influence the behaviour and inter-temporal
preferences of teachers, households, and students should be put in place. Incentives for
teachers are aimed at improving the quality of teaching, whereas the incentives for students
and parents are concerned more with behaviours and preferences that affect the demand
for, and the utilization of education services. Therefore, teachers' commitment to attend
the classroom regularly can depend on a number of factors, including the level of wages
and the nature of their contracts neither permanent or temporary, the distance to the
workplace and school facilities, and the existence of systems to monitor their work shifts
and attendance. Sometimes monetary incentives can be effective in discouraging
absenteeism; and in some cases, teachers may respond better to non-monetary incentives,
such as monitoring and pay sanctions and other enforcement mechanisms.
iii) bottom-up and top-down participatory and community management interventions,
which operate through decentralization reforms, knowledge diffusion, and increased
community participation in the management of education systems must be encouraged.
Interventions are more effective at improving students' performance and learning when
social norms and inter temporal choices are factored in the design of education policies,
and when two or more drivers of change are combined. These policies were expected to
lead to enhanced productivity, economic growth, and development. In addition, improving
teaching abilities via training of teachers and reforming learning materials was funded as
an effective way of enhancing education quality. Therefore, raising community needs
awareness is necessary for quality education services as well as for possible solutions.
Often such initiatives, in combination with incentives to change preferences and
behaviours, seek to alter discriminatory social norms that restrict demand for education
services, particularly among girls and vulnerable groups.
Qualities of Good Text-Books
The textbooks to be used in schools should be of standard. For every text to be regarded
as qualitative, it should be effective for usage during teaching and learning. The quality of
such material should be appropriate for the needs and standard of the learners whom it was
designed for, as it is necessary for the students and pupils to have instructional materials for
effective learning. Textbooks are only useful to the students and the teachers when the
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 24
following qualities of are taken into consideration though no textbook is perfect (Ayodele,
2001 & Sa'ad, 2001). Textbooks are only useful to the students, the pupils and the teachers
when they are of quality. László (2007) and Deuri (2012) suggested the following qualities
and characteristics for a good English text book:
i. The set of authors: A text most not necessarily be written by many authors, but what is
most important is that the author(s) should be notable scholars. They should be masters of
such area of study.
ii. Good content: The content of the textbook should be rich in standard to match the standard
of the set of class for which it is made. Obviously, the textbooks should aim at teaching
the materials that have to be taught to the class. Adaptation of material by the teacher will
be highly valuable. The presentation of subject matter is the most important step in text-
book writing. Presentation refers to the communication of knowledge. In most cases, it
will be the teacher who communicates the new information to the pupils, either directly
or indirectly. A good teacher can do this using whatever book that is available in class. It
is, however, much easier to make a good presentation if the material in the book helps it.
In the recent years there has been more emphasis on the inductive approach to teach
grammatical principles. Meaning, the teacher moves from many particular examples to a
few general ideas. He does this rather than teaching the rules first and then giving
illustrations. The most important things which should be checked in evaluating a book for
good presentation are contextualization. It is not enough to provide a lot of examples on
how a grammatical construction works but rather they should have some meaning for the
pupils which allows the pupil to understand the linguistic feature, not vice versa.
iii. Legibility: Every English text should be legible, that is, is should be understandable,
readable and comprehensible.
iv. Working exercise: The exercise contained in the text should match the standard of the
learners and be practicable.
v. Language: The language of the text should not be complex. The word choice should be
carefully done to teach a selected/chosen purpose. The vocabulary and constructions are
what are often called the linguistic content of the book. There is also the option of
examined thematic content. Some themes are almost always right for a child: the home,
the school, games, the wonders of science. Others are suitable only for particular groups.
It is enough for a book to simply have the right thematic content as both linguistic and
thematic content must be right. If the linguistic content is poor, the teacher will have to
do a great deal of adaptation. He will constantly have to add the book by creating exercises
to fill the gaps. If the thematic content is poor, the children will be the ones who have to
make the extra effort, the effort to remain interested in activities when the materials do
not provide the stimulus.
The text should have suitable vocabulary and structures which should be controlled,
properly selected and graded. The introduction of vocabulary should be progressive within
the series of readers. The words and structures should be introduced in a systematic order.
The simple meaning should be used of a word or structure if they have more than one
meaning.
vi. Attractiveness: Textbooks are expected to be attractive, especially for those in primary
and junior secondary schools. This will aid in attracting the pupils' or students' attention
to the text and subsequently, the passages in it. The colouring is part of the items whose
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 25
main aim is to attract the pupils' and students' attention as its pictures should be chosen to
be in line with the drawing type to make photocopying possible and they should have
cognitive regulating markers which are normally in four colours so as to provide easier
orientation marks and also for an aesthetic aspect. The colours are said to have emotional
influence on a student's mind (Vlivbarevnačlověka, 2011 in Němcová, 2012 and
Němcová, 2012). The sources of the pictures used in the textbook are written under each
figure.
vii. Fixing the objectives: Obviously, textbook should aim at teaching the materials that
have to be taught to the class prescribed by the educational curriculum. If the aim is to
teach the students/pupils to how read and write good English, a book which has been
written for an aural oral approach will not be suitable. Here, the teacher is to do some
adaptation of materials to teach and doing such is highly valuable. The learning material
that is to be presented to the student should simulate personal communication and suggests
that this personal style is particularly effective (Lockwood, 1992). This Holmberg (1989)
refers to it as dialogue which should be made as a major feature of self-instructional
material. What is meant by dialogue is not just merely concerned with giving someone
information, but being involved in communication where an individual is actively engaged
in the construction and exchange of meaning, a such, he proposed the concept of 'guided
didactic conversation'.
viii. Exercises at the end of the Lesson: The content and the language material in each
lesson should be further practiced and tested taught a variety of interesting and graded
exercises at the end of each lesson. There should be sufficient and suitable teaching and
testing exercises on each lesson which should suit the topic thought. The instruction for
each lesson should be simple enough for the students to understand. Němcová (2012) states
that they should consist of exercises suitable for all learning styles: visual, auditory and
also kinesthetic, meanwhile drama techniques for the kinesthetic type of learners and also
for students with Specific Learning Difficulties (SLD) is equally suggested by Hanušová
(2009 cited in Němcová, 2012).
Required Books for teaching and learning: Every section of education has the kinds of books
they require to meet the specification and requirements of the curriculum. The education
regulatory bodies place the needed required standard which should be adhered to which
should be complemented by the publishing companies. The publishing companies should
publish textbooks of international standard which have satisfied the set standards for proper
teaching and learning ranging from:
i. Teacher's Book: The teacher's book is essential aid for use with student's book. This
book should provide answers to exercises such as comprehension, summary and listening
comprehension passages in student's book. It is equally called teacher's manual which is
designed to help teachers prepare students for the challenges they face as they make more
complex decisions. The aim is to guide the teacher who may have different expressions of
the answers which are acceptable. It makes the teacher's work much easier as well as
makes the teacher to achieve a maximum purposeful and effective teaching. The target is
to teach English language which is geared towards functional grammar not just the theory.
It is monotonous repeating the same activities in the same order with similar exercises. It
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 26
will equally provide the teacher with the keys to the exercises. The keys are not given in
the student's textbook because students might be tempted to look at them without giving
enough effort to solve the given tasks. A teacher is expected to always provide students
with correct answers (Němcová, 2012).
It therefore contains background information and resources that the teacher will need to
implement. Teacher's guide is designed to help educators by providing questions that
explore themes, test reading skills and evaluate reading comprehension. These guides have
been developed by teachers and by other experts in the fields of education and writing.
Reading ability, subject matter and interest level should be considered in each teacher's
guide. The teacher's guide is an essential aid for use with student's book. It enables every
teacher to teach in a lively, varied and highly effective way. The guide contains answers
to all the exercises in the student's books/ this will ease the teacher's task by leading the
teacher in the way that the text book is expected to be handled. The guide will as well
ensure a maximum of purposeful and effective teaching.
ii. Primary School Books: All primary books are expected to be written based on lower and
middle Education curriculum for primary education development as prescribed by National
Education Research and Development Council (NERDC). They should teach every aspect
of English in lively and interesting ways. The books should emphasis good spoken English;
they give adequate practice in one of the most dreaded parts of the English language –
oral, especially those sounds that are often found to be difficult by pupils during teaching
of writing skills. All the language skills should be properly treated in such books, each
according to the level of the pupils.
iii. Secondary School Books: These are books which are prepared for junior secondary
schools, which is regarded as the Upper Basic Education as classified by UBE and senior
secondary. It is a mixture of a course book and a workbook. They should teach grammar,
spoken English, reading comprehension, vocabulary development, structure and
punctuation all to standard. This stage prepares them for writing Senior Secondary
Certificate Examination (SSCE). As the deficiencies and inadequacies of Upper Basic
Education is taken care of by the senior secondary book. At this level, the books should
target self-study especially practical guides on oral and written exercises. The books
should consolidate the various skills already acquired by students at the junior secondary
school. They get good linguistic basis for further learning in tertiary and vocational
institutions. Such books should not only be good for students but for workers in their work
place of employment as such should promote the skills of spoken English as a medium for
communication.
The books should contain a good number of units with complete set of practice examination
questions. The aim here is to guide the students on how to tackle different kinds of
questions on comprehension, letter writing, the great dreaded summary, objective tests of
lexis and structure as well as the “almighty Oral English”. At the end of this stage, students
are expected to be fully prepared for internal and external examinations.
Conclusion
Any published English language textbook is expected to target how to improve academic
performance of student’s English language examination specially those schools in Nigerian.
Therefore, parents, school proprietors, students and teachers should pick courage and invest
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 27
in books, especially the English language books haven known how our pupils and students
perform these days during their final examination (WAEC) in English language. It is an
opportunity given with Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as an eye opener; we should
not let the future of our children to go down the drain. Knowing fully well that English
language is the back bone that children need to have a brighter future and own a university
degree.
REFERENCES
Ayodele, S.O. (2001) “Quality, Quality, Production and Distribution of Teaching
Resources/facilities,” In Nnoli, O and Suleiman, I. (Eds) Reassessing he Future of
Education in Nigeria, Abuja: Educational Trust Fund.
Bello, A.N. (2010) “Falling Standard of Education in Nigeria: Who is to Be Blamed”
retrieved on 6th July, 2011 from http://ezinearticles.com/?Falling Standard Of-Education-
in Nigeria-Who-Is-To-Be-Blame?&id=5230921 Federal Government of Nigeria (1981)
Federal Policy on Education, Lagos: Federal Government Press.
Holmberg, B. (1989) Theory and Practice of Distance Education, London: Routledge.
Isah, A. (2008) “Nigeria: Why Our Standard of Education is Falling” retrieved on 6th July,
2011 from http://allafrica.com/aterise/200001170291.html. Lockwood, F. (1992)
Activities in Self-Instructional Texts. Kogan Page.
László, K. (2007) Learning-centred Quality Assessment.
www.commitment.hu/download.php?ctag=download&docID=379 Retrieved 13th
September, 2016.
Masino, S. & Niño-Zarazúa, M. (2016) “What Works to Improve the Quality of Student
Learning in Developing Countries” International Journal of Educational Development
www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedudev retrieved on the 13th September, 2016.
Oppong-Sekyere1, Oppong-Sekyere, D.F, and Akpalu, M.M. (2013) “Some factors
influencing the academic performance of junior high school pupils in English Language:
The case of Assin North Municipality, Ghana. International Journal of English and
Literature, Vol. 4(5), pp. 226-235, DOI: 10.5897/IJEL12.162
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJEL retrieved on the 13th September, 2016.
Deuri, C. (2012) “An Evaluative Study of Text Book in English at Higher Secondary Level”
International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology, Vol. 1, No 1, pp 24-28.
Němcová, P. (2012) Textbook Design for Teaching Business English at Secondary School
published Masters thesis Faculty of Education, Masaryk University
Vlivbarevnačlověka. (2011) Retrieved June 17, 2011 from http://www.barvy.cz/clanek/
pusobeni-barev-v-interieru-vliv-barev-a-na-clovek/
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 28
READING CULTURE AND THE LIBRARY AS TOOLS FOR PROMOTING EDUCATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
By
Bukar, Inuwa
Department of e-Library
Federal College of Education, Yola
ABSTRACT
Reading habit is an essential and important aspect for creating a literate society in this world.
It shapes the personality of an individual and it helps them to develop the proper thinking
methods and creating new ideas. The place of reading culture in educational development
cannot be over emphasized. However, the prevailing regime of poor reading habit among
youths in Nigeria is highly disturbing because the situation is already adversely affecting the
country socially, economically and politically. The government efforts infighting illiteracy,
examination malpractices and under development are speedily being thwarted by decline in
reading culture among the general populace. This paper therefore reviewed conceptual
definitions of reading culture and highlighted its importance to the individual and the country
at large. It also located the place of the library in the promotion of reading culture in Nigeria
and the effect of reading culture on educational development.
Keywords: Educational Development, Library, Literate Society, Illiteracy, Reading Habit
INTRODUCTION
Reading has been an essential part of human development from time immemorial, right
from the era of hand graven writings on caves and walls to writings on papers or scripts. It
is an unequivocal tradition around the world that is unique.
The art of reading is essential as it enhances one's knowledge and broadens ones' horizon
in any field of study or area of interest. There is no profession that does not require one to
read even in this present time, artisans and tradesmen ought to be able to read and write so
as to enable them function appropriately in their day-to-day activities.
Effective reading is the most important avenue of effective learning. Reading is
interrelated with the total educational process hence; educational success requires successful
reading. Reading is one of the fundamental building blocks for learning and developing a
literate society that can compete with the global world (Sisulu,2004). It is through the society
that a child learns; what then is expected of a child learning in a society where reading is
almost going extinct? Unfortunately, the reading habit of the average Nigerian child is below
satisfactory and it continues dwindling as he or she moves up the academic ladder. The
indifference keeps mounting as the child gets older.
There has been the general feeling among Nigerians that reading culture has been a missing
link in the educational development of the nation. It is obvious that there has been a high rate
of decline in the reading culture among school children, students and the general public in
Nigeria. A close observational study of students within the academic environment shows that
most students read only during the examination periods while few only make attempts at
reading for knowledge and pleasure.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 29
Sadly, since the emergence of digital technology, there has been a significant increase in
the apathy towards reading as most students' (children, youth and adults) reading time has
now been taken over by watching of home videos; television programs and the browsing of
internet for games, social interactions with foreign friends and other less beneficial
indulgences.
This is becoming very alarming and calls for urgent attention to the general reading culture
of Nigerians. Nigeria has a long way to go in terms of educational transformation which is
only possible through a good reading culture. According to (Nssien, 2007) reading culture
has been suffering and adversely affecting the educational development of the nation Nigeria.
What Is Reading?
The definition of reading has gone through many changes. In the past, reading simply
meant to extract visual information from any given codes or systems, thereafter, reading
became much more complex and involved the understanding of a whole text composed of
written signs. Reading is a powerful instrument of information and communication which is
expected to begin from cradle. It can be seen as a knowledge acquiring process, involving
the reader and the text, which is enhanced by the reader's prior knowledge and experience.
(Adima, 1990) defines reading as the complex act of dealing with communication in written
form, visual or in pictorial illustration. According to (Toit, 2001) “Reading is a process of
thinking, recalling and relating concepts under the functioning of written words" while (Irvin,
1998) describes the reading process as “The interaction of what is in the head with what is
on the page within a particular context that causes students to comprehend what they read”
Thus, reading is the ability to recognise, and examine words or sentences and understand the
information within. It is a cognitive process of understanding a written linguistic message and
to examine and grasp the meaning of written or printed characters, words or sentences.
Reading is a psycholinguistic process involving the interaction of language and thought as
language is decoded and the meaning is reconstructed. Reading is not mere mouthing of
words but making meaning of prints (Amoruwa, 2008).
Reading Comprehension
Keith; Barbara; Charles; David and Mark, (2001) defined Reading comprehension as the
level of understanding of a text/message and this understanding comes from the interaction
between the words that are written and how they trigger knowledge outside the text/message.
Although this definition may seem simple; it is not necessarily simple to teach, learn or
practice, an individual's ability to comprehend text is influenced by their traits and skills, one
of which is the ability to make inferences. If word recognition is difficult, students use too
much of their processing capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability
to comprehend what is read.
Proficient reading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. It is
also determined by an individual's cognitive development, which is "the construction of
thought processes". Some people learn through education or instruction and others through
direct experiences. There are specific traits that determine how successfully an individual
will comprehend text, including prior knowledge about the subject, well-developed language,
and the ability to make inferences. Having the skill to monitor comprehension is a factor:
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 30
"Why is this important?" and "Do I need to read the entire text?" are examples. Lastly, is
the ability to be self-correcting to solve comprehension problems as they arise.
Several types of reading may occur in a language classroom. One way, in which these may
be categorized, as suggested by (Brown, 1989) can be outlined as follows:
A. Oral
B. Silent
I. Intensive
a) Recreational
b) Content
II. Extensive
a) Skimming
b) Scanning
c) Study
d) Critical
e) Analytical
The first distinction that can be made is whether the reading is oral or silent. This paper
will not deal with oral reading, only silent reading. Within the category of silent reading, one
encounters intensive and extensive reading.
Intensive reading is used to teach or practice specific reading strategies or skills. The text is
treated as an end in itself.
Extensive reading on the other hand, involves reading of large quantities of material,
directly and fluently. It is treated as a means to an end. It may include reading simply for
pleasure or reading technical, scientific or professional material. This later type of text, more
academic, may involve two specific types of reading, scanning for key details or skimming
for the essential meaning. A relatively quick and efficient read, either on its own or after
scanning or skimming, will give a global or general meaning. We will first examine intensive
reading. Secondly, we will deal with extensive reading, with a focus on how it results in a
general or global meaning.
Intensive reading
Brown (1989) explains that intensive reading "calls attention to grammatical forms,
discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal
meaning, implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like." He draws an analogy to
intensive reading as a "zoom lens" strategy. (Long and Richards, 1987) say it is a "detailed
in-class" analysis, led by the teacher, of vocabulary and grammar points, in a short passage."
Intensive Reading, sometimes called "Narrow Reading", may involve students reading
selections by the same author or several texts about the same topic. When this occurs, content
and grammatical structures repeat themselves and students get many opportunities to
understand the meanings of the text. The success of “Narrow Reading” on improving reading
comprehension is based on the premise that the more familiar the reader is with the text,
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 31
either due to the subject matter or having read other works by the same author, the more
comprehension is promoted.
Characteristics of intensive reading
i. usually classroom based
ii. reader is intensely involved in looking inside the text
iii. students focus on linguistic or semantic details of a reading
iv. students focus on surface structure details such as grammar and discourse markers
v. students identify key vocabulary
vi. students may draw pictures to aid them (such as in problem solving)
vii. texts are read carefully and thoroughly, again and again
viii. aim is to build more language knowledge rather than simply practice the skill of reading
ix. seen more commonly than extensive reading in classrooms
Extensive Reading
(Long and Richards, 1971) identify extensive reading as "occurring when students read
large amounts of high interest material, usually out of class, concentrating on meaning,
"reading for gist" and skipping unknown words."(Brown, 1989) explains that extensive
reading is carried out "to achieve a general understanding of a text."
The aims of extensive reading are to build reader confidence and enjoyment. Extensive
reading is always done for the comprehension of main ideas, not for specific details.
Characteristics of Extensive Reading:
Day and Bamford (1980) put forward ten characteristics identified in successful Extensive
Reading Programs. They are duplicated (in abbreviated form) below:
i. Students read as much as possible.
ii. A variety of materials on a range of topics is available.
iii. Students select what they want to read.
iv. The purposes of reading are usually related to pleasure, information and general
understanding.
v. Reading is its own reward.
vi. Reading materials are well within the linguistic competence of the students in terms of
vocabulary and grammar.
vii. Reading is individual and silent.
viii. Reading speed is usually faster than slower.
ix. Teachers orient students to the goals of the program.
x. The teacher is a role model of a reader for the students.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 32
Kinds of Reading
Ms. Laarni, (2012) stated that reading can be sub divided in to Kinds, according to purpose
& manner of comprehending. These sub division is explained below:
Kinds of Extensive reading
i. Recreational Reading: Reading for pleasure any topic of interest - main purpose: to relax
and enjoy yourself - comics, humorous stories, tales, novels, short articles in the newspapers
and magazines, jokes, and other forms of light reading materials; here the reader spends his
leisure time by reading any kind of material that is interesting to him.
Kinds of Intensive Reading
i. Scanning - Rapid reading assisted by key words to locate specific pieces of info - for
research, review - gets info that answer what, who, where, when, how For Example;
looking for a word meaning in the dictionary, getting a document from the filing cabinet,
looking through the yellow pages
ii. Skimming - rapid reading focusing on the TITLE, HEADINGS, TOPIC SENTENCE,
SIGN POSTS to get the main idea; it's an effective preliminary step to reading thoroughly
because after skimming, you can quickly go back to details you need to read entirely
iii. Exploratory Reading - Aims to get a fairly accurate picture of a whole presentation of
ideas; how the whole selection is presented, Allots more time for reading Examples:
Reading Long articles in magazines, short stories, descriptive texts
iv. Analytical Reading - careful attention to each word and its importance in relation to other
words in the sentence or the paragraph. - Examples: Reading mathematical problems,
scientific formulas, and certain definitive statements of key ideas that require a
questioning/inquisitive mind.
v. Developmental Reading - When a reader is under a comprehensive reading program that
lets him go through stages & monitors him closely
vi. Critical Reading–in critical reading the aim is to analyse and evaluate the text – using
iv. Analytical Reading - careful attention to each word and its importance in relation to other
words in the sentence or the paragraph. - Examples: Reading mathematical problems,
scientific formulas, and certain definitive statements of key ideas that require a
questioning/inquisitive mind.
v. Developmental Reading - When a reader is under a comprehensive reading program that
lets him go through stages & monitors him closely
vi. Critical Reading–in critical reading the aim is to analyse and evaluate the text – using
critical-thinking skills to: differentiate better factor& opinion; recognize author's purpose
in writing; make inferences about purposes and characters; recognize the author's tone in
writing; recognize persuasive techniques or propaganda designed to sway you to believe
vii. Study Reading–here the reader must get a maximum understanding of the main ideas
and their relationships - examples: SQ4R (Survey, Question, Read, Record, Recite,
Review)
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 33
What is Reading Culture?
The act of reading is expected to form part of an individual to the extent that, it becomes
a habit difficult to break. Reading is a means of obtaining information, it is also a means of
entertainment and relaxation. It follows logically that a good reading habit is a foundation to
a good education, good information and communication. Sandars (2007) defines reading
culture as a learned practice of seeking knowledge, information or entertainment through the
written words. The act of reading could be an interesting practice for children and
adolescents, if they are properly guided. This is because; a reading habit cultivated early in
life, helps children to grow into independent adults with repertoire of knowledge. Olaofe,
(2003) defines reading culture as the art of inculcating reading habits and interests in learners
through conducive reading environments and numerous reading activities. Reading is an
essential tool for lifelong learning and promoting a reading culture among students in Nigeria,
is therefore one of the key tasks in the curriculum reform, whose aim is to strengthen the
learning capabilities of students. Magara, (2005) describes a reading culture as one where
reading is highly valued and appreciated in the society and where reading is regarded not
simply as something developed for school purposes but something practiced in all aspects of
our lives. Information through reading is the life blood of all human activities.
Importance of Reading
Reading is a crucial process affecting intellectual and emotional growth. The ability to
read is recognized generally as one of the most important skills that a person can have, it is
a tool that facilitates intellectual development of the mind, the vehicle for obtaining
knowledge and ideas that cannot be transmitted verbally.
Reading is an important activity in the process of learning. Chika, (2009) outlines the
virtues of reading to include (i) The provision of individual's welfare, social progress and
international understanding, and (ii) The provision of skills, knowledge and the right attitude
that frees one from idleness or boredom. Explosion of knowledge and revolution in
communication technology made man feel that producing reading material and its distribution
for a wider circulation is indispensable. According to Sandars, (2007) reading is essential to
full participation in modern society because it adds quality to life and provides access to
culture and cultural heritage. Reading empowers and liberates an individual; it broadens a
child understanding of life and affords the tools to explore his/her talent while learning about
himself and his society. Making reading a regular and happy habit enables the reading directly
or indirectly to establish close links with minds far or near, minds high and developed, serious
and humorous (Amoruwa, 2008).
Problems of Establishing Reading Culture in Nigeria
Studies have shown that the poor reading culture among Nigerian youths has been
attributed to a number of factors which includes:
i. Urban people are too busy with their professions and other activities such as long
traveling's, multiple recreation centres and other domestic and family problems which
have become impediments for them to find time for reading,
ii. Distraction by the fallouts from technological innovations such as the entertainment media,
games and gambling,
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 34
iii. Poor economy and low standard of living, the quest for money by parents who use their
children to hawk consumer items,
iv. The inadequate funding of educational institutions including funding of libraries,
laboratories, workshops, computer units and,
v. The increasing cost of publishing making it difficult for school pupils to have access to
books, magazines, journals and newspapers.
Others include the lack of adequate number of bookshops and the use of handouts instead
of textbooks for students' learning (Fortune News, 2009; Sandars, 2007). Even at the
university level, students and teachers are inclined towards secondary sources rather than
original classics. Reading of original classics and first hand sources have become a thing of
the past because; there is no proper encouragement at school or university level. Owing to
the present competitive examination system at all levels, students are showing more interest
in preparing for objective types of examinations that are deteriorating to their attitudes and
reactive abilities.
Libraries and the Promotion of Reading Culture
The library is a responsive entity, with the best of collections in physical and electronic
formats, infrastructure and even services; it can spring to life only at the magic touch of the
users. At the same time there is much that the librarian can do to ensure that the library
contributes greatly to the reading culture of a nation. (Ogwu, 2006) highlights the various
ways by which libraries can be used as a platform for entrenching reading culture in Nigeria
and this is summarized as follows:
i. The library has a variety of learning resources such as books, computers, e-resources and
facilities which can be used to promote reading culture,
ii. Library offers a much more conducive atmosphere or silence which is necessary for
developing a reading habit,
iii. It is cheaper to access library information resources than what the home or the office can
offer the reader and,
iv. Library provides reading accommodation for larger number of users.
The issue of access to the library is equally very important, children's attention span is short
and if there are other activities that are available while the library remains closed, they will
lose the habit of coming to the library as one of their major options. Hence the library needs
to match and excel over other attractions to ensure the use of the place. The libraries can also
promote reading culture if at least one weekly library period is introduced and enforced for
every class. The librarian can then plan and conduct various activities and interactions that
will encourage and motivate the children to read and always make use of the library.
Reading Culture and Educational Development
The place of reading and learning in educational development is a prominent one. Reading
facilitates and deepens the learning activity, effective learning results in high academic, moral
and skills development. It also leads to a highly intelligent and informed society that becomes
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 35
the watershed for progressive and innovative ideas which is capable of transforming the entire
society for growth and development.
Conclusion
There is no doubt that the reading culture among the Nigerian youth is fast eroding. One
can even say that the past generation made up of our fathers and grandfathers had a
remarkable thirst for knowledge through education in spite of the limited resources they
contended with.
Our present generation of youths are risking the future educational growth and development
of our dear country by their refusal to imbibe in the reading culture, however, knowing how
to read and accepting reading as a way of life even for its own sake is an invaluable asset.
(Doiron and Asselin, 2010) noted that a well-known African proverb teaches that “It takes a
village to raise a child”. This reminds us that everyone in a community plays an important
role in the welfare and development of children. This proverb could also apply as we explore
the complexity of developing children's reading habits by suggesting that “It takes a village
to raise a reader”. This implies that educators, parents, community leaders and librarians all
play a vital role in the development of children who not only can read, but who do read.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made to promote reading culture in Nigeria:
i. Government at all levels should establish well equipped libraries across the length and
breadth of the country; in all schools and for the public
ii. The private sector with educational enterprises should be made to set up standard libraries
as part of the requirement for establishing primary and secondary schools.
iii. Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs) and the publishing companies should mount
awareness campaigns in schools and communities in the country on the dangers and
consequences of negative reading habits among Nigerians.
iv. The system of performance evaluation in schools in the county should focus more on using
library and information resources in the execution of students' assignments, projects,
drama and debating activities.
REFERENCES
Adima, E. (1990). Effectiveness of practical Technique on Reading for the Mentally
Retarded: Implications for Counselling. Nigerian Journal of Counselling and
Development, 5, 1
Amoruwa, R.T. (2008) Reading Comprehension and Summary Writing for Tertiary
Institutions. Paraclete Publishers, Yola - Nigeria
Chika, J. O. (2009) An assessment of reading culture among students in Nigeria Tertiary
Institutions: A challenge to educational managers’ report Geographic code 6 NIGR
Accessed Dec.22.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 36
Laarni V. Perez (2012) Kinds of Reading and Reading Techniques: Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/GeraldinGarcia2?utm_campaign=profiletracking&utm_mediu
m=sssite&utm_source=ssslideview; Accessed September 2016
Day, R.R. & Bamford, J. (2002) "Top Ten Principles for Teaching Extensive Reading",
Reading in a Foreign Language, Vol.14, No. 2
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2002/day/day.html; Retrieved September 2016.
Doiron, R., & Asselin, M. (2011) Promoting a culture for reading in a diverse world. IFLA
Journal,37(2), 109-117. doi:10.1177/0340035211409847
Irvin, J.L. (1998) Reading and Middle School students. Strategies to enhance literacy.
Needham heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. p.37.
Keith Rayner; Barbara Foorman; Charles Perfetti; David Pesetsky & Mark Seidenberg
(November 2001). "How Psychological Science Informs the Teaching of Reading".
Psychological Science in the Public Interest.2 (2): 31–74
Long, Michael & Richards, J. (1987) Methodology in TESOL, Boston: Heinle & Heinle
Publishers.
Magara, E. (2005). Building family literacy skills among parents and children in developing
countries: A case for Uganda.1–14. A paper presented at the 71stIFLA General
Conference and Council, Oslo Norway.
Nssien F.U. (2007). Reading Habit and Skills in F.E and F.U. Nssien (eds.) Information
Literacy for Library Search, Uyo Abaam Publishing, pp. 90-105.
Ogwu, M. F. (2006). User education in college libraries. Ankpa: Cuca communications.
Olaofe, I. A. (2003). Building a reading culture in communities where literacy thrives.
Newark, declaware U.S.A: International reading Association.
Tompkins, G.E. (2011). Literacy in the early grades: A successful start for prek-4 readers
(3rd edition), Boston, Pearson. p 37
Sandars, M. (2007). Creating an optimum reading culture in the Low Countries: the role of
stitching Lezen: The National platform for the promotion of Reading in the Netherlands.
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Sisulu, E. (2004). The culture of reading and the book chain: How do we achieve quintern
leap. Keynote Address at the symposium on cost of culture of reading in Pretoria.
Retrieved January 2016 from www.nlsa.ac.za.
Toit, C.M. (2001). The recreational reading habits of adolescent readers: A case study.
(Masters Dissertation, University of Pretoria, South Africa).
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 37
THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEMS (G.P.S.) IN SURVEYING &
GEOINFORMATICS AND THE RELATED COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY SURVEYING
GRADUATES: A CASE STUDY OF SOME CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES IN YOLA,
ADAMAWA STATE)
By
Bashir A. G, Bakari Gidado & Dahiru Zakari M.
Department of Survey/Geo-Informatics
ABSTRACT
This descriptive study examines the impact that Global Positioning Systems (G.P.S.) has had
on the surveying industry. The study seeks to determine specific information on G.P.S. skills,
knowledge, and equipment presently being used in the surveying industry. The curriculum
from tertiary institutions in Nigeria that offer surveying programs will be presented. The study
will also examine surveyors' attitudes toward using G.P.S. along with competencies required
of surveying graduates who will be using this technology. Differences in competencies needed
or equipment used based on the size of the company will also be explored. The study involved
5 construction companies in the Adamawa state who received a questionnaire. The result
from the companies who completed and returned the questionnaire is presented along with a
summary of the data, conclusions, and recommendations for further study.
INTRODUCTION
The earlier history of land surveying dated back to the ancient Egyptians during the
building of the Great Pyramid at Giza in 2700 BC. There is evidence of the Egyptians using
basic geometry to redraw boundary lines when the Nile overflowed its banks.
The Romans were the next civilization to advance on the initial land surveying techniques
of the Egyptians. Historical evidence shows that the Roman Empire was the first civilization
to employ an official land surveyor within their Empire. They used simple tools to create
straight lines and angles. The land surveyors had a range of jobs in the Empire and some of
their work is still evident today.
As new technology and theories have become available, the techniques and methods used
in land surveying have evolved.
Hundreds of years ago land surveyors would use all sorts of means for measuring distances
– such as using chains with links that have a certain known length for example. Additionally,
land surveyors have to measure horizontal angles which in most cases was done using some
form of compass. The quality and accuracy of compasses have increased as time has gone
by.
In the past land surveying results were a lot less accurate – not due to the inabilities of the
land surveyors themselves – but due to the inaccuracy of the tools that they had access to.
These days land surveyors have access to much more accurate tools such as GPS (global
positioning systems).
G.P.S. (Global Positioning Systems) was initially developed by the Department of Defence
for use in the military (French, 1996; Van Sickle, 1996).
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 38
Surveying in Nigeria begins with the emergence of the Nigeria Institution of surveyor's as
one of the oldest organized professional Bodies in the country. It started in 1934 as the
“Licensed Surveyors Association” under the able leadership of the late Nationalist, Herbert
Macaulay, in 1960, the name was changed to the “Land Surveyors Association of Nigeria”
with the late Surv. C. T. Olumide as chairman. The current name “The Nigerian Institution
of Surveyors” was adopted at the Enugu Conference one of the States in Nigeria in 1966 with
the late Surv. C. T. Olumide elected as its first president, Late C. T. Olumide is honoured
every year by the Institution with a memorial lecture.
For this study to be successful various literatures were consulted as to how G.P.S. has
arrived at the forefront of today's surveying profession. The technological improvements
leading up to G.P.S. will be covered along with an overview of how this system works. The
chapter will conclude with a discussion on the educational institutions in Nigeria that offer
surveying programs and what their curriculum currently covers. A technological
improvement in surveying technology of today has surpassed equipment that was considered
standard as recently as 10 years ago. A major factor in this technological revolution occurred
during the mid to late 1980's with the invention of total stations. These devices revolutionized
land surveying the same way computers revolutionized the business world. Before the
introduction of total stations, surveyors used tools such as the transit, compass, plane table,
and steel tapes. All field data was recorded in field books and plotted by hand. The final
product was then hand drafted in ink back at the office. One can imagine the problems
associated with this system including lost data and the potential for making mistakes. For
example, earlier surveyors had to convert measured slope distances into true horizontal
distances. They did this by multiplying the slope distance by the cosine of the measured
vertical angle. If an angle or distance were entered wrong, errors would begin to propagate.
The total station, which is an electronic measuring device, significantly reduces the possibility
of human errors. A total station electronically measures both horizontal and vertical angles.
It also measures the slope distance and converts it into a true horizontal distance. These
measurements are stored in a data collector that can then be downloaded into computer-aided
drafting software. This software can then be used to convert the raw field data into a detailed
map. The amount of time saved and the quality of measured data has played a vital part in
the surveying industry (Luke, 1996).
Recently a few surveying firms have begun using the latest surveying technology to hit the
market. This technology, called G.P.S., is making the work of surveyors even more efficient.
G.P.S. enables surveyors to be in the field and take measurements alone. Due to the satellites,
there is no longer a need for two or more people to clear lines of sight (Luke, 1996).
The most recent improvement of G.P.S. is called real time kinetic. This advancement
allows surveyors who use a rover receiver and base station to obtain the coordinates and
elevations they need within a matter of seconds. Before this technology was available, data
was recorded and then imported into a computer to be calculated. Surveyors can now
accomplish more work in a single day because the information they need is right at their
fingertips (Luke, 1996).
How G.P.S. works someone who is not familiar with G.P.S. might be wondering how
satellites in the sky could possibly be used to survey points here on the ground. The specific
details behind how G.P.S. determines positions are beyond the scope of this study, however
some basic knowledge of how it works will be helpful. The global positioning system is a
configuration of 24 satellites that allow receivers to compute their exact position anywhere
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 39
on the earth with remarkable accuracy. The 24 orbiting satellites send signals to ground
receivers, which can be thought of as very accurate stop watches. The receiver measures the
difference between the time when the signal is received and the time it should have been sent.
This difference then allows the receiver to calculate the distance back to the sending satellite.
This distance is calculated by multiplying the time it takes the radio signal to travel from the
satellite to the receiver by the speed of the signal (the speed of light). Receivers need signals
from at least four different G.P.S. satellites in order to fix the user anywhere on earth (Nord
& Jabon, 1997). The timing involved with G.P.S. is the most crucial part of its operation.
The slightest error in the recording time of the signal can cause a significant amount of error.
For this reason, each satellite contains four atomic clocks that keep extremely accurate time
(Ferguson, 1997).
Advantages of using G.P.S.
It is unlikely that G.P.S. will completely replace conventional surveying methods. G.P.S.
will not function in locations with numerous overhead obstructions such as heavily forested
areas. For this reason, surveyors must still rely on their conventional instruments. G.P.S.
does however have many distinct advantages over conventional methods. G.P.S. saves time
and money on projects. A surveyor does not have to rely on a conventional monument system
that could have errors. Indivisibility between points is no longer required which eliminates
the need for clearing lines of sight. Most G.P.S. equipment can cover a five-mile radius
which greatly reduces the number of equipment set-ups. G.P.S. field data can be downloaded
directly into a computer, which reduces the chances for errors that are likely to occur with
manual input. G.P.S. works on a coordinate system of latitude and longitude. Due to this
fact, many calculations are eliminated which significantly reduces office time (Pipe Line and
Gas Industry, 1996).
G.P.S. can also function day or night and in any type of weather. One group that has
realized the benefits of using G.P.S. is the Salem County Landfill in southern New Jersey.
They used this system to survey the topography of their landfill. The results they obtained
were more accurate and economical than aerial photography which was used in the past. This
greater accuracy actually allowed the landfill to save $150,000 by delaying a $2 million
construction project. In fact, the landfill will cover their costs of converting to G.P.S. in just
one year. According to Pete de Wilde, executive director of the landfill, “We have the
information we need to plan reliably, and we're saving money…what else can you want?”
(Fralinger & Maxwell, 1997).
Many professional surveying firms and construction companies in the State have recently
invested in G.P.S. technology in other to improve accuracies of jobs. This technology is
fairly new to some surveyors as well as to graduates of surveying and Geoinfomatics
programs across the state.
Most surveying programs exposes students to different aspects of G.P.S., however, a study
has never been done to determine professional's perceptions of what graduates should know
about G.P.S. before being employed. Surveying graduates may not have adequate knowledge
and training about G.P.S. to meet the desired needs of surveying firms. A guide is needed to
determine how much knowledge of G.P.S. graduates should have to be successful in today's
workforce
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 40
To determine the impact of GPS in surveying and Geoinfomatics professionals with the view
to determine specific information on G.P.S. skills, knowledge, and equipment presently being
used in the construction industry as measured by the responses to a survey questionnaire.
Some surveyors are using G.P.S. and some are not. Surveying graduates will more than
likely be using G.P.S. sometime in their careers.
We sought for answers to the following:
i) How widely used is G.P.S. by surveying professionals in Adamawa state?
ii) Is there a relationship between using G.P.S. and company size?
iii) What are surveyor's perceptions of student preparedness regarding G.P.S.
competencies?
iv) What subject areas related to G.P.S. do surveyors feel are the most important for entry-
level employees to know?
v) What are surveyor's perceptions of student preparedness in subject areas related to G.P.S.?
Significance of the Study
a) The Nigerian institutions offering surveying programs might find this information useful
in updating their curriculum.
b) Professional organizations like SURCON would benefit from the data as they develop and
revise registration requirements.
II. Methodology:- Methods and Materials used
This study used descriptive research techniques involving the collection of data from
Surveyors in Yola the Adamawa State Capital. The study focuses on the impact of G.P.S.in
surveying and Geoinfomatics professional in Adamawa state that are needed by Nigerian
universities & Polytechnic graduates.
Selection of the Subjects
The subjects of this study where surveyors practicing in the state Construction firms were
obtained from the Ministry of Land & Survey. From the list obtains shows that only few
firms carrying out construction work in the state, this make the selection processes easier.
This process resulted in a final sample size of five (5) construction companies employing
surveyors they are:-
i. Triacter Engineering Co. Ltd
ii. Raycon Construction Co.
iii. Tec Engineering Construction Co.
iv PW Nig. Ltd
v. A.G Vision Nig. Ltd.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 41
Instrumentation
A survey questionnaire was the instrument used to gather data and was developed by the
researcher of this study. The content validity was supported from 2 main sources: the contents
of a Plan Thesis titled “Survey of the occupational competencies needed for graduates of a
Bachelor of Science degree in land surveying as recommended by registered land surveyors
in the state of Wisconsin” (Van Goethem, 1992), and from the literature review done by the
researcher.
The survey questionnaire is divided into two sections. Section I begins by asking the
respondent what type of work they perform and how many people they employ. The survey
then asks if the respondent uses G.P.S. for land surveying. The firms that don't are asked to
give reasons why. This group is then instructed to stop at this point. The firms who answer
yes are to continue by answering further questions about G.P.S.
On January 15th 2016, the questionnaire was distributed out to the 5 randomly chosen
surveying firms where 145 persons were issued. This identifier was used by the researcher
to keep a record of which firms returned their questionnaire. Company names were never
attached to the questionnaire in order to ensure complete confidentiality.
The initial issuing of 145 surveys resulted in 100 being returned for a 69% rate of return.
A second mailing was not done due to time and money constraints.
Data analysis
The results from Section 1 (questions 1 through 10) was tabulated and shown. A brief
discussion will follow each table. For Section 2, the means and standard deviations for each
category will be computed and shown. A brief discussion will follow. The final question of
the survey contains comments from respondents.
Result presentation and data analysis
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of G.P.S in surveying and
Geoinfomatics in Adamawa state with the view to determine the specific information on
G.P.S. skills, knowledge and equipment presently being used in the surveying industry. The
result of this study was presented below, Data are presented in the tables and analysed.
Summary of results
Urban boundary surveys the first survey question dealt with the main type of service that
was performed by each company. More than one response was common, therefore
percentages were not calculated, and only the number of actual responses was recorded.
Route surveys were the most common type of service performed, receiving 68 responses.
In the area of total number of employees, the category of 0-5 employees had the greatest
frequency, which accounted for 52% of the responses. The next largest category was 6-10
employees, which accounted for 22% of the responses.
Question 3 was designed to separate the firms that use G.P.S. from the firms that don't.
Findings show that 30% of the respondents do use G.P.S. equipment in performing survey
work while 70% do not. It is these 30% of the respondents that provided the information for
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 42
the remainder of the survey. The respondents who don't use G.P.S. were asked to give
reasons why.
The reasons for not using G.P.S. were explored in question 4. More than one response
was common; therefore, percentages were not calculated, and only the number of actual
responses was recorded. Cost of equipment was the most common reason for not using
G.P.S., receiving 52 responses.
Many additional comments were made regarding this question.
Comments from respondents:
For what it's worth – although we don't own, the expense-utilization ratio is high. We do
use each state generated data on a daily basis. It is important to know how this data is
generated and an understanding of errors. (Standard Errors)
The conventional total station can perform many tasks without the large outlay of money
for a G.P.S. system.
With a conventional two-person survey crew potentially charging the time of both
individuals with G.P.S., which is generally a one-person crew, the “billable time” is reduced
by half. Convincing owners differently that G.P.S. can make money by being able to do more
in a short amount of time. - 75% of our surveys are within the tree canopy. When trees are
no longer an obstacle, we will probably use G.P.S.
We made the decision recently to purchase a robotic total station rather than G.P.S. due
to our survey applications.
I only survey part-time and although the need is there on most projects, I can't justify the
cost.
I've resisted purchasing G.P.S. to this point, but expect that I will soon be making the
investment very soon – this year.
Use of equipment is limited to open areas.
Not enough reasons to justify cost and learning curve at this point.
Dense tree cover in my area does not make G.P.S. cost-effective on all surveys at this
time.
I expect that to change in the very near future.
Section corners are monument and coordinated in our area.
I am waiting for the technology to advance and the cost to decrease.
I only do lot and small farm surveys. If I were to do large scale mapping, I would use G.P.S.
The need is definitely there, however the equipment is too costly.
Question 5 asks the respondents who are using G.P.S. to provide the main reason why
they are using G.P.S. Operation in any type of weather is a very important advantage of
using G.P.S., however none of the respondents selected this as the main reason for using it.
Even though G.P.S. is capable of producing results in rain, snow, fog, etc., most surveyors
do not work in these conditions for extended periods of time. Saving time and money had the
highest percentage of responses with 73%. Accuracy of results accounted
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 43
For the remaining 27% of the responses. Percentages for the responses are shown in Table
5.
There were some additional comments from the respondents regarding this question.
Comments from respondents-
To keep up with current technology
Job specifications
Surveys over much greater distances are more quick and easy
To acquire data from widely spaced control points
Question 6 asks the respondent to indicate how long they have been using G.P.S. for
survey work. The category of 2-4 years received the highest percentage of responses 30
with 56%. None of the respondents have used G.P.S. for more than 12 years.
Question 7 deals with what type of work G.P.S. is being used for. More than one response
was common; therefore, percentages were not calculated, and only the numbers of actual
responses were recorded. A boundary survey was the most common response for this question
receiving 28 responses. Topographic surveying was the next highest category with 24
responses. In the category of other, 3 respondents indicated they use G.P.S. for re-
monumenting public survey corners. Additional responses included section summaries and
right-of-way plats.
Question 8 asks the respondent to indicate what type of G.P.S. system they are currently
using. More than one response was common; therefore, percentages were not calculated,
only the number of actual responses was recorded. Real-time was the most common response
for this question receiving 22 responses. Static was the next highest category with 13
responses. Table 8 shows a summary of the responses for this question.
Question 9 asks the respondent to indicate how G.P.S. has affected their productivity.
Increased productivity was reported by 83% of the respondents, while 17% felt there was no
change in their productivity by using G.P.S. None of the respondents indicated that G.P.S.
decreased their productivity. The responses for this question are shown in Table 9.
Question 10 allowed the respondent to indicate why company provided training was
needed by entry-level surveyors. More than one response was common; therefore,
percentages were not calculated, and only the numbers of actual responses were recorded.
Two of the respondents felt that G.P.S. training was not necessary for their entry-level
surveyors. The most commonly cited reason for providing training, receiving responses, was
to upgrade skills associated with changing technology since graduation. The remaining
responses are summarized in Table 10.
The need is definitely there, however the equipment is too costly.
Section 2 of the questionnaire allowed the respondents to rate the importance of several
competencies and subject areas that are related to G.P.S. They were also required to rate the
extent to which new employees have been adequately prepared in these competencies and
subject areas prior to employment.
Under the importance column of competencies, levelling over a point received the highest
rating of 2.80. Three competencies were tied for second with a mean of 2.77.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 44
They operated as G.P.S. data collector, set up a base station, and operate a rover receiver.
Under the preparation column, levelling over a point again received the highest rating of
2.32. Being able to measure antennae height received the next highest rating of 2.16. A
complete list of the means and standard deviations for each competency is listed in Table 11.
Under the importance column of education, understanding accuracy received the highest
rating of 2.87. Limitations of G.P.S. received the next highest rating of under the preparation
column; G.P.S. principles of operation received the highest rating of 2.00. Understanding
accuracy came in second with a rating of 1.84. A complete list of the means and standard
deviations for each subject area is listed in Table 12.
Question 11 was the final question on the survey. It was an open-ended question that
allowed the respondent to suggest improvements that would make G.P.S. better. The
following is a list of the responses.
Comments from respondents- - smaller, cheaper, more satellites, and a better radio link
- On real-time make it easier to perform calculations - lighter, no cables, operate with
accuracy in cover better
- More user-friendly software and affordable training by suppliers - software for multipath
- Better vertical control stations; less expensive
- Educate the younger generation to the fact that G.P.S. is not a fix all. We are using an
imperfect system and G.P.S. shouldn't be used to perfect it. People think it makes
“professionals” out of mere technicians. – NO
- Station offsets, staking calculations, on board COGO, P2 information manipulation,
Improvement of connectivity issues - regional base stations some additional comparisons were
made from the results of this study. The results are presented in the following tables:
For the firms that perform construction surveying, 72.5% do not use G.P.S. compared to
27.5% who do. It should also be noted that many firms did select more than one type of
service, (i.e. a firm that used G.P.S. might have performed both rural and urban boundary
surveys). The results for the other types of services are shown in
For the companies that had 0-5 employees, 15.4% of them did use G.P.S. in performing
survey work while 84.6% did not. The results for the remaining categories as shown from
the findings.
Many firms indicated that they perform more than one type of service, therefore percentages
were not calculated. The actual number of responses was the only data tabulated. For the
firms using static systems, 6 performed construction surveys, 11 performed rural surveys and
5 performed urban surveys. A summary of results for the other systems as shown.
Many firms indicated that they perform more than one type of service, therefore
percentages were not calculated. The actual number of responses was the only data tabulated.
For the firms indicating their productivity increased, 9 performed construction surveys, 19
performed rural surveys and 8 performed urban surveys. A summary of results for the
remaining categories are shown in Table 16
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 45
Summary
This section provides a brief overview of the study. It contains a restatement of the
problem as well as the methods and procedures that were used in the collection of data.
Additional findings
- A comparison was made to determine if the type of work a firm performed had any impact
on whether or not they would use G.P.S. Based on the percentages of responses, there was
no significant relationship between using G.P.S. and the type of work performed.
- A comparison was also made between the type of work performed and the type of G.P.S.
system being used. Based on the number of responses, the firms performing rural boundary
surveys were more likely to use either static or real-time G.P.S. than firms performing
construction staking or urban boundary surveys. Urban boundary surveys and construction
staking usually don't require lengthy traverses. Rural surveys, however, often involve
traversing the entire boundary of a section. Section corners are sometimes not inter-visible
due to obstructions such as trees, hills, etc. For this reason, it is very practical to use G.P.S.
for rural boundary surveys. The small number of responses for G.I.S. and hand-held systems
did not prove to be significant in this study. - The researcher wished to determine if G.P.S.'s
effects on productivity was related to the type of service performed. Based on the number of
responses, firms performing rural boundary surveys were much more likely to see an increase
in productivity. The researcher believes that using G.P.S. in rural areas eliminates the need
for lengthy traverses within a section. G.P.S. will definitely increase productivity by
decreasing the time it takes to conventionally traverse an entire section.
- The firms not using G.P.S. have indicated that cost of equipment and lack of need are the
two main reasons they have resisted purchasing the equipment. Many respondents simply do
not have the financial resources required to purchase G.P.S. equipment. Others have
indicated that a majority of their work is in dense tree cover where G.P.S. would not be able
to function. Many firms feel there is a lack of need for using G.P.S. because today's
conventional instruments can perform many tasks for a fraction of the cost required to
purchase G.P.S. Lack of technical knowledge was not a critical factor in deciding to purchase
G.P.S.
Conclusions
This study used descriptive research techniques involving the collection of data from
surveyors in the Adamawa state. The study focused on the competencies related to G.P.S.
that are needed by Adamawa state surveying graduates. The subjects of this study were
surveyors practicing in the state. From this list, five (5) surveying firms were randomly
selected.
A survey questionnaire was adopted and modified by the researcher of this study as the
instrument to gather data. The survey questionnaire was divided into two sections. Section
one contained a broad range of basic questions, while Section two required the respondent to
rate both the competencies and subject areas that are related to G.P.S. The survey concludes
by allowing the respondent to offer suggestions on how to improve the use of G.P.S. among
surveying graduates in Adamawa State.
The remaining subjects all received ratings of less than 2.00, a reason for this lack of
Preparation may be due to the fact that some schools do not provide courses solely on G.P.S.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 46
G.P.S. is sometimes covered as a unit in other courses such as Basic principle in surveying
and Instrumentation in surveying. It is the researcher's belief that courses, focusing solely on
G.P.S., are needed to adequately expose students to the main subject areas of G.P.S.
Recommendations
The researcher of this study has developed a list of recommendations that would be helpful
for anyone who wishes to do further research on this topic. The recommendations are broken
down into two categories; recommendations related to this study, and recommendations for
further study.
Recommendations related to this study:
1. Results of this study should be distributed to the universities and technical colleges in
Adamawa state that offer programs in surveying and Geoinformatics.
2. The results of this study should be used as a guide to revise and update future curriculum
in land surveying programs.
3. Question number one of the survey should be modified. “Check only one” should be
inserted at the end of the question. Having only one answer for this question would make
it possible to compute percentages when making comparisons during the data analysis
phase of the study.
4. An additional question should be added asking the respondent to indicate what geographic
area of the state they work in. This would be useful in determining if G.P.S. is more
widely used in open vs. forested areas.
Recommendations for further Study:
1.) It is recommended that similar studies related to this one be done in other states that offer
surveying degrees. Surveyors in other states may have different opinions on what should
be taught about G.P.S.
2.) Duplicate this study in several years to determine if G.P.S. technology as well as
surveyor's perceptions regarding it has changed.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 47
Tables
Table 1: Main type of company service
Types of service Number
Construction surveying co. 5
Rural boundary 68
Urban boundary 45
Table 2: Total number of company employees
of Employees Number Percentage %
0 – 5 52 52%
6 – 10 22 22%
11 – 20 12 12%
21 – 40 5 5%
>40 9 9%
Total 100 100%
Table 3: G.P.S. use among survey firms
Use Number Percentage %
Yes 30 30%
No 70 70%
Total 100 100%
Table 4: Reasons for not using G.P.S
Reason Number
Cost of equipment 52
Lack of technical knowledge 7
Lack of need 45
Table 5: Main reason for using G.P.S
Reason Number Percentage %
Accuracy of result 8 8%
Operation in any type of
whether
0 0%
Saves time & money 22 73
Total 30 100%
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 48
Table 6: Number of years using G.P.S
Years Number Percentage %
0 – 1 5 17%
2 – 4 17 56%
5 – 8 6 20%
9 – 12 2 7%
>12 0 30
TOTAL 30 100%
Table 7: Types of work G.P.S is used for
Type of work Number
Topographic surveying 24
Boundary surveys 28
Geodetic surveying 17
Photogrammetry surveying 17
GIS 7
Tale 8: Type of system currently being used
Type of system Number
Static 13
Real time 22
GIS 2
Hand held 1
Tale 9: How G.P.S has affected productivity
Productivity Change Number
Increased 25 83%
Decreased 0 0%
No change 5 17%
Total 30 100%
Table 10: Reason for company provided training
Reason 25
Change in technology
since graduation
14
Providing skill in
supporting technical area
15
Deficiencies in
undergraduate education
9
Not necessary 2
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 49
Table 11 Competencies: importance and Preparation
Importance Preparation
Competency Mean S.D Mean S.D
Measure antennae height 2.63 0.61 2.16 0.80
Prepare & interpret station descriptions 2.37 0.67 2.08 0.70
Use post-processing software 2.40 0.72 1.61 0.64
Interpret ephemeris information 2.17 0.65 1.68 0.63
Operate a G.P.S data collector 2.77 0.57 1.88 0.67
Set up a base station 2.77 0.50 1.72 0.68
Operate a rover receiver 2.77 0.50 21.72 0.68
Operate a rover receiver 2.77 0.43 1.72 0.74
Levelling over a point 2.80 0.48 2.32 0.75
Table 12 Education: Importance and preparation
Subject area Mean S.D Mean S.D
Geodesy 1.97 0.56 1.58 0.58
Conversion of coordinate systems 2.70 0.47 1.80 0.65
Post-processing of raw data 2.43 0.68 1.56 0.65
G.P.S principles of operation 2.57 0.57 2.00 0.65
Limitations of G.P.S. 2.77 0.43 1.72 0.74
Understanding accuracy 2.87 0.35 1.84 0.69
Table 13 G.P.S use based on type of service provided.
Use G.P.S.
Type of Service Yes No Total
Construction surveying 11 (27.5%) 29 (72.5%) 40 (100%)
Rural boundary surveys 24 (35.3%) 44 (64.7%) 68 (100%)
Urban boundary surveys 10 (22.2%) 44 (64.7%) 68 (100%)
Table 14 G.P.S use based on company size
Use G.P.S
Number of employees Yes No Total
0 – 5 8 (15.4%) 44 (84.6%) 52 (100%)
6 – 10 10 (45.5%) 12 (54.5%) 22 (100%)
11 – 20 4 (33.3%) 8(66.7%) 12 (100%)
21 – 40 2 (40.0%) 3 (60.0%) 5 (100%)
>40 6 (66.7%) 3 (33.3) 9 (100%)
Table 15: G.P.S System used based on type of service performed
Type of service
Type of System Construction Rural Urban Total
Static 6 11 5 22
Real-Time 9 17 7 33
GIS 1 1 1 3
Hand-held 0 1 0 1
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 50
Table 16: G.P.S’s effect on productivity based on type of service performed
Type of Service
Productivity Change Construction Rural Urban Total
Increased 9 19 8 36
Decreased 0 0 0 0
No Change 2 5 2 9
REFERENCES
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79 (6), 43-44. 36), 30-32. Ferguson, M. (1997). G.P.S. land navigation. Boise:
Glassford.
Fralinger, C.M., & Maxwell, J.P. (1997). Mapping with a differential. Civil Engineering,
67 (4), 50.
French, G.T. (1996). Understanding the G.P.S.: An introduction to the global positioning
System. What it is and how it works. Bethesda: Geo Research, Inc.
Luke, J. (1996). Surveying technology takes to the heavens. Denver Business Journal, 48
(7), Van Goethem, 1992. Thesis for B.SC Surveying, survey of the occupational
competencies Needed in the state of Wisconsin.
Mangione, T.W. (1995). Mail surveys: Improving the quality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Nord, G.D., & Jabon, D. (1997). The mathematics of the global positioning. Mathematics
Teacher, 90 (6), 455.
Van Sickle, (1996) G.P.S. Developed by U.S. Department of Defence.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 51
MINORITY QUESTION IN NIGERIA: TYPES OF MINORITY AND THE ECONOMY; FORMS OF
INCLUSION/ORGANISING METHODS
By
Veno M. Yongo
Department of International Relations & Strategic Studies
ABSTRACT
The hue and cry of marginalization coming from all sections, sexes and other types of minority
has reached the crescendo in Nigeria. It is now even more confusing in knowing who is truly
a minority or the actual definition of a minority. This work therefore, examines the minority
question in Nigeria, the types of minority and the economy, the form of inclusion/organizing
methods, thereby clearly exposing the intricate and issues of minority question in Nigeria.
The paper concludes that, it is possible to eliminating the problems of inequitable distribution
of rewards and others that has been the bent of minorities in Nigeria. The paper ended with
so many recommendations, one of which is for the minority groups to use their positions to
bring about development in their areas.
INTRODUCTION
The Minority question all over the world and especially in Nigeria has become a festering
sore. Clearly, it is now one of the most pressing, contending and vexed issues in the
contemporary Nigerian Political Economy. This is essentially so because, the minority groups
put together are by implication the majority in terms of number, that are deliberately being
neglected in almost all areas of human endeavours by the federal government that has been
dominated over the years by major ethnic groups: Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo in their
order of importance as the case may be in Nigeria before the administration that occurred,
that brought about the child of circumstance, that a minority took over the helm of affairs in
the country, though the situation under him remained in disguise as the circumstantial child
was controlled and moulded by the same majority, who continually even today determines
who becomes what, when and how.
The minority question arises in a country like ours when the general welfare of the
constituent members in general must be assured (Eteng, 1997). As (Awa 1976:1) noted “for
only in these terms, it is possible to objectively evaluate the relevance of a federal
arrangement for all the citizens.” But we must note that, the question of minority oppression
and suppression by the majority ethnic groups in the operation of Nigeria is not new.
Naturally and equally not new too, are the demands for redress by the minority groups. The
earliest minority question noted in history was essentially directed against the regional
governments then, which manifested in the demands for the creation of separate regions and
states. The idea was to allow ethnic minority groups within the regions to have their own
self- autonomy. Prominent amongst these agitations were the bloody Tiv riots of 1959/1960
in the North, the demand for the creation of a Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers state from the former
Eastern region and the demand for the creation of the Mid-West region out of the old Western
region.
The tempo and the intensity as well as the focus of the minority agitations have increased
and changed after the attainment of political independence in October, 1960. These agitations
have taken new dimensions to asking for political, social and especially economic
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 52
emancipation. The reason being that, the major ethnic groups have seized completely the
state machinery in defiance to the principle of federalism and also to the disadvantage of the
minority groups that constituted the larger number in the federation put together.
Minority Questions in Nigeria
Minority question all over the world is associated with general socio-economic
development. This is even more relevant to the developing countries where aspirations and
agitations for rapid socio-economic development are often tied to ethnic identities. Since the
colonial period, the minority question in Nigeria has been a recurring issue which has
generated series of crises in Nigeria. Different Nigerian Peoples have all along attempted to
hinge their developmental goals on ethnic affiliation although, the dominant ethnic groups-
the majority notably, Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo have derived much from this approach
to development leaving the minority to wallow in penury.
Thus, the ensuing agitation has in the past years to now reveal the displeasure of minority
groups in Nigerian and this has raised the level of group consciousness and identity especially
in relation to the assumed role of the dominant majority groups in the affairs of the country.
This has led to the issue of meeting or satisfying individual or group interest, which have of
cause brought about communal clashes with unprecedented consequences in so many states
in Nigeria and is today threatening the corporate existence of Nigeria as one nation. This
therefore, depicts the importance of the topic in question as minority question in Nigeria, if
not tackle and redress with caution, is likely to be the number one source of disintegration of
Nigeria as a nation.
The paper is therefore; aim at exposing the minority question and types of minorities,
minorities and the economy, their forms of inclusion/organizing methods especially in
Nigeria. This is to exposing generally the minority question, their potential threat to the
corporate existence of Nigeria as a nation especially because of the continuous economic
marginalization of the minorities in all facets and possibly proffers recommendations towards
redressing the issues involved to avoiding the dire consequences.
Thus, the paper aims to see the possibility of achieving the following:
i. That minority question in terms of economic discrimination and subordination is redress.
ii. Those physical or cultural traits that set the minority apart, and which are disapproved by
the dominant ethnic groups are discouraged towards economic and social equality.
iii. That the shared sense of collective identity and common burdens harboured amongst the
minority groups are defuse for proper integration of all Nigerians as equal in all aspects
of life.
iv. That the socially shared rules about who belongs and who does not determine minority
status be discourage towards national unification.
v. That the tendencies to marry and relate within the minority groups be discourage and
avenues open for general integration of all peoples in Nigeria.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 53
Types of Minority and the Economy
This section of the paper deals with issues that have to do with all types of minority groups,
which ranges from racial minority groups, ethnic minority groups, gender minority groups,
to religions minority groups generally, but with particular reference to Nigeria.
The minority groups covered by this paper are as follows:
a. Racial minority group: These are groups who are classified according to obvious physical
characteristics like skin colour which affect their transactions generally with other
dominant ethnic groups where they interact in economic and other aspects of life.
Examples are the US racial minority groups like Blacks American, Indians, non-indigene
syndrome in Nigeria etc.
b. Ethnic minority groups: these are groups who are differentiated on the basis of culture
such as language, food and other variables. Examples are US ethnic minority groups like
Latinos such as Chicanos etc and especially ethnic Minority crises in most Nigerian States.
c. Gender minority group: Males are a socially majority; women demonstrate four out of the
five basic characteristics of minority status. So, women are considered a minority in all
aspects of life the world over and Nigeria in particular.
d. Religious minority group: these are groups who have a religion other than the dominant
faith like US religious minorities such as Muslims and others (Wikipedia, 2013); Also, a
major issue in most Nigerian states.
Therefore, the issues to be covered generally in this paper as the scope are the issues that
characterized all minority groups which are as follows:
i. The issue of distinguishing physical or cultural traits e.g. skin colour or language.
ii. The issue of unequal treatment and less power over the lives of the minorities.
iii. The issues of involuntary membership in the minority group, that is of (no personal
choice).
iv. The issues of awareness of subordination and strong sense of group solidarity and
v. The issues of high in-group marriage and relationship generally amongst the minorities
In Nigeria, our case study, most minority groups economic and other socio-political problems
can be traced to ethnicity. Minority and ethnicity are very important factors in the
determination of who gets what, when and how in the Nigerian political arrangement. This
is because of the dominance of the three major ethnic groups of Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and
the Igbo of the Nigerian Federal system. Minority and ethnicity concepts therefore, represent
the opposite sides of the same coin as the two appear inseparable.
Ethnicity is a natural phenomenon, which makes people to be more loyal and attached to
the sentiments of their primordial sub-cultural group than to the nation (Peers, 2004). The
manifestation of ethnicity is evident where political decision and exercise of government
authority deliberately favour members of some cultural groups at the expense of others.
Ethnicity may thus, be defined as the contextual discrimination by members of one group
against others on the basis differentiated systems of socio-cultural symbols (Otite 1975). This
definition is most appropriate for our purpose because it has the advantage of combining the
two important aspects of the concept.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 54
The two pertinent aspects are its static and objective structural properties on the one hand
and its dynamic and analytic sense on the other (Otite 1975). The four basic elements
according to Kasfir (1976:44) that can be extracted from the two senses embedded in the
definition are:
a. Certain objective characteristics associated with common ancestry such as language,
territory, cultural practice and the likes (in some cases newly created or recently
standardized).
b. Which are perceived by both insiders and outsiders as important indicators of identity,
c. So, they became the bases for mobilizing social solidarity and
d. Which in certain situations result in political activity.
All these attributes are common to both ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups.
Therefore, ethnic majority and ethnic minority groups are discernible within the framework
of ethnicity defined as “social formations distinguished by the communal character of their
boundaries” in terms of language and culture or both, with language constituting the most
crucial variable in Africa (Shepherd Jr. 1987:35-39). We must add, however, that these
groups are not necessarily linguistically or culturally homogenous. This is because
occupational and class differentiation exists within an ethnic group. This differentiation is a
function of the level of production, development of productive forces, the extent of the
prevailing division of labour and the growth and differentiation of cultural forms within the
group (Eteng 1996). Ethnocentrism is the negative evaluation of and response to other
people's culture in which the ethnocentric culture is always considered superior.
Ethnocentrism is thus, attitudinal in form and perceptual in content. It therefore, represents
the subjective dimension of ethnicity, which subsumes ethnocentrism. On the other hand,
Nnoli (1978) believes it is behavioural in form and convective in content. Ethnicity is real; it
is not an imaginary phenomenon because it captures the various forms of consensual and
conflictual relationships between ethnic groups. It is obvious today in Nigeria that the ethnic
Minority groups exist in antagonistic relations to the ethnic majorities. The nature of their
conflictual relationship in the context of our federal system of government has been
consistently outright cheating, marginalization especially on economic spheres and
underdevelopment being perpetrated by the dominant majority groups. Thus, the concept of
the minority groups as the key phrase of our paper needs to be analytically clarified.
Minority is a culturally, ethnically or racially distinct group that coexists with, but is
subordinate to a more dominant group (Smihula 2009). As the term is used in the social
sciences, this subordinancy is the key chief defining characteristic of a minority group as
such; minority status does not necessarily correlate to population. In some cases, one or more
so-called minority group may have a population many times the size of the dominating group,
as was the case in South Africa under apartheid.
Thus, sociologist Louis Wirth defined a minority group as “a group of people who,
because of their physical or cultural characteristics are single out from the others in the society
in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore, regard
themselves as objects of collective discrimination” (Wirth 1945: 347). This definition
includes both objective and subjective criteria: membership of a minority group is objectively
ascribed by society, based on an individual's physical or behavioural characteristics; it is also
subjectively applied by its members, who may use their status as the bases of group identity
or solidarity. In any case, minority group status is categorical in nature. An individual who
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 55
exhibits the physical or behavioural characteristics of a given minority group will be accorded
the status of the group and be subject to the same treatment as other members of that group.
Clearly by the above definition, Wirth places the minority groups in opposition to the majority
group. Valien (1964) expresses the view that the term minority group sometimes just referred
to as minority as applied to an ethnic group, racial or religious group. He contends that, the
term ethnic group is utilized when invidious distinctions are not intended, while the minority
group connotes such invidious distinctions. He however, agrees that both terms, nonetheless,
underscores physical, religious, racial and other cultural features of a designated group which
distinguish them from other dominant ethnic group in the society. It has not been easy to
know the appropriate basic features to be applied to designate the minority status of a given
group. This is because almost all common variables used in identifying any minority group
usually throw up uncertainty as to their exact meaning and functions. However, the following
characteristics are often identified with a minority group. They include statistical or numerical
size, socio-economic and political power distribution, homogeneous physical and cultural
traits and differentiated treatment or status. To these, can be added agitations and incessant
calls for redress. In a fundamental sense, therefore, minority specifically implies low status
in a social power relationship between a dominant power group and a dominated group.
Although, Rose et al (1948) consider any purely statistical definition of the term
unacceptable, they however, places emphasis on the opposition between the dominant and
minority groups. Therefore, in their opinion, the more fact of being generally hated and being
hated because of religious, racial or national background is simply what defines a minority
group.
One theme though, that runs through all the definitions is the placing of the minority group
in opposition to the majority group. This is because of the powerlessness and the low social
status of the minority group made even worse by the overbearing attitude of the dominant
groups especially in the Nigeria federal system. Based on this, we accept the definition of
minority group given by Eteng (1996) as our operational definition. According to him, a
minority group is regarded as:
(a) A social category, a collectivity, a social class, large or small,
(b) Which exists within a socio-culture,
(c) Whose members are distinguished from the majority or dominant group in power,
(d) On the basis of inherent or contrived homogeneous physical/biological, national,
racial, cultural and social characteristics,
(e) And are, therefore, hated and consciously and deliberately excluded socially,
physically and sometimes legally from participating in the social, economic, political
economy or some sections of the larger society,
(f) On account of which, they are self-conscious of their minority status and hence often
excluded themselves from the mainstream culture;
(g) A minority group is thus, almost always embroiled in a discriminatory, unequal and
clientelistic power relationship with the dominant majority group in which they often
consequently assume a subordinate status as the exploited, expropriated,
disempowered, isolated, marginalized and targeted (Eteng 1996:119). This definition
properly situates our topic; what follows now is the examination of the forms of
inclusion/organizing methods.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 56
Forms of Inclusion/Organizing Methods
The discussion here explores the main issues that involve the minorities in general; it assumes
that all minorities share certain characteristics. It does not matter whether we are talking
about the relationship between the Protestants and the Catholics in the Northern Ireland, the
relationship between the Chinese and the Muslims in Malaysia or the general mutual ethnic
and religious distrust in Nigeria, economic inequality is the major common characteristics of
the minority group. Many civil rights leaders have ultimately come to embrace economic
injustice as the crucial issue of human existence (Steiner, 1996). Some examples will give us
more understanding here: Jesse Jackson was asked at the Democratic National convention in
August 1988 “What is the fundamental challenge of our day? “He answered his own question
by saying “To end economic violence”. Malcolm X, a spokesman for Afro-American causes
during the early 1960s, began his political career with absolute hatred for white people. He
had good grounds to do so base on the discrimination he experienced during his early life.
Ultimately, however, Malcolm X came to embrace economic issues as more significant than
race issues. After a trip to Mecca, where he discovered white praying to his god, he came
back to the United States proclaiming a new philosophy. To Martin Luther king, many have
forgotten the issues important to king's movement after his “I have a dream”. That speech
was given in 1963. King died in 1968 and much occurred between those two dates. General
economic inequality of the oppressed was recognized (Britannica.com, 2012). In Nigeria,
from the Biafara movement, the late Ken Saro-Wiwa struggle, the Niger Delta Militants, the
Middle Belt movement, the South-West internal struggles, the single most important variable
underlying all these movements is economic emancipation (Saliu(ed), 1999). Some have even
argued that, the emergence of Boko-Haram insurgency in North-East Nigeria may be link to
poverty and by extension the issue of economic emancipation. Most of the various ethnic
crises and other crisis coloured by religion are actually crisis of economic marginalization.
Almost all the so-called political crisis, the various Fulani/Farmers clashes all over Nigeria,
the recent Ombatse phenomenon in Nasarawa State are all economic crisis. So whether you
are talking about racial minority group- the cry and all the struggles are directed at economic
emancipation, if is ethnic minority group, is still economic, if is religion, the economic
aspects takes pre-eminence and the gender minority groups, is still economy as the major
goal is economic emancipation of women for instance, the UN Affirmative Action, the
Beijing 1995, the 35% Affirmative Action of the last administration etc.; all justifies the
economic sense in almost every minority struggle in Nigeria (Ovwase, 1999).
In line with above, many governments prefer to assure the people they rule all belong to
the same nationality rather than separate ones based on ethnicity. The United States asks for
race and ethnicity on its official census forms, with this breaks up and organizes its population
into different sub-groups, but primarily on racial origin rather than national one. Spain does
not divide its nationals by ethnic group, although it does maintain an official notion of
minority languages. Nigeria uses ethnic groupings in almost every official transaction and
this has further divided the country into minority and majority group (Ige, 1999).
Therefore, as the minority groups are socially separated or segregated from the dominant
forces of a society, members of minority groups usually are cut off from a full involvement
in the workings of the society and from an unequal share in the society's rewards. Thus, the
role of minority groups varies from society to society depending on the structure of the social
system and the relative power of the minority group (Wheatley, 2003). For instance, the
degree of social mobility of a member of a minority group depends on whether the society in
which he lives is a closed or opened one. A closed society is one in which an individual's
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 57
role and functions can theoretically never be changed, as in the traditional Hindu Caste
system. An open society, on other hand, allows the individual to change his role and to benefit
from corresponding changes in status unlike a closed society, which stresses hierarchical
cooperation between social groups, an open system permits different social groups to vie for
the same resources, so their relation is competitive. In an open society, the rank that the
individual attains for himself is more important than the ranking of his social group.
So, in the prevalent atmosphere of minority group consciousness and the struggle for
political power which is invariably economic power among the majority groups, the less
numerous language groups are inevitably been drawn into minority politics. Again, the
increasing solidarity of each majority group behind a political party and the emphasis placed
by Nigerian politics on the pursuit of ethnic interest, has raise the fears among the leaders of
the minority groups concerning neglect and domination by the leaders of the majority groups.
They perceived their opportunities for political leadership, contract, senior positions in the
public service, and loans for business activities threatened by the tendency of the major
political parties dominated by major ethnic groups in government to secure these for the
members of their classes from the majority groups. By leading minority group agitations
against government status, these leaders hope to carve out a place in the Nigeria political sun
for themselves (Nnoli 1978).
Major Findings
The major findings of this research are as follows:
a. Those resources could take the form of property, money, position, or organization and so
majority groups benefit from the existence of minority. From the stand point of the general
public, minorities provide scapegoat. Deviantising minorities takes people out of
competition for jobs, housing and education. From the point of view of the majority group,
minorities represent group where more profit can be extracted.
b. That most people accept the structural and cultural pattern in the society and see little
reason to change them. It takes a long time for social patterns to develop. Those patterns
seem functional, especially to those who benefit from their existence. Therefore, those
who benefit are more resistant to change. Remember the idea of the “Tyranny of
majority”. Most of the population is willing to let a minority of people suffer high rate of
unemployment and poverty.
c. That change means that those with resources will have to pay high taxes as well as give
up existing advantages. Majority groups will not accept a change in the status quo.
d. That the dominant groups always develop a set of values and beliefs which justify existing
inequality. The justification is an attempt to rationalize the inequality. Once established,
ideology become an integral part of social structure and is therefore, difficult to change.
e. The research also found that women lack power relative to men, they do not hold high
position relative to men because they have fewer resources. They lack privilege and
prestige relative to men and so they are gradually developing a consciousness of
themselves as a separate category of people with a common interest. That they are
beginning to work together to achieve common goals.
f. On women again, the research found that:
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 58
(a) Women generally have better education than other minorities, yet in what they are able to
achieve with that education, they are similar to other minorities. In fact, when education is
held equal women suffer more than racial and ethnic minorities.
(b) Women are actually a numerical majority (in USA and Nigeria) which gives them
resources that other minorities do not have. Women can vote collectively; yet women face
the same problems of organization and unity that other minorities face.
Thus, the paper has been able to group all the major findings under two major reasons for
the predicament of the minority groups, namely, economic marginalization and ethnic
marginalization both of which have been making the minority groups powerless in their
various locations in the country. It was discovered that, it is the firm belief of these minority
groups that the socio-economic neglect of them and their areas is due largely to their minority
position.
Conclusion/Recommendations
This work has tried to examine the issue of minority question with particular reference to
Nigeria. It has taken all the issues on the minorities, type of minorities, minorities and the
economy, forms of inclusion/organizing methods. Thus, the recommendations below among
others have the potential of eliminating the problems of inequitable distribution of rewards
and others which have been the keenly contested issues in the five decades of the existence
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as an independent country.
The following are some of the recommendations proffer for the research:
i. That a national dialogue be conducted. The dialogue should be constituted in such a manner
that all shades of opinions affecting the minority question in the country are adequately
and properly discussed and addressed. As such, membership of such a national dialogue
should be by election. This national dialogue as recommended should be convened by the
present democratic government that is in place.
ii. Government should put a policy in place that would guarantee even development and
distribution of rewards. Such a policy if implemented is capable of resolving the minority
question in Nigeria.
iii. There should be a periodic legislative or executive review of the minority question in
Nigeria.
iv. It is recommended that a commission for the minority be established to adequately take
care of all minorities problems that are plaguing the country such a commission should be
made more effective in its performance than any other commission as minority question is
one of the greatest problems of this country.
v. Finally, minority group should use their minority positions to bring development to their
areas. This can be achieved by looking inward rather than looking unto government which
seems not to have a policy to save them from economic and political marginalization.
REFERENCES
Awa, E.O. (1974) Issues in Federalism, Benin City – Nigeria Ethiope Publishing
Corporation.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 59
Eteng, L.A. (1996) “Minority Rights under Nigeria Federal Structure” Proceedings of the
Conference on Constitutions and Federalism, Held at the University of Lagos, Nigeria,
23-25 April, pp 111-168.
Ige, J. (1999) “State Creation and the Minority Question in Nigeria” In Saliu, H.A. (ed):
Issues in contemporary Political Economy of Nigeria. Ilorin, Nigeria, Sally and associates.
Kasfir, N. (1976), The Shrinking Political Arena, Participation and Ethnicity in African
Politics with a Case Study of Uganda. California University of California Press.
Nnoli, O. (1978), Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu- Nigeria. Fourth Dimension Publisher.
Otite; (1975), Cited in Ovwasa, L. (1999). Rose, A.M. and C.B. Cited in Eteng, I.A. (1996)
http://en.wikipedea.org/wiki/Minority_group (March, 2013)
Http://www.britannica.com/EB checked/topic/384500/Minority (April 2012)
Ovwase, L (1999),” Oil and the Minority Question in Nigeria”.In Saliu, H.A. (ed): Issues
in Contemporary Political Economy of Nigeria. Ilorin, Nigeria, Sally and Associates.
Peers, S. (2004), “New Minorities: What status for Third World Country Nationals in the
EU System”? In Toggenburg, G.N. (ed): Minority Protection and the Enlarge European
Union: The Way Forward. Osi, Budapest.
Saliu, H.A. (1999) (ed); Issues in Contemporary Political Economy of Nigeria. Ilorin
Nigeria, Sally and Associates.
ShepherdJr, G.W. (1987) “African People’s Rights. The Third Generation in a Global
perspective” In Shepherd Jr. G.W (Series Editor) Emerging Human Rights. New York,
Green World Press, PP. 39-54.
Smihula, D (2008), “Definition of National Minorities in International Law” In Journal of
US – China Public Administration, Vol.6, No.5 October, 2009, pp.45-51.
Steiner, H.J. and Also, P. (1996), International Human Rights in Context. Law, Politics,
Morals. Clarendon Press Oxford
Valien, P. (1964), “Minority: Minority Groups” In Goud, J and Kold, W (1994), A
Dictionary of Social Sciences Tavistock Publications. pp. 432-433.
Wheatley, M. (2003), Deliberate Democracy and Minorities European Journal of
International Law, Vol. 14, No. 3, PP 507-527
Wirth, L. (1945) “The Problem of Minority Groups” In Linton, R (ed): The Sciences of
Man in the World Crisis. New York Colombia University Press.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 60
THE IMPACT OF LARGE CLASS SIZE ON THE EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
ENGLISH LANGUAGE COURSES IN ADAMAWA STATE POLYTECHNIC, YOLA
By
Bitrus Ishaya
Department of English Education
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to provide views of both lecturers and students on large class size
and how it affects teaching and learning in the Adamawa State Polytechnic. The simple
percentage method of analysis was used to analyse the data collected. Respondents of the
study were made up of 25 lecturers and 200 students randomly selected from the five
departments that made up the data for this study. The research instruments used in the data
collection were questionnaires and direct observation. It was discovered from the study that
large class-size is a great challenge to achieving success in the teaching and learning of
English Language, as lecturers could hardly prove their efficacy in classes thereby resulting
to poor output from students. It was also discovered that the study indicated that effective
teaching was not possible in overcrowded classes and majority of the teachers were facing
instructional, discipline, physical and evaluation problems. In line with the findings, the study
recommends among others the need for the polytechnic to employ more lecturers in the
General Studies Department and also make efforts to provide more resources and facilities,
such as lecture halls with teaching and learning equipment.
INTRODUCTION
There is no doubt that large class size is an impediment in effective teaching of English
language courses in tertiary institutions all over Nigeria. With more students enrolling in
schools, large classes in a country like Nigeria require a great intention and careful
preparation from teachers before the teaching process takes place. Heppner (2007) views
large classes as a small business which should be set up and handled carefully. Experienced
English teachers in general and teachers beginning teaching in particular find it onerous to
manage a class with a large number of students at various levels with different personalities.
The conventional wisdom among parents, teachers, school administrators, and policy
makers is that smaller class sizes translate to improvements in student learning and outcomes.
While a number of studies have found support for the importance of class size on student
achievement, others strongly refute this claim concluding that class size has little to no impact
on objective student outcomes. Nevertheless, a strong willingness to investigate the effect of
large classes on English teaching according to teachers' perceptions made the researcher
undertake this study where the main theme of this study is to examine the problems
encountered by teachers and students in the process of learning English in large classes.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 61
Statement of the Problem
Many studies have come up regarding the influence of class size on students' performance,
but a shortage of consensus on the definition of large and small classes (Nemrah, 2006).
Schools have a multiple purpose as higher institutions are often associated with greater
participation in leadership process both within and outside ones immediate community. In an
attempt to improve the quality of education in Nigeria and the world over, many factors have
been adduced as responsible for the falling standard of education. Teachers in small classes
are able to pay great attention to their students and the benefit from teaching and learning
activities are considered to be high.
Suffice it to say that it is abundantly evident that English teachers encounter great
challenges when teaching large classes as they encounter difficulties in presenting effective
teaching activities and therefore many students, especially the weak ones, tend to lose
concentration. There is also the problem of identifying and controlling students who tend to
distract their classmates from concentrating on the lesson.
In view of these explanations, this paper intends to focus attention on overcrowded
classroom to find out whether or not it correlates with academic performance in tertiary
institutions.
Literature Review
Over-crowded classes could have a direct impact on students' learning. They not only
affect students' performance but the teachers had to face different problems such as discipline,
behavioural problems, poor health and poor performance of students, put stress on teachers
and increase in drop-out rate of students (Shah and Inamullah (2012). Carlson (2000) reported
that quality learning was not possible when large number of students were packed into small
classrooms, while Ijaiya (1999) found a weak positive correlation between the opinion of
teachers and students. Findings showed that over crowdedness diminished the quality and
quantity of teaching and learning with serious implications for attainment of educational
goals. It was felt that additional buildings and furniture should give priority in educational
planning at all levels.
Despite the importance of English Language in our society, it still suffers a great set-back
in all of our institutions of learning. Tertiary education is not left out of this educational or
language trauma. It has been discovered that most complaints by students and teachers of
English Language is the alarming rate at which the class-size increases. Therefore, English
Language as far as Nigeria is concerned provides the connecting tissue by which all other
subjects are pursued.
Combating the issue of class-size especially in English Language classes remains a
problem that needs to be solved. Observations have revealed that most of our classes in
tertiary institutions of higher learning have not less than 250 students this is an indication that
for each of the classes, there would be the challenges of the classroom management,
classroom control, classroom maintenance, deviance etc. for the teacher. It is no doubt that
most of the time needed to carry out the teaching-learning activities shall be wasted. On the
other hand, educational planners like Okoro (1985) and others opined that “few pupils per
class are uneconomical, as they do not make full use of space, teachers and teaching
materials”.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 62
The concept of class- size has been given series of definitions in different context by
educationists. Hoffman (1980) defines class-size as the number of students per teacher in a
class.
While Kennedy (1989) sees it as a tool that can be used to measure education system. In
relation to class-size, Stepaniuk (1969) argued that there are approved norms of class-size,
35-40 students per class. This is in line with the National policy on Education under section
5 sub-section 27 which states that the ratio of teacher and students in the class for secondary
school should be 1:40, meaning that as far as Nigeria is concerned, the approved number of
students in a class should be 40 students per teacher.
International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (43rd Conference
2009) also opined that a large class is the one which “teachers face problems in teaching,
managing and evaluating”. It is also defined as a class in “which there are many challenges
and opportunities for the teachers as well as for the learners in terms of managing resources,
time and space”. The above definitions depict that a large class-size is any class where there
are challenges for teachers and students in having a problem- free teaching and learning
processes, which at the end makes evaluation more time consuming than normal.
The Corpus
Departmental enrolment of students from the departments under investigation in the College
of Continuing Education, Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola for 2015/2016 academic session
and the number of lecturers that responded to the questionnaires issued from the departments
respectively.
S/NO DEPARTMENT REG. STUDENTS LECTURERS
1. International Rel. and Strategic, Studies 449 5
2. Business Management Education 490 5
3. Crime Management and Control 587 5
4. Mass communication 457 5
5. English Language Education 239 5
Source: field survey 2016
METHODOLOGY
The sample used in this study consisted of teachers and students from four departments in
the College of Continuing Education, Adamawa state Polytechnic, Yola. The state capital is
considered a typical example of a growing city in Nigeria which has been feeling the pinch
of population explosion in schools. Using simple random sampling technique, a total of 250
students randomly selected were served a structured questionnaire through their lecturers,
out of which 200 were found usable. The lecturers' sample consisted of 25 lecturers also
randomly selected from the five departments. Two types of instruments were used. One
involved the use of online registration to obtain students enrolment in Diploma I. The second
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 63
instrument was a structured questionnaire made by the researcher to identify the most serious
effects of over-crowded classroom on Teacher - student interactions. Respondents were
required to identify the ones commonly used by their lectures and students. The questionnaire
was validated by experts in Educational Management.
Data Analysis
This aspect presents and discusses the analysis of the data gathered from the questionnaires
that were administered by the researcher. The data presented consists of 25 lecturers and 200
student's responses that were randomly selected from five departments in the college of
continuing education, Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola.
Research Question 1: Do you think students' population has any effect on their learning?
Table 1: Simple percentage analysis on students' responses for Research Question 1
S/NO ITEMS YES % NO %
1. Are you able to contribute to the lesson when you
want to?
120 60% 80 40
2. When the teacher is in the class, do you always hear
murmur of noise within the classroom?
90 45 110 55
Source: Field survey 2016
From the investigation under study, it is obvious that the above presentation in table 1
shows that One Hundred and Twenty (120) students covering 60% of the students responses
affirmed that they do contribute to the lesson when they want to, while 40% of that response
amounting to eighty (80) students deny their ability to contribute to the lesson when they want
to. Also, ninety (90) students representing (45%) opined that they always hear noise within
the class when the lesson is on. On the other hand, one hundred and ten (110) students,
equated as 55% disagreed with hearing murmur within the class.
Research Question 2: How effective is the teacher's method of teaching in a large class-
size?
Simple percentage analysis on students' responses for Research Question 2
S/NO ITEMS YES % NO %
1. Does your teacher’s method of teaching make you
like the subject?
145 72.5 55 27.5
2. Is your English teacher able to carry everybody
along?
120 60 80 40
3. Does your English teacher supervise your work
individually or go round the class?
45 17.5 55 27.5
Source: Field survey 2016
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 64
In the presentation above, it is glaring that One Hundred and forty-five (145) students i.e.
72.5% responded to show their likeness with the teacher’s method of teaching, while 55 of
them i.e. 27.5% dislike their teachers’ method of teaching, which results to their hatred for
the subject. More so, One Hundred and Twenty (120) students amounting to 60%
acknowledge their teachers' ability to carry them along and in contrary, eighty (80) students
amounting to 40% acknowledge their teachers' inability to carry them along. For question 3,
forty-five (45) students with (17.5%) testified that their English teachers supervise their work,
while 27.5% equated at fifty-five (55) students confirmed that their teachers neither go around
to supervise their work nor check individually.
Research question 3: What is the students' assessment of the lecturers teaching methods?
Table 3: Simple percentage analysis on teachers' responses for Research Question 3
S/NO ITEMS YES % NO %
1. Is your method of teaching effective in an overpopulated
class?
6 3 19 9.5
2. Is your method of teaching effective in a class of lower
students?
25 100 0 0
3. Do you find coping with students easy in an
overpopulated class?
14 7 11 5.5
Source: Field survey 2016
From the data presented above, it can be deduced that 3% which is Eight (6) of the
teachers‟ responses attest that teaching is effective in an overpopulated class. On the other
hand, nineteen (19) teachers covering 9.5% confirmed that teaching is not effective in an
overpopulated class. Consequently, in question 2, Twenty-Five (25) teachers which is 100%
agreed that their method of teaching is effective in classes of lower students. Out of twenty-
five (25) lecturers, only (14) representing (7%) believed that coping with students is easy in
an overpopulated class; while the remaining (11) amounting to 5.5% affirmed that coping
with students in overpopulated class is not easy.
Research Question 4: How effective is a lecturer's method of teaching in a small class size.
Table 4: Simple percentage analysis on lecturer's responses for Research Question four
S/NO ITEMS YES % NO %
1. Do you find teaching in a small class – size more tasking
than that of a large class- size?
9 4.5 16 8
2. Is assessment in an overpopulated class stressful? 22 11 3 1.5
Source: Field survey 2016
The table above shows that 4.5% which is also nine (9) lecturers accepted that teaching is
more tasking in a small class-size, while 8% which represents sixteen (16) lecturers opined
that teaching is not tasking in small class-size. Furthermore, twenty-two (22) teachers which
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 65
is 11% confirmed that assessment is stressful in an overpopulated class while three (3)
teachers with (1.5%) sees assessment as being easy in an overpopulated class.
Research Question 5: Are the lesson objectives achievable in a large class-size? Table 5:
Simple percentage analysis on lecturers' responses for Research Question five
S/NO ITEMS YES % NO %
1. Is there cordial relationship between lecturers and
students in terms of their interaction in a small class-size?
25 100 0 0
2. Do students in overpopulated class participate in the
lesson than students in non-populated class?
3 1.5 22 11
Source: Field survey 2016
Considering table 5 above, all the lecturers opined that there is increase in teacher-students
interaction in small class-size. Similarly, in the next question, three (3) teachers representing
1.5% believed that students in overpopulated class participate in the lesson than students of
non-populated class
Discussion
The data presentation in table 1 indicates that students' population does not really have
much effect on the students learning. Question 2 of the table shows that most students are
able to contribute to the lesson when they want. Though the total respondents are more than
40 in their various classes, yet they still have the opportunity of contributing to the lesson.
This development cannot be divorced from the experience of the lecturers, which help them
to manage largely populated class. This fact is derived from the researcher’s findings in the
questionnaire where the lecturers strongly pointed out that their experiences help them in
managing over populated class. Still on the analysis, a number of students stated that they
do not hear murmur or noise within the classroom when the lesson is going on; while others
confirmed that they hear murmur or noise while the lecture is on- going. Considering this
information, it is a fact that student's population in one way still affects their learning as there
is just little difference and moreover, for any classroom that has more than 40 students, there
cannot be absolute silence in such class.
Conclusion
From the findings of this study, it was observed that all the departments under study were
overcrowded with a population ranging from 239-587 students per class. Lecturers feel
discouraged, overwhelmed and stressed with the space shortage. Discipline maintenance was
a problem for most of the respondents, as majority of the lecturers were observing disturbance
due to overcrowded students in a class thereby finding it difficult to control them. The
findings also cast some doubts on the skills of the lecturers in dealing with the problems as
indulging in negative reinforcement like punishment is not educationally expedient for tertiary
institutions. It is also observed that lecturers are facing problems in checking notes, marking
test papers and assignments due to the large number they are confronted with. Upon asking
about the effect of overcrowding in classroom on teachers' efficiency, almost all the
respondents confirmed this difficulty. There is the direct consequences of inadequate
classrooms and furniture to cater for the increase number of admitted students as well as poor
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 66
quality training of professional lecturers, also, seating arrangement in over-populated class
places limitations on the quality and quantity of interactions between the lecturers and the
students as well as on the quality of teaching and learning as most of the students sit in
juxtaposed position in the classrooms while others hang by the doors and windows thereby
making cross ventilation almost impossible..
Recommendations
Based on the analysis and the conclusion of this research, the following recommendations
are hereby proffered:
1. Shortage of classrooms and lecture theatres need to be treated as a national crisis
worthy of the attention of both the Federal and State Governments.
2. Proper training program should be arranged for the teachers in order to educate them
how to handle overcrowded classroom.
3. There is a need to double existing facilities. A ratio of 1:35 or 40teacher to students
is hereby suggested.
4. Federal and State Governments should lift embargo specifically on the employment
of qualified lecturers based on merit.
5. The issue of unnecessary transfer of service by the Adamawa State Civil Service
Commission should be curtailed.
6. Graduates with third class or pass degrees should not be employed to teach in the
institution no matter his or her connection.
7. Interviews should be conducted before employment as this will go a long way in
checking the excesses of employing less qualified candidates as lecturers.
REFERENCES
Adaralegbe, A. (1983) 'Secondary Education in Nigeria', in Adesina, S. Akinyemi, K. and
Ajayi, K. (eds): Nigerian Education. Trends and Issues. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press
Ltd.
Adeniyi, D.A. (2002). Comparison between School Effectiveness, Characteristics and
Classroom Instruction
Adesina, S. (1990) Educational Management. Nigeria: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
Afe, J.O. (2001). Reflections of becoming a Teacher and the Challenges of Teaching
Education: Inaugural Lecture Series 64. Benin City. University of Benin, Nigeria.
Ajayi, I.A. Ekundayo H.T & Osalusi F.M, (2010).Learning Environment and Secondary
School Effectiveness in Nigeria. Dept. of Educational Foundations and Management.
University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria. Study Home Comm. Soc. Sci, 4 (3): 137-142 @ Kanla
Raj 2010.
Akinyemi, K. (1983) Trends in Development of Primary Education in Nigeria', in Adesina
S Akinyemi, K and Ajayi, K. (eds): Nigerian Education. Trends and Issues. Ile-Ife:
University of Ife Press Ltd.
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Akpofure, R.E.O. & N'dipu, B.L. (2000). National standards and quality control in Nigerian
education. The State of Education in Nigeria UNESCO, Abuja.
Carlson, A. (2000). Achieving Educational Quality: What Schools Teachers Learning from
Chile's P900 Primary Schools. Restructuring and Competitiveness Network. Division of
Production, productivity and Management. Santiago, Chile.
Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1983) A Guide to Teaching Practice. London: Correa, H. (1993).
“An Economic Analysis of Class Size and Achievement in Education.” Education
Economics, vol 1(2), pp. 129-35.
Duze C (2011). Falling Standard in Nigeria Education: Traceable to Proper skills Acquisition
in School?Retrievedon26/8/12fromhttp://interesjournals.org/ER/pdf/2011/January/Duze.pdf
Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Fakeye, D. (2010). Students Personal Variables as Correlates of Academic Achievement in
English as a Second Language in Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences.22(3) 205 – 211.
Fakeye, D.O. & Ogunsiji, J. (2009). English Language Proficiency as a Predictor of
Achievement among EFL Student in Nigeria. European Journal of Scientific Research
37(3) pp 490-495.
Fakeye, D.O. (2010). Assessment of English Language Teachers' Knowledge and Use of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Ibadan Southwest Local
Government of Oyo State. Dept of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
Nigeria. American-Eurosian Journal of Scientific Research 5(4): 270-276.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (2004) National Policy on Education, 4th Edition. Lagos:
NERDC Press.
Ijaiya, Y. (1999). Effects of Overcrowded Classrooms on Teacher-Student Interaction. Ilorin
Journal of Education: Dept of Educational Management. University of Ilorin.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 68
MOTIVATIONS FOR CRAFTSMEN IN CONSTRUCTION SITES IN NORTH-EASTERN
NIGERIA
By
Salihu Kabiru & Mallum Isa
Department of Civil Engineering
ABSTRACT
Nigerian economy today requires the support of small industries largely supported by the
participation of craftsmen especially in the construction sector. This research is aimed at
identifying motivations that will work well for craftsmen in the industry. The research also
examined whether the presently motivational factor employed is adequate. Data was collected
through questionnaires' and analysed using statistical package for social science SPSS. The
study revealed that majority of the respondents spent between six to ten years in construction,
also most of the present adopted motivations are inadequate, furthermore, twelve motivators
were identified i.e. effective supervision by leaders, providing training, over time, team work,
love and belonging, rewarding appreciation, good working relationship between management
and lower cadre, effective communication among workers, salary increase, proper job
placement, rework due to construction error, job security. The research recommended that
fresh motivational methods that suited 21st century be adopted. There is need for construction
managers to invest a lot of incentive on the craftsmen as they constitute the larger portion of
the industry.
Keywords: motivation, craftsmen, construction industry, North- Eastern Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
Motivation is the driving force within individuals that drive them physiologically and
psychologically to pursue one’s goals to fulfil their needs and expectation. Motivation could
be extrinsic or intrinsic. Construction of craftsmen is vital as craftsmen constitute the larger
portion of the total workforce in the construction industry. The industry participants who,
though have diverse discipline are mainly craftsmen and unskilled labourers (Ademoriti,
1994). The industry is better characterized by traditional or manual method and hard labour
conditions. Labour intense technology require much more diligence and insight than
equipment intensive construction process and thus labour recourse become a more important
input in production phase and need to be handled with utmost importance. The high rate of
employment, poverty among citizen of this country calls for urgent attention to save the
situation. North- Eastern Nigeria is rated as the least developed region among the six geo-
political regions of the country (NPC 2011). This situation leads the region to insurgency
which has further compounded the problem and loss of many lives Construction firms depend
majorly on various categories of craftsmen and large numbers of them have been in operation
for many decades in North - Eastern Nigeria. The presence of these construction firms ought
to have mopped-up the high population of unemployed graduate youths in the region. One
may be wondering how reluctant the youths are to join the construction firms precisely at
craftsmen cadre, the reason for this unwillingness to join the construction firms may not be
partially unconnected to the fact that majority of the youths seeking for jobs possess higher
education certificate and may never wish to start at craftsmen level and partially for the fact
that majority of serving craftsmen despite having put donkey years to the service with the
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 69
nature of the task (tedious), coping with poor enumeration and lack of motivation, end up
having nothing to show and usually fall below middle class in the society.
Many construction managers adopt various motivational techniques to motivate the craftsmen
that work under their companies, these motivations are either intrinsic or extrinsic. Example
of intrinsic is self-fulfilment of a worker as a result of performing task well. An example of
extrinsic motivation is the award of bonus for extra effort input by worker. This research will
look at various motivational factors with the aim identifying the most effective ones among
the construction craftsmen in North Eastern Nigeria.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Motivation Skills
The construction manager helps in the motivation process by having the long-recognized
qualities to appreciate human problem faced by different individuals during the various stages
of life. Mullins (2005) highlighted that a good manger must possess the following traits: be
a good disciplinarian, have a good understanding and be sympathetic, have a good general
attitude to the work, subordinates and colleagues, compromise if necessary; listen to other
side of suggestions or arguments.
Motivational Theories
Maslow theory of human's needs
Maslow (1943) suggested that people seek to satisfy needs sequentially, arguing that as
each demand is gratified then a new set emerges, implying a process of self-motivation
(Harris & McCaffer, 2005). The theory states that when a lower need is satisfied, it is no
longer a strong motivator and hence the demand for the next higher need becomes dominant
and the individual attention is turned towards satisfying this higher need. It states that only
unsatisfied need motivates an individual (Mullins, 2005). The model for (Maslow, 1943)
hierarchy of need depicted the Maslow hypothesis that within every human being there exist
hierarchy of needs which exist in hierarchy of potency as follows:
Physiological needs:- These are basic survival needs such as need for food, water, shelter,
clothing and sex.
Safety needs:- These include need for security and protection from the physical and emotional
harm, ill health, economics disaster and the unexpected. In other words, it is the need to feel
secured at home and at work.
Social need: -The need to feel loved and accepted as a part of the group. Management
meetsthis need by permitting social-interaction among workers, encouraging group formation
and corporation and other forms of opportunity to socialize (Malami, 2006)
Esteem need: -The need for recognition and acknowledgement from others based on the
respect of peers in and out of work environment, satisfaction of one of the esteems lead to
feeling of importance, self-respect, prestige, achievement, status, recognition and attention.
Self-actualization:- The tendency of one to fully realize his/her potentialities and capabilities
by achieving some stated goals.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 70
Two factor theory of Herzberg
Maslow (1943) need approach have been considerably modified by Herzberg, (1968) as
shown in Figure 2. Their research purpose was to find a two-factor theory of motivation. In
one group of needs are such things like; company policy and administration, supervision,
working condition, interpersonal relation, salary status, job security and personal life. These
were found by Herzberg, (1968) to be only dissatisfaction, their existence does not motivate
in the sense of yielding satisfaction lack of existence would however result in dissatisfaction
they were consequently regarded to as hygiene factor. In secondary group Herzberg(1968),
listed certain satisfiers and motivators, all related to content. They include achievement
recognition, challenging work, advancement and growth in job. Their existence will yield
feeling of satisfaction (Mullins, 2005).
Herzberg (1968) describes two incident set of factors that influence a worker and a group
satisfaction and performance. His motivation-maintenance theory holds that worker or group
job satisfaction calls for motivational factor and that maintenance factor results in
dissatisfaction. He further stressed that some factors tend to motivate workers and influence
productivity, others merely maintain existing level of productivity, although if those
maintenance factors are not favourable, they will constrain productivity. Understanding the
effect of those factors will aid managers in motivating individual workers and in making the
goals values of workers group more compatible with these of the firm.
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory is a generic theory of motivation and cannot be linked to a single writer.
There have been different versions of which some are complex. Recent approaches to
expectancy theory have been associated with work of vrooms, Porter and Lawler (Mullins,
2005). The expectancy theory of Vrooms (1973) are regarded as the most useful approach to
analysing the three most important variables; the individual, the job, and the work
environment, that affect motivational scheme in particular, in the use of incentive and in
construction project. This theory also centred on the idea that people prefer certain outcome
from their behaviour over others (Mullins, 2005). He proposed that individual will be
motivated to achieve a desired goal as long as they expect that their action will achieve the
goal (Bloisi, 2003). The key elements to this theory are referred to as Expectancy E,
Instrumentality I, and Valence V.
Expectancy:- This refers to the strength of a person's belief about whether or not a particular
job performance is attainable assuming that all things are equal; an employee will be
motivated to try a task, if he or she believes that it can be done.
Instrumentality: If an employee believes that a high level of performance will instrument the
acquisition of outcomes which may be gratifying, therefore management that wishes to ensure
high level of performance must be able to tie desired outcomes (positive valence) to high
employee value based on performance. Vrooms (1964) defines instrumentality as the
probability belief linking one outcome of a high-level performance, to another out a reward.
Instrumentality may range from the probability of (0 – 1) performance, and ensure that the
connection is communicated to employee.
Valence:- The term valence refers to the emotional orientation people hold with respect to
outcomes (reward). An outcome is positively valence if an employee would prefer it to not
having it. An outcome that the employee would rather avoid (fatigue, stress, noise, layoff.)
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 71
is negative valence. Outcome towards which the employee appears indifferent are said to
have zero valence. Valence refers to the level of satisfaction people expect to get from the
outcomes as opposed to the actual satisfaction they get once they have attained the reward.
Vrooms (1964) suggested that employees' expectancy, instrumentality and valence interact
physiologically create a motivation force that makes employee act in ways that brings pleasure
and avoid pains.
M = ((E → P) (P → O) V)
Where (E → P) = the workers effort performance expectancy
probability value
from 0 to 1 to achieve the expected outcome
(P → O) = the performance expectancy probability value from 0 to
1
achieve extend outcome
V = represent the valence of the expected outcome to the
individuals.
METHODOLOGY
To obtain the data required for the study questionnaires were distributed to 64 construction
firms across four states of North-Eastern Nigeria among various craftsmen (masons
carpenters, plumbers, electrician, and iron benders) under various subjects such as
demographic features of the firms. A multistage sampling technique was used to obtain the
sample size; a total of 130 craftsmen were obtained using.
𝑛 = 𝑁𝑝𝑎
(𝑁 − 1)𝐵2
4 + 𝑝𝑞
Source: Siegel and Castellan
Out of the 130 questionnaires distributed a total of 109 were returned which signifies that
84% of the questionnaire were tested using SPSS for validity and reliability which have 0.87
value which is reliable. Adequacy of presently adopted motivation factors was also tested, a
value of 1.34 grand weighted average value (GWA) was obtained which shows that most
present adopted motivational factor for craftsmen in construction site are inadequate.
Furthermore, frequency value was tested, the result shows that effective supervision rank
first and job security least with frequency mean value of 4.47 and 3.25 respectively.
Discussion
A total of one hundred and thirty copies of questionnaires were shared among the various
cadres of construction craftsmen in four state of North-Eastern Nigeria (Adamawa, Bauchi,
Gombe, Taraba) and the total of one hundred and nine (109) were returned which represent
84% of total administered questionnaire while the rest 21 accounted for 16% were not
returned. Table 1 shows the distribution of respondent by cadre, the table reveals that 23%
of total sampled craftsmen were Mason, 25% of the sampled craftsmen were Plumbers, 20%
of the sampled craftsmen across the construction firms were Electrician, and also, 18% of
the sampled respondents were Carpenters, while the rest 14% of all the sampled craftsmen
from construction firms were Iron benders. Thus, this indicates that all the sampled cadres
of craftsmen were taken approximately even. Table 2: working experience the result reveals
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 72
that 35% of total the respondents were those that spent less than five years in their respective
places of work, 22% were those that spent between 6 to 10 years in their respective
construction firms, 40% of total sampled craftsmen indicated spent between 11 to 15 years
in their respective construction firms, while the remaining 3% of respondents were those
indicated spending more than 15 years in their respective construction firms. The table also
revealed average of 11 years as average years in service for the respondents. This shows that
many craftsmen have working experience in their field of specialization and therefore,
signifies that their experiences will contribution in this research and will have great effects.
Table 3: the result reveals the overall Weighted Average value 1.34 which is less than 1.5
therefore, indicating the conclusive inadequacy of most present adopted motivational factors
for the craftsmen in various construction firms of North Eastern Nigeria.
These findings thus established the need for the construction firms to have in-depth look into
how to motivate their employee intrinsically without necessarily exhausting company revenue
on motivating workers. Table: 4 presents the motivational factors that will work well for
construction craftsmen in their other of ranking, thus, effective supervision was rated best
and therefore ranked first with 4.47% relative mean value. Supervisors should be
knowledgeable in the field assign to them and be involving in problem solving by doing so
the subordinate will have confidence in them and hence be motivated to carryout supervisor's
instruction. Alawi (2003) conducted a research on factors influencing construction
productivity in the Indonesian, the result shown the importance of supervisor and good
leadership. He then concluded that leadership/good management is the most motivational
factor that encourages positive motivation behaviour among workers. Training of workers
was is ranked second among other factors of relative frequency index, with h 4.3% relative
mean value. Training can be employed by the manger as an investment in their people at any
time due to the present increase in technological pace/trend both structural and social.
Fagbenle (2009) rank Training and development second for the identified non-monetary
incentive scheme for craftsmen. These justify the current survey conducted. Overtime is rank
third for relative frequency index, with 4.09% relative mean value Overtime is used to
compensate for low wages, this help the worker to progress faster and was happy to earn
extra pay. Overtime also contribute to the feeling that supervisors were concern about low
income being earned by workers. Craftsmen appear to be in love with overtime continually
looking for the ways to boost their pay. The younger the craftsmen the more overtime they
seek. Teamwork was rank forth elative frequency index, 4.06% relative mean value.
Smithers and Walker (2004) posit that cohesiveness among the team members is important to
achieve the project outcomes (in terms of team performance). From the motivation stand
point the team members preference for the presence of team spirit in their work environment
may be traced back to need for affiliation (McGregor,1960). Love and belonging This is rank
fifth in the relative frequency index 3.95% relative mean value Maslow (1943) in his research
arranges the need in hierarchical order and place love as third factor. The unsatisfied need at
any time is the one considered to be the most important. Rewarding appreciation got 6th rank,
this might be best explained in connection with teamwork, a firm that recognized good
teamwork needed to reward their effort to serve as model for other groups. good working
relationship between management and lower cadre ranked 7th, the rest like effective
communication, salary increase, proper job placement, rework due construction error and
job security were rated 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th respectively.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 73
Conclusion
Current motivations being used by various construction companies in North-Eastern Nigeria
are inadequate to motivate the craftsmen in the industry. Factors that motivate one groups
could not work well with another group. Firm's wishes to motivate its workforce may do so,
there is chance of getting them motivated without spending companies last kobo (penny) on
motivation as this study suggests long list of non-monetary motivational factors that will work
well for almost all construction firms. Generally, factors been identified by this study are
categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic and if carefully adopted by construction managers will
go a long way in encouraging many unemployed youths to join the craftwork in North-Eastern
Nigeria.
Recommendations
a. Construction managers should reconsider the outdated motivational pattern utilized to
maintained performance in organization and adopts fresh motivation methods suited 21st
century.
b. There is need for construction managers to invest a lot of incentive to the craftsmen as
they constitute the larger portion of the industry, this incentive may not necessarily be
monetary as numbers of non-monetary factors has been identified as factors that can
motivate craftsmen and make them put their best while at work.
c. Construction managers should adopt the identified motivational factors in this study.
REFERENCES
Ademoroti, K.O (1994). Technological Participation of Woman in the Construction Industry.
Builders magazine.pp1-2.
Adjei, E. A. (2009). Motivational Strategies to Improve Productivity in the construction
Industry in Ghana. An unpublished M.Sc Thesis of Kwame Nkruma University of science
and Technology Kumasi Ghana.
Alawi, S. (2003). Factors Influencing Construction Productivity in the Indonesian Context.
proceeding in Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies. 1557-1571.
Bloisi, W. E. (2003). Management and Organisational Behaviour. New York: McGahill.
Fagbenle, O.I. (2009). The effect of non-monetary incentives on the performance of
construction craftsmen in Nigeria, proceedings RICS COBRA Research Conference,
University of Cape Town, 10-11th September 2009 pp 737-753.
Harris, F. & McCaffery, R. (2005). Modern Construction Management, Accra: Blackwell
publishing.
Herzberg F. (1968). The Motivation to Work, New York:
Malami, A. (2006). An Appraisal of declining productivity on lack of motivation by site
management, An Unpublished research Project, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University
Bauchi.
Maslow, A.H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50: 370-96
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 74
McGregor, D. (1960). Human Side of Enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill
Mullins, L. J. (2005), Management and Organisational Behaviour. Great Britain; Prentice
Hall Publishing.
National Planning Commission, NPC, (2011). The Nigeria Economy: Annual Performance
Report. The Presidency, National Commission Report Abuja. Pp 25-26.
Smithers, G, L. & Walker, D.H.T. (2000), The effect of the workplace motivation and
demotivation of construction professionals, journal of construction management and
economics, 18(1), 833-841.
Vrooms, V. H. (1964). Mock and Motivation. New York: John Willey.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 75
DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF A SAND CHOCKING MACHINE
By
Williams A. H. & Mbudai. D.Y.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ABSTRACT
The sand chocking machine was designed to meet the growing green effect need in the housing
sector of the economy. Building with sand filled bottles seem to be the vogue all over the
world most especially Africa. This is cost effective and very durable. It's major challenge,
however, is the fatigue associated with filling and chocking the bottles with sand manually
hence; the need of the design of the machine. Sand filling and chocking is undertaken at the
same time to get a good filling which is the target of the machine designed. The machine
when tested was found to fill a 75ml polyethylene telephthalate (PET) bottle whose diameter
is found to be 85mm at a feed height of 304mm in an average time of one (1) minute. This is
a very good result compared to the average hand chocking method employed by the American
University of Nigeria which is 2.42 minutes and increases to about 6 minutes with increase
in number of bottles to be filled per day. Its efficiency was calculated to be 63%.
Keywords: Efficiency, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottle, Waste, Recycling.
INTRODUCTION
Waste can be referred to as any material used and discarded as unwanted or worthless.
Dishon (2014). Many of such materials abound and litter everywhere in Nigeria most
especially in Adamawa. Examples of this waste include water bottles, wine bottle, and plastic
bags. While some waste decomposes and does not constitute an aesthetic problem to the
environment nor any health hazards, other wastes including plastic bags, plastic bottles, table
water bottles, sachet water bags, alcohol bottles etc. are not biodegradable and do not
decompose there by constituting health hazards and pollute the environment. Stodgi (2013).
Waste bottles can be used to construction a building, although it is difficult to think of a
bottle as a brick. But a mud-filled bottle has been thought to be as strong as a brick and
whatever you can do with a brick, you can do with a bottle too. Verma, et al (2014).
The advantages of sand-filled bottle as a building material includes the following, Low
cost (It can be picked free from trash cans and any eatery), Non-Brittle (Unlike bricks),
Absorbs abrupt shock loads (Since they are not brittle, they can take up heavy loads without
failure), Bio-climatic, Re-usable, Less construction material, Easy to build and Green
Construction Vijayasalini (2015).
Importance of Machines
Machines of various sizes and complexities are made up of assembly of units that helps
you do work, it may help you by changing the amount of force and speed of action from
small machines like hammer, screw, lever, to complex machines like motor vehicles, aircrafts
etc. Nelkon et al (1974). The sand chocking machine is a machine to be used for proper sand
filling of bottles. It will help choke the sand in the bottle without leaving a space for the
plastic bottle to deform later when under applied pressure (load). The machine is designed in
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 76
such a way that it would sand fill and at the same time chock the sand in the bottle properly.
It can accommodate different sizes of bottle by design.
Waste and waste recycling
Waste can refer to any material used and discarded as unwanted or worthless. Many of
such materials abound and litter everywhere in Nigeria most especially in Adamawa.
Examples of this waste include water bottles, wine bottle, and plastic bags.
The PET plastic (polyethylene telephthalate) that most plastic beverage bottles are made
of is a fairly useful material. It is resilient, flexible, transparent and shock resistant. As such,
there are probably countless applications for these bottles that will give them recycling value.
Ahmed Ullah et al (2013). These PET plastic bottles can be recycled due to its properties
stated above.
Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste
materials such as empty PET plastic bottles and other beverage containers. Collins (2003).
Definition of terms used
The following terminologies are defined in order to understand the machine design and
operationality.
Machine:- A machine is an apparatus for applying mechanical power and it consist of a
number of inter-related parts. Each having a definite function.
Component:- A component is an elementary part of the machine made as one block.
Unit:- A unit is a detectable or permanent group of components.
Assembly:- An assembly is a combination of units and components performing the same
function.
Waste. Waste is an unusable or unwanted substance or material, such as a waste product.
PET (plastic) bottle:- Polyethylene telephthalate are plastic bottles used by most beverage
companies resilient, flexible, transparent and food safe. It can be recycled due to these
properties.
Waste management:- Is the method or process for recovering waste products as inputs or
resources.
Recycle:-Is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste
materials such as empty PET plastic bottles and other beverage containers.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Materials
A machine under design should satisfy various requirements, output capacity and operating
velocity, cost (initial and operational) efficiency, weight and expected (guaranteed) life,
Asonja. (2006). The overall dimensions and transportability, uniformity of rotation, noiseless
operation, and simplicity to control, are a few important factors. Hanna J.R(1998). Individual
components should therefore have adequate strength and rigidity and effectively resist
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 77
corrosion. The use of common and cheap materials for their manufacture is also essential.
These main criteria form an integral part of the process of designing machine and is usually
carried out in the following sequence outlined below as recommended by Mallaradhya et al,
(2013).
(i) A design scheme is worked out, in which design of the component and in conjunction with
other components are greatly simplified and the forces applied to it are assumed to be
either concentrated or distributed in conformity to the given or arbitrary regulations.
(ii) The magnitude of load acting upon the components is determined. During operation,
machine elements are subjected to action of varying loads. The nature of variation of these
loads may depend on number of systematic and occasional factors. Thus, for machines
which perform definite technological functions in the production process the nature of load
variation for one production cycle remains clearly constant. In other cases, for example
automobile vehicles, the nature of force variation depends on the number of uncertain
factors. It is therefore, an important task to determine and assign the load which will act
on the machine component.
(iii) Material is selected on the basis of its physical and mechanical properties of matter,
including machinability, taking into account the economic factors of cost, accessibility etc.
(iv) Some of the most characteristic dimension of the components are determined by
calculations according to those criteria of operating capacity which are most important in
the given case and these dimensions are co-ordinated with the standard in force. As a rule,
these calculations are preliminary since they are based on the simplified schemes which
do not allow the precise evaluation of the actual operating capacity of the component.
(v) The general sketch of the assembly is drawn followed by a detailed elaboration and
indication on the working drawing of all the dimensions tolerances, classes of finish,
special production requirements (heat treatments, coating, kinds of services. etc.
(vi) Calculations are then done using the main criteria.
METHODOLOGY
The machine, in order to carry out its function, uses the connecting rod and crank shaft
mechanism. This allows for the up and down movement of the pin for chocking. Olufodun
(1994). The machine was designed through vigorous calculations and drawings necessary for
the assembly.
It is driven by an electric motor which gives it speed and uniformity in movement. It is also
responsible for vibration on the bottle stand which helps in the chocking. It has a sand
reservoir where the sand is filled before operating the machine and a manual lever responsible
for engaging and disengaging the bottle.
The frames are made from steel to enable it hold firm and for durability.
The electric motor was bought as a unit and mounted to help with the reciprocating movement
of the chocking pin via the crankshaft rotation. Without the electric motor, the machine will
have to be manually operated which will still demand labour effort and hence a defeat of one
of the objectives of the project. So, the electric motor is a major component part of the
machine.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 78
Four numbers of bearings were use in the construction for smooth rotation of component
parts. It serves as the lead drive for the pulley system and belt drive.
When selecting materials for the components of a machine, we proceed from the following
main assumptions.
(I) From a production point of view, the material should require as little labour as possible
for the manufacture of the component.
(ii) From an operational point of view, the material should assure the proper functioning
of the elements in the unit.
(iii) From an economic point of view, the materials should favourably affect the production
cost of the component which decides the cost of the material itself and all other production
expenses.
Design considerations and calculations
i. Since it is a single cylinder two stroke crankshaft used, the chocking piston stroke is
only up and down.
ii. The sand chamber outlet should permit quick escape of sand through the nozzle into
the bottle.
iii. The amplitude, r, of the piston motion is the maximum distance on either side of the
centre of motion.
iv. The construction materials must be locally and easily available.
v. To determine the machine speed,
F = P x N
Where, F = frequency of rotation in Hertz
P = number of pairs of poles in the electric motor
N = number of revolutions per second
Therefore, synchrous speed can be determined as,
𝑆 = 𝐹 ×60
𝑃
From measurement taken by the tachometer, required speed is about 250.21rpm.
Hence,
250.21 = 𝐹 ×60
2
𝐹 = 250.21 × 2
60
F = 8.3Hz
The machine was tested using three different bottle sizes and timed to determine the average
speed of the machine. This is to compare with the conventional hand filling and chocking to
find out which is better, faster, convenient and more reliable. The results are therefore
reflected in the tables below.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 79
Assembling of Machine
The assembling of the machine involves joining together the different units bought or
fabricated. This involves welding processes on some units while for others; it is just to tie
with bolts and nuts or force fitted into other units to make a whole.
Evaluation and Testing of Machine
The machine was tested using three different bottle sizes and timed to determine the average
speed of the machine. This is to compare with the conventional hand filling and chocking to
find out which is better, faster, convenient and more reliable. The results are therefore
reflected in the tables below.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Performance evaluation of machine
Tables 1 and 2 indicates that the machine filling is more uniform, faster and consistent
than the hand filling and chocking. The little variations in timing for the machine chocking
is found to be as a result of the sand particle sizes coming out at the time of filling. The
obvious variations in hand chocking timing shows a pattern of retrogression as the number
of bottles increase signifying fatigue on the worker.
Table 1: Time taken to fill and check sampled bottles
S/No Types of bottle used Time taken
for test 1
Time taken
for test 2
Time taken
for test 3
Time taken
for test 4
1. 500 ml Faro juice
bottle
1.15 min 1.34 min 1.39 min 1.36 min
2. 50 cl Coke plastic
bottle
1.35 min 1.39 min 1.36 min 1.35 min
3. 50 cl Faro water bottle 1.31 min 1.30 min 1.32 min 1.32 min
Table 2: Hand filling and chocking result.
S/No Types of bottle used Time taken
for test 1
Time taken
for test 2
Time taken
for test 3
Time taken
for test 4
1. 500 ml Faro juice
bottle
1.78 min 2.51 min 3.39 min 3.76 min
2. 50 cl Coke plastic
bottle
2.34 min 2.31 min 3.10 min 3.35 min
3. 50 cl Faro water bottle 1.38 min 1.50 min 3.40 min 2.69 min
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 80
Cost analysis of machine
The cost implication for a model of the machine is here tabulated by component unit
description and market price as at the time of construction.
Description Number Material Price (N)
Electrode 26 450.00
Bolt and Nut 16 Mild steel 320.00
Paint Chemical 500.00
Brush 1 80.00
Motor bike type connecting rod 1 Cast iron 750
Sharp piston 1 Cast iron 350.00
Angle iron 3 full length Mild steel 10, 800.00
Sheet metal 2 pieces of 4 x
4 sheets
Galvanized
metal sheet
16, 400.00
Electric Motor 1Hp 1 14, 000.00
Total 43, 650.00
The total cost of production of the machine is forty-three thousand six hundred and fifty naira
(N 43,650.00) which is cost effective and affordable.
Summary
From the result of the performance evaluation, the machine gives a better chocking than
hand chocking. It also is faster and saves a lot of man hour in terms of up to seven (7) hours
in daily operation considering the number of bottles successfully filled and properly chocked.
It conserves or saves energy that would have been expended manually.
It reduces labor cost as the work of six men is done in shorter time by the machine.
Conclusion
The machine gives a far better fill and chock than the conventional manual method.
From the results obtained in the tests, the machine can be said to have an efficiency of up to
63% compared to chocking manually. This means a reduction in time taken to do it manually.
REFERENCES
Ahmed Ullah, Abu Saeed, Al-mamun (2013) Application of PLCs in Bangladesh, Dhaka
international journal of scientific and engineering research.
Asonja. A (2006) The welding of unrested tube in food industry. Tractor and Power Machine,
vol 2, no 3; 106-110.
Dishon, Gina (2014) Dep Ed usec graces eco-brick launching in Apayo. www.ecotec-
africa.com
Hanna J.R(1998). Mechanics of machines, Heinemann educational books Ltd, Auckland.
189-201.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 81
Harper Collins (2003). Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © Harper
Collins Publishers 5th edition.
Mallaradhya H, Prakash K. (2013) Automatic liquid filling to bottles of different height.
India international journal of mechanical and production engineering.
Nelkon M and Parker, P. (1974). Advanced level physics, Heinemann educational books ltd,
London.231
Olufodun Tosin (1994). Petrol engines, Macmillan Press, Ibadan: 8-9
Stodgi, T. (2015) Eco-brick IT Santa fe. Retrieved. www.eco-brick.it.upecycle
Verma, Shruti Verma (2014) World environment day special: Eco-bricks
Vjayasalini, Baladhandabany, Gowtham (2015) International journal of computer science and
mobile computing, Vol 4 no 3: 5-7
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 82
600 x 430 mm
44 x 3 x 540 mm
44 x 3 x 501 mm
44 x 3 x 50mm
44 x 3 x 501 mm
44 x 3 x 540 mm
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 83
Key
1. Hopper
2. Sand gate
3. Electric motor
4. Disc
5. Connecting rod
6. Pivot
7. Chock pipe support
8. Electric motor base support
9. Chock pipe
10. Frame
11. Bottle
12. Bottle support
13. Adjuster
14. Base
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 84
EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND INTEGRATING POPULATION EDUCATION CONCEPTS IN
SECONDARY SCHOOLS THROUGH ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES
by
Bitrus Ishaya
Department of English Education
ABSTRACT
Population education is an educational process which provides for a study of the population
situation in the family, the community, the nation and the world with the purpose of
developing in the citizens a rationale and responsible attitude and behavior towards improving
the quality of life now and in the future. This paper intends to explicate the position of English
Language in the teaching of population education concepts. There is hardly any English study
(language and literature) where population education concept cannot be integrated. A lesson
plan has been drawn to practically demonstrate how the integration can be successfully done
in the classroom. The paper finally advises examination bodies in Nigeria to speed up the
process of institutionalizing population education in secondary schools by inculcating in the
curriculum population related contents in Secondary schools and setting tests and
examinations on population and census related matters.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching Population education is the ultimate multi-disciplinary tool to introduce students
of secondary school ages how the human race has grown and shaped the world around us. Its
ecology, geography, economics, history, civic education all rolled into one. It is a deliberate
effort being made by the school to educate and inform individuals on the concepts of
population matters. The purpose of population is to produce a change in attitude and values;
it help people behave more responsibly and rationally; to assist individuals and communities
to make better informed decisions, and ultimately, to achieve improved quality of life for all
through better management of national resources and population related problems. To achieve
these fits, there is need to inculcate into the school system a curriculum that will abreast the
students of secondary schools and familiarize them with concepts relating to census matters
before a practical case scenario.
Fundamentally, population education aims to gather, disseminate, and study population
information at the family, community, national and international levels for the promotion of
rational decision making and responsible attitudes in population behavior. In Nigeria, English
language is critical in teaching and learning in secondary schools. The role and functions of
English language are too numerous to mention, while some see it as an all-important
language, others domesticate it.
However, Maisamari and Garba (1996) hold that in Nigeria, English has come to represent
the language not only of instruction and social interaction in our institutions of learning, but
also the language of commerce, politics, governance and the law courts.
At the secondary school level, all subjects apart from Nigerian languages and French are
taught through English language and all attempts at playing down the roles and functions of
English language seems to be strengthening the position and status rather than reducing it. It
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 85
is for this reason that population education as an educational innovation is now being
introduced into the Nigerian educational system and English language made one of the carrier
subjects.
This paper therefore intends to ask questions on how successful the effective teaching and
learning of population education concepts can be effectively integrated through English
studies. Some prominent questions that may come to mind include:
i. How effectively can population education concepts be taught through English language
within the secondary schoolwithin the secondary school setting in Nigeria?
ii. What are the special efforts needed on the part of English and literature in propagating
population concepts?
iii. What are the things expected of a teacher of English in the classroom to be able to teach
population education concepts through English studies?
Purpose of Population
The purpose of population is to produce a change in attitude and values; it help people
behave more responsibly and rationally; to assist individuals and communities to make better
informed decisions, and ultimately, to achieve improved quality of life for all through better
management of national resources and population related problems. In a publication by
UNESCO titled “Population Education: A Contemporary Concern” (UNESCO, 1978:36),
some major general goals of population education were identified. In summary, these are
provided in any given programme plan of activities to enable learners acquire knowledge,
skills, attitudes, morals and values that will enable them to:
i. Understand and evaluate the prevailing population situation in their community and
country
ii. Explore and appreciate the dynamic forces that have helped to create the present
population situation and the likely future consequences of the trends.
iii. Make conscious and informed decisions based on their understanding and evaluation of
the population situation.
iv. To become aware of the relationship between the population issues and problems and
the socio-economic development of their communities and nation.
v. Respond in a rational and responsible manner to population related issues and problems.
The Contents of Population Education
Contemporary interest in population education derives from the concern of government to
improve the standard and quality of living of their citizens. Therefore, the content of
population education program tends to be wide and comprehensive. Its subject matter is
purposeful living and national development. It is an inter-disciplinary educational program
drawing material from a wide range of subjects. The inter-disciplinary nature of population
education has made scholars in the field to resist the temptation of projecting and presenting
it as a "subject" this is why they prefer to refer to it as "program" of education which used
the thematic approach to process knowledge, skills, attitude and values it want students to
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 86
acquire. It is a dynamic and practical program and the most popular strategy is to locate and
integrate identified themes and sub-themes in specific additional subjects in the existing school
curriculum. These selected subjects are referred to as "carrier subjects" because they serve
as vehicle for the transmission of population education concepts and messages.
In the views of Yisa (1985:13), population education is problem centered and value laden.
The teacher must involve the students in problems solving and decision-making exercises.
This can only come about when the learners are actively engaged in discovery and inquiry
processes and values clarification situations. The subject matter of population education
centers on events, situations and trends that affects the lives of individuals, their families,
communities and nations today and in the future. The theme therefore, focuses on quality of
life. In Nigeria, the teaching of population education is based on eighteen (18) themes
developed by the national population education committee under the program direction and
management of the Nigerian Education Research Development Council (NERDC) of the
federal ministry of education. Generally, the key population related issue or core messages
that are constantly addresses through researches, curriculum/instructional materials
developments, population awareness and teacher training all geared towards the enhancement
of the quality of life of the citizenry and they include:
1. Family size and family welfare
2. Delayed marriage
3. Responsible parenthood
4. Population change and resource development
5. Population issues
6. Sexually transmitted diseases/AIDS and
7. Primary Healthcare Concepts
Population Concepts and Messages
Ikegulu (1999:102) identified eighteen culturally relevant themes from which curriculum
content for primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education were developed but the
(National Population Education Curriculum for Junior and Senior Secondary Schools Vol.3,
pages 9-11) identified seventeen themes and concepts as relevant to the Nigerian situation
(However, 12 of the themes have been further classified into those that can fit into English
language. These themes are not exhaustive, but for the purpose of this paper, some population
concepts which may seem unfamiliar outside population related issues may be explicated
briefly, these include:
De-facto census: A population census in which people seen are enumerated according to
where they stayed or slept on the night preceding the day of enumerator's visit. The 2006
census was a de-facto census.
An Institutional Household: A household in which members do not have any recognize head
of household is seen as an institutional household. The members may live together in the
same building or compound and share common catering arrangement, an example are
students in hostels, prisoners who take their food from the same pot and live together in the
same yard.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 87
Homeless Household: Those referred to as homeless household do not have a fix dwelling at
the time of enumeration. The reason for being homeless could be destruction of the house by
natural disaster, demolition by authorities etc.
Homeless Persons: These are individuals who sleep in public places such as footpaths,
pavement of markets, shopping centers and motor parks.
Transient Persons: They are individuals who are on their way out of or coming into the
country at the time of enumeration and are not likely to be enumerated with their normal
households. They include transit passenger at seaports, airports and international motor
parks.
Enumeration: This is the process of interviewing all the members of a given population and
collecting socio-demographic and other information about each person.
Enumeration Area (E.A) Is an area carved out of a bigger locality with well- defined and
identifiable boundaries. It is an area that a team of enumerator is expected to cover during
the census.
Special Enumeration Area: This is an E.A that is made up exclusively of institutional
buildings and households
Post Enumeration Survey (P.E.S) This is a simple survey carried out on a fraction of the
population after a census had taken place to measure the quality of the full main census.
Census Questionnaire (Form NPC 01). The census questionnaire otherwise referred to as
Form NPC 01 is used to collect information on individuals and on characteristics of the
houses they live in by interviewing the members of each household in an EA(s).
Call-back Card (NPC 05). This is used when you want to make a return visit to a household
for enumerating one or two persons who were not available when you visited the household.
At your first visit you may find not fine some members at home. Obviously, you may not be
able to interview these absentee members of a household therefore a call back card has to be
dropped for an eventual return of the enumerator.
Census Data Summary Form: The total number of males and females are enumerated in each
household in the E.A. on the census data summary form NPC 06. This may enable the
publication of first provisional results shortly after the census ends.
House Numbering and Household-listing Forms (NPC 07 and NPC 07m)
It is done with respect to each locality in the Enumeration Area (E.A), the numbering must
be continuous to the last building in the E.A. As one systematically number and paste stickers,
the numbering is transferred to the building numbering and household listing forms (Form
NPC 07 ORIGINAL). The NPC 07 is completed in duplicate by copying the entries from the
NPC 07 ORIGINAL to the NPC 07 Duplicate and return the duplicate copy of NPC 07 to
the supervisor duly filled in and signed before commencement of the enumeration. In Form
NPC 07 buildings beyond foundation are indicated as uncompleted also, the characteristic of
building as appropriate, dilapidated, abandoned or empty structures are mentioned in NPC
07.
Apart from the concepts explained above, there is hardly any concept and message that is
hardly classified as belonging to other subject areas that English studies cannot cover since
all the concepts and messages have to be taught through English language. These concepts
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 88
and messages are what need to be emphasized in the process of teaching English language
and literature. Their full understanding will enhance their effective integration.
Integrating Population into Existing Courses
This approach explains that population education contents can be infused into the normal
teaching and learning processes in secondary school curriculum since it is by nature
interdisciplinary. To do this, it requires a pre-requisite understanding of the relationship
between population education contents and the content area of the subject as well as the choice
of appropriate entry points. It is sometimes advocated that teachers should be made aware of
population education contents and advised to introduce it where and when relevant into their
respective courses. However, whatever method is followed, the main problem of integration
approach is that of ensuring content sequence and structure.
Language Skills, Components and Teaching Methods
The skills that need to be emphasized when teaching and learning any language are
listening, speaking, reading and writing. In the process of learning these skills, components
of language teaching vis-a-vis essay writing, comprehension, summary writing with lexis and
structures are taught.
However, to be able to teach the four language skills, there is need for content or things
to teach such as words, sentences, paragraphs, passages plus prose, poetry and drama.
In teaching population concepts therefore, all six methods identified in NERD's teaching
methodologies in population education self -learning module 12 are relevant and applicable.
These methodologies are:
i. Enquiry approach
ii. Problem solving
iii. Values-clarification
iv. Discussion
v. Role-playing
vi. Dramatization
Nevertheless, some of them can be easily applied in the teaching of language and literature,
for example, dramatization, role-playing and discussion. These methods can be employed
while the use of other forms of audio-visual materials will help the teacher to be effective.
As these lessons progress, the concepts and messages are emphasized and discussed while
students are allowed to make their own decisions and there is also the need to create situations
where students keep finding out things for themselves.
Planning an English Lesson with Population Integrated Issues.
A lesson plan is very vital to any successful lesson. Therefore in this context, there is the
need to put together available materials that are needed such as textbooks for English language
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 89
and population education texts that can assist in integration process. Here is an example of a
prepared lesson.
LESSON PLAN
Class: SS I
Subject: English language
Topic: Comprehension
Sub-topic: Our population
Duration: Two periods (45 minutes each)
Objective: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to answer the comprehension
questions both orally and in written form.
Method of teaching: To adopt the discussion method of teaching
Previous knowledge: Students must have consciously or unconsciously heard about the
word population or census.
Teaching Aids: Copies of the passage
Charts with population data
Introduction: The teacher introduces the class and explains the topic.
Teacher activity: The teacher explains that population is an element, individual, or units
that meet the selection criteria for a group to be studied and from which a representative
sample is taken for detailed examination.
Students activities To listen attentively and ask questions where necessary.
Teacher activity The teacher reads and explain the technicalities involved in answering
comprehension questions
Student's activities They are asked to read the passage and answer the questions that
follow. Finally, the teacher mark their work.
Evaluation The teacher asks the following questions to ascertain whether or not the
lesson is understood.
i. Why do we need to know about our population?
ii. What is proper planning?
iii. Why do we need to know many things about the world we live in?
iv. Why does the government need information to build schools?
vi. What are the problems to encounter if there is no good planning for the future?
Conclusion
The need for population education in school curriculum is imperative especially now when
the nation's population growth is rising at an alarming rate. This follows that if Nigeria is
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 90
serious about her growing population, she should take valid population decisions, which
would lead to the development of educational program for children and youths whose
reproductive years are still ahead of them.This paper no doubt has put English language
studies in a prominent position in the teaching and learning of population related matters. It
has further identified that there is hardly any English language study components where
population education concepts and messages cannot be integrated.However, teaching
population concepts and messages through English language in secondary schools will not be
effective until all texts and examinations within the school system set questions on population
education. If texts are not drawn on grammatical structures, words and sentences with
population concepts, essay topics on population issues and summary passages with population
messages, students may not take population education serious. In a certificate conscious
environment like Nigeria therefore, the junior and senior secondary certificate examinations
must have to carry enough question items on population and census related issues. The facts
that these are terminal examinations will make students read more and understand more
population education concepts.
Recommendations
This paper hereby makes the following recommendations
i. In the teaching of population education, infusion approach should be adopted as this will
notrequire the hiring of new set of teachers and examiners.
ii. Series of related topicson population education are prepared as separate units to be added
to the existing units in thecourse of syllabus of the subjects selected as carriers of
population education.
iii. Regular seminars and workshops should be organized where teachers could be exposed to
the most effective methods for teaching population education.
iv. Government as a matter of urgency should encourage scholars in to write relevant
textbooks that young teachers can easily fall on when they are employed
REFERENCES
Brown, L., Gardner, G. and Halweilm, B. (1999) Beyond Malthus: Nineteen Dimensions of
the Population Challenge, W.W. Norton, New York.
Chapman, A., Morgan, R. Smith and Petersen, R. (eds) (1999) Consumption, Population,
and Sustainability: Perspectives from Science and Religion, Island Press, Washington DC.
Federal republic of Nigeria, (2006) Population and Housing Census: Enumerators Manual
Abuja, Nigeria
Garba, H.D. (2002) Challenges and Expectation of English Language in this Millennium.
PACEN Journal of Education Vol. 4, F.C.E. Pankshin, Plateau State.
Guzmán, J.M., Martine, G., McGranahan, G., Schensul, D. and Tacoli, C. (2009)
Population Dynamics and Climate Change, UFPA and IIED.
Ikegulu, B. O. (1999). Methods of Introducing and Teaching Population Education in
Nigeria: Themes and perspective. In S. O. Osagie& C. Nwugwu (Ed.). Benin Festac
Printing Press Ltd.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 91
Lutz, W., Sanderson, W.C. and Scherbov, S. (eds) (2004) The End of World Population
Growth in the 21st Century, Earthscan, London.
NERDC, (1988) Teaching Methodologies in Population Education. Self-Learning Module12
NERDC Press Lagos
NERDCP, (1987) Population Education in English for Senior Secondary Schools. NERDC
Press Lagos.
Osasinowo, W. (1988) Introduction to the Teaching of Population Education Concepts
through English. (paper presented at training of master trainers in Ilorin)
Udo, R. K. & Viederman, S. (1979). Population Education Source Book for Sub-Saharan
African. R. K. Udo et. al. (Ed.). Nairobi: Heinemann Educational Books.
UNESCO, (1979). Population Education: A Contemporary Concern. UNESCO.
Yisa, B. (1985). Introduction to Population Education. Lagos: NERIX.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 92
APPLICATION OF DELPHI TECHNIQUES, TO INVESTIGATE THE IMPACT OF BOKO HARAM
ACTIVITIES ON EDUCATIONAL SECTOR IN NORTH-EASTERN PART OF ADAMAWA STATE
OF NIGERIA.
By
Bakari Adamu Mauda
Department of Statistics
&
Bulama H. James
Computer Department
ABSTRACT
One of the principal goals of any nation is the security of lives and properties and peaceful
co-existence of her citizenry. Insurgency/terrorism has been a major factor militating against
the state of peace in communities, state(s) or nation(s) around the world. In some part of
Nigeria, many communities are being ravaged by terrorist group known as Boko Haram
(meaning: Western education is a sin). This study investigated the impact of Boko Haram
activities on educational sector, particularly in Adamawa State, being one of the North-
Eastern States of Nigeria seriously impaired. Furthermore, the study examines the destruction
of infrastructure, lost of students and fallen standard of education in the area under scrutiny.
36 questionnaire were given out each to the Seven (7) Local government Areas (Madagali,
Michika, Hong, Mubi North, Mubi South and Gombi) affected were selected, where (252)
staff participated by providing data through “Likert” scale of self-structured questionnaire
containing 19 items, which were further reduced to 14 items by Expert Researchers through
the application of “Delphi Techniques”. Chi-square analysis indicated that lives and
properties were lost and standard of education is grossly affected. Based on these findings it
is recommended that the authorities should rehabilitate the displaced persons and adequate
security should be put in place for their wards to fully resume their normal schools’ activities
without any trepidation.
Key words: Boko Haram, Insurgency, Terrorism Students, Education.
INTRODUCTION
Ethno-Religious, Socio-Political, inequitable resource allocation and poverty level have
incited extreme tension and ongoing violence in Nigeria. “Maitatsine” a religious sect, stroke
in Yola (the State capital of the then Gongola State), in 1983. Many lives and properties
worth millions of naira were destroyed. Subsequently, insurgent activities continued in some
parts of the country even after the Military regime that ended in 1999.
Ethno-religious upheaval erupted in 2008 on the Plateau (Jos–the state capital on Plateau
state), where lives and properties worth millions of naira were lost during this clash as well.
Socio-Political mayhem emanated in the Northern part of the country after the 2011 general
elections, and as a result, many properties were vandalized (International Crises Group –
2015 Report)
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 93
In recent times –2009 to be precise, but at its peak 2012 - Borno, Yobe and Adamawa States
in the North-Eastern part of Nigeria has become one of the most volatile areas where “Boko-
Haram” – a religious militia – ravaged many towns and villages through their nefarious
activities. Many lives were lost and properties worth Millions of naira got destroyed through
the activities of these terrorists. “Boko-Haram” is the deadliest terrorist group ever
experienced in the country. At present, many people abducted are still under their (Boko-
Haram) custody, including over 200 Chibok school girls. Efforts are being employed to
salvage the abductees and to destroy them (the terrorists) through a special task force set-up
by the Federal Government of Nigeria and military troupes from neighbouring countries of
Niger, Chad and Cameroon; the task-force is gaining grounds, though the fight is still 0n-
going.
While the fight against Boko-Haram is on-going, attacks on famers by “Fulani Headsmen”
in Benue, Taraba, Adamawa State, and some parts of the Country is another recent show of
crises. – Just to feed their cattle by all means; this calls for a serious concern. The focus here
is the student and the standard of education in relation to the Boko-Haram crises.
The Delphi method is a structured communication technique, originally developed as a
systematic, interactive forecasting method which relies on a panel of experts. (Harold
Linstone, Murray Turoff (1975)). In the standard version, the experts answer questionnaires
in two or more rounds. After each round, a facilitator provides an anonymous summary of
the experts' forecasts from the previous round as well as the reasons they provided for their
judgments. Thus, experts are encouraged to revise their earlier answers in light of the replies
of other members of their panel Green, Armstrong, and Graefe (2007). It is believed that
during this process the range of the answers will decrease and the group will converge
towards the "correct" answer. Finally, the process is stopped after a pre-defined stop criterion
(e.g. number of rounds, achievement of consensus, and stability of results) and the mean or
median scores of the final rounds determine the results. (Rowe and Wright (1999)). (Murray
Turoff (1970) urged that other versions, such as the Policy Delphi have been designed for
normative and explorative use, particularly in the area of social policy and public health.
Michael Adler, ErioZiglio (eds.) (1996) said that in Europe, more recent web-based
experiments have used the Delphi method as a communication technique for interactive
decision-making and e-democracy (Maurizio Bolognini (2001)
Statement of the Problem
Adamawa State is one of the states that experience frequent insurgency attacks in the
Northern-Eastern part of the Nigeria. As a result, many lives and properties were lost.
Students are one of the major victims of Boko Haram attacks. Many of them were either
killed in their schools, abducted, died in the jungle trying to flee or missed. Some schools
were burnt completely others had to closed as a result of attack or threat letters from the sect.
Aim and Objectives of the Study
1. The major aim is to ascertain the effects of insurgency on educational sector in the area
under scrutiny.
The objectives are to assess:
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 94
1. If schools were close down.
2. If students were killed, abducted or missed.
3. The educational standard presently.
Research Questions: In light of the importance of matters arising, it is essential to answer the
following research questions:
i. Were schools closed as a result of insecurity?
ii. Were students kidnapped or killed at school?
iii. Does insecurity affect student's performance?
Hypothesis
H0 1=during the insurgency period lives and properties were lost.
H0 2=Insurgency affect student's standard of education
H0 3=Government can help those students affected by insurgency to continue their education
METHODOLOGY
Design
This research is a descriptive research of the survey type. Questionnaire was used to
ascertain the effects of insurgency on educational sector in the area under scrutiny. Likert –
type scale was used to indicate the intensity of agreement and disagreement towards indecision
about a statement. The numbers 4,3,2,1 were chosen to make it easier for the respondent to
make choice in completing the questionnaire. Thus,
4 represents SA----Strongly Agreed,
3 ,, ,, A----Agree,
2 ,, ,, D---Disagree,
1 ,, ,, SD---Strongly Disagree
Population and Sampling Technique
The population for this study consisted of all the Local Government in Adamawa State
that suffered most from the attack by Boko Haram. The seven Local governments are,
Madagali, Michika, Hong, Mubi-North, Mubi-South, Maiha and Gombi. However, 36
questionnaires were distributed to each local government making a total of 252 people.
Data Collection
Research assistants were engaged by the researchers to administer the questionnaires in
the seven local governments under consideration, to obtain the primary data.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 95
Data Analysis
This study is descriptive research designed to investigates, the role of Delphi technique in
dealing with crises. The collected data were coded and the statistics used for analysis are, the
mean, standard deviation and chi-square.
Research question 1 During Boko Haram attack were lives and properties lost in your area?
TABLE 1 below: shows the Means and Standard Deviation of the respondents on the research
question 1
S/No Items x s.d Remark
1. Schools in our area were closed 3.82 0.39 Agree
2. Some of our students lost their lives or kidnapped 3.31 0.61 Agree
3. Some schools were burnt down or destroyed by
Boko Haram members in our area
3.78 0.54 Agree
4. We lost almost all of our belongings 2.99 0.77 Agree
5. Many children lost their parents 2.98 0.83 Agree
6. Most students are still feeling the shock of
insurgency up to date
3.52 0.88 Agree
In table 1 above, it is indicative that all the respondents agreed to items (1,2….6) with Mean
(x)
ranging from 2.98 to 3.82. This suffices that lives and properties were lost during Boko
Haram
attack.
S/No Items x s.d Remark
7. Some matured IDP’s school girls got pregnant during
and after the insurgency period
3.08 0.68 Agree
8. Some students got job doing to earn a living and left
school
3.25 0.62 Agree
9. Most parents can’t sponsor their children to school now
due to poverty.
3.79 0.41 Agree
10. Most IDP students don’t pay much attention to school
now as compared to period before the insurgency
(Boko Haram)
2.87 0.97 Agree
11. IDP’s schools were not getting attention from
government
2.98 0.83 Agree
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 96
From table 2 above, the results show that all the respondents concurred with items 7 to 9
with Mean ranging from 2.77 to 3.79. Which is enough to say that the upheaval by the
terrorists did grossly affected the pupil's standard of education in areas under study.
Research question 3: Can government help the students in those areas attacked by insurgency
to continue their education?
Possible ways to alleviate the suffering of IDP schools and those re-captured areas.
Table 3: Means and standard deviation of response on research question 3 above.
S/No Items x s.d Remark
12. Government should secure the safety of all lives and
properties of peoples that went back to retake areas from
Boko Haram
3.96 0.21 Agree
13. Free education should be given to all IDP’s where ever
they are
3.82 0.39 Agree
14. Food items and certain basic essential materials should be
made available to them free
3.70 0.46 Agree
15. Shelter and health facilities should be given to all IDP’s
students monthly or quarterly to encourage them and to
take care of some of their basic needs
3.92 0.28 Agree
16. Certain amount of money should be given to all IDP’s
students monthly or quarterly to encourage them and to
take care of some of their needs.
3.25 0.73 Agree
17. Some re-creational facilities should be made available to
all IDP camps to make them feel not neglected.
3.33 0.46 Agree
18. Girls that got pregnant should be encouraged to continue
with their schools
3.30 0.75 Agree
19. Schools and houses destroyed by Boko Haram should be
re-build immediately after government retakes the towns
or villages
3.87 0.34 agree
Table3 above shows passionate appeal by the respondents to the government to as a matter
of urgency protect the future of the students by recreating enabling and conducive learning
environment for the IDP's and the captured alike so as to resume school. This is clear from
the mean results (3.96 -3.25).
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 97
Expert Researchers
Team of expert researchers were employed to carryout series of consultations on the initial
19 itemed “Likert" scale self-structured questionnaire; after a number of iterations' 14 items
were considered most appropriate, as shown below.
Research question 1: During the Boko Haram attack were lives and properties lost?
TABLE 4: Shows the means and standard deviation of response to research question 1.
S/No Items x s.d Remark
1. Some of the students lost their lives, kidnapped or in IDP
camps
3.31 0.61 Agree
2. Some schools were burnt or destroyed by Boko Haram in
our area many children lost their parents
3.78 0.54 Agree
3. Most students are still feeling the shock of insurgency up to
date
3.52 0.88 Agree
4.
From table 4 above, The mean obtained on the research question; “were lives and properties
lost during the invasion” indicated that items 1,2,3 and 4 were agreed upon by the respondents
with mean ranging from 2.98 - 3.78.
Research question 2: Did insurgency affect student's education?
Table 5: Mean and standard deviation of the people's response on aftermath of Boko Haram
activities.
S/No Items x s.d Remark
5. Some matured IDP’s school girls got pregnant during and
after the insurgency period
3.08 0.68 Agree
6. Some students got jobs doing to earn a living and left school 3.25 0.62 Agree
7. Most IDP students don’t pay much attention to school now
as compared to period before the insurgency (Boko Haram)
2.87 0.97 Agree
8. IDP’s schools were not getting attention from government 2.77 0.98 Agree
From table 5, the mean score obtained on the research question Aftermath of Boko Haram
activities clearly indicates that items 5, 6,7 and 8 were agreed upon by the respondents with
mean score ranges between 2.77 to 3.25.
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Research question 3: Can government help those students affected by the activities of Boko
Haram continue with their education?
Table 6: Means and standard deviation of response on research question 3 above.
S/No Items x s.d Remark
9. Government should secure the safety of all lives and
properties of people that went back to retake areas from
Boko Haram
3.96 0.21 Agree
10. Free education should be given to all IDP’s where ever they
are
3.82 0.39 Agree
11. Food items and certain basic essential materials should be
made available to them free.
3.70 0.46 Agree
12. Certain amount of money should be given to all IDP’s
students monthly or quarterly to encourage them and to take
care of some of their basic needs
3.25 0.73 Agree
13. Some re-creational facilities should be made available to all
IDP camps to make them feel not neglected.
3.33 0.46 Agree
14. Schools and houses destroyed by Boko Haram should be re-
build immediately after government retakes the towns or
villages
3.87 0.34 Agree
From table 6, the respondents agreed with items 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 with mean range
of 3.25 - 3.96, as the possible ways to alleviate the suffering of IDP schools and those in re-
captured areas by the government.
Discussion of Findings
From all the three tables of the data analysis based on the respondent's level of agreement
and disagreement as related to the stated research questions of this study.
Research question 1: Reveals that the four items on the table 4; were lives and properties lost
were as a result of insurgency; indicates that the respondents are in agreement with all the
statements raised.
Research question 2: Reveals that the 4 items on the table 5; did insurgency affect student's
education – showed that all the respondents agreed with all the assertions moved.
Research question 3: Reveals that the six items on the table 6 - can government help those
students affected by insurgency to continue with their education - clearly showed acceptance
by all the respondents to all the statements raised.
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Testing of Hypothesis
Hypothesis testing is one of the statistical methods used to assess the level of acceptance or
rejection of the various hypothetical statements. Here, alpha (α) at 5% level of significant
was considered.
From Table 4, 5 and 6, the Chi-Square results obtained are:
S/No Items Chi-square
tabulated values
Chi-square
calculated values
Decision rule
1. Hypothesis 1 𝑥0.95(9)2 = 16.919 164.715 Reject H0 and accept
H1
2. Hypothesis 2 𝑥0.95(9)2 = 16.919 146.399 Reject H0 and accept
H1
3. Hypothesis 3 𝑥0.95(15)2
= 18.307
366.178 Reject H0 and accept
H1
Hypothesis I
Chi- square calculated of 164.715 was higher than that of a tabulated value. Therefore, Ho
was rejected at 5% significant level and concluded that lives and properties were lost due to
attack by Boko Haram.
Hypothesis 2
Chi- square calculated of 146.399 was higher than that of a tabulated value. Therefore, Ho
was rejected at 5% significant level and concluded that insurgency did affect the student's
standard of education.
Hypothesis 3
Chi- square calculated of 366.178 was higher than that of a tabulated value. Therefore, Ho
was rejected at 5% significant level and concluded government can play a greater role in
educating the students that were affected by insurgency.
Conclusion
The research has indicated that almost all the items raised by the researcher were agreed
upon by the respondents. 100% of the respondents highly concurred with all the items on the
questionnaire, as their rates were rated above mean. This indicates that lives and properties
of people in the affected areas were lost. Many students and their parents lost their lives and
are rendered homeless, helpless and pathetic.
This study also reveals that Boko Haram attack in the area in question has affected the
standard of education.
1. Analysis of the data obtained has made the researcher to draw the following conclusions:
2. Some of the students lost their lives, kidnapped or in the IDP camps.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 100
3. Some schools were burnt down or destroyed by Boko Haram members.
4. Many school children lost their parents
5. Some matured wandered school girls got pregnant during this mayhem.
6. Some students had to sort for menial jobs as an alternative to live – school not a priority.
7. Students in IDPs are in contest between what to eat and attending classes; which is
obvious that, paying attention to school now, and when compared to period before the
insurgency (Boko Haram) can never be the same; lowers standard of education.
Recommendations
The researchers hereby proffer the following recommendations:
1. Stipend/scholarship be given to the affected students periodically to encourage them
and to take care of some of their basic needs.
Some re-creational facilities should be made available in all IDP camps to make them
feel not neglected.
2. Schools, houses and other institutions destroyed by Boko Haram be re-constructed
immediately in the recaptured towns and villages so that the IDP camps be
decongested.
Government should secure the safety of all lives and properties of the returnees.
3. Students in these areas should undergo psychological therapy as possibility of trauma
cannot be ruled out.
REFERENCES
Green, Armstrong, and Graefe (2007): Methods to Elicit Forecasts from Groups: Delphi and
Prediction Markets Compared. Forthcoming in Foresight: The International Journal of
Applied Forecasting (Fall 2007). PDF format
Harold A. Linstone, Murray Turoff (1975), The Delphi Method: Techniques and
Applications, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-04294-8
Hiltz, S.R., Turoff M. (1978), The Network Nation: Human Communication via Computer,
Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-262-08219-8 Maurizio Bolognini (2001) (in Italian),
Democraziaelettronica. Metodo Delphi e politiche pubbliche (Electronic Democracy.
Delphi Method and Public Policy-Making), Rome: CarocciEditore, ISBN 88-430-2035-8.
An example of e-democracy application is DEMOS (Delphi Mediation Online System),
whose prototype was presented at the 3rd Worldwide Forum on Electronic Democracy, in
2002.
Michael Adler, ErioZiglio (eds.) (1996), Gazing Into the Oracle: The Delphi Method and Its
Application to Social Policy and Public Health, London: Kingsley Publishers.
Murray Turoff (1970), "The Design of a Policy Delphi", Technological Forecasting and
Social Change 2, 2.
Rowe and Wright (1999): The Delphi technique as a forecasting tool: issues and analysis.
International Journal of Forecasting, Volume 15, Issue 4, October 1999.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 101
Rowe and Wright (2001): Expert Opinions in Forecasting. Role of the Delphi Technique. In:
Armstrong (Ed.): Principles of Forecasting: A Handbook of Researchers and
Practitioners, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
WWW. Responsibilitytoprotect.org/index.php/crises/crisis-in-Nigeria. Retrieved February,
2016.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 102
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) EDUCATION AND TVET IN
TERTIARY INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA
By
Daniel Peter & Bulama H. James
Department of Computer Science
ABSTRACT
Information and Communication Technology Education in Nigeria has gradually become a
necessity in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). In order to achieve
the desired educational goals, ICT Education has to be incorporated as an essential
ingredient of teaching and learning technical skills. Internet as a component of ICT is strongly
used even in developed countries to enhance teaching and learning of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET). This paper attempted to show the relevance of
ICT Education in teaching and learning Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET). It also seeks to address the benefits of ICT education in every aspect of learning in
tertiary schools in Nigeria. The paper also highlighted the challenges facing ICT Education
and TVET in Nigeria and the need for maintenance and upgrade of the laboratories.
Keywords: ICT, TVET
INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for education has become a necessity in
Nigerian's education sector. In fact, it can be said that without functional ICT education and
the facilities in our schools, such schools might not be able to effectively achieve the desired
educational goals. Internet, as a component of ICT is strongly used even in the most
developed nations to facilitate teaching and learning especially in technical and vocational
training. Idowu et al (2004) argues that “the internet is, and will continue to play an important
role in transforming higher education”. However, it is sad to note that the implementation
and development of ICT in education has been basterdized due to lack of ICT facilities,
laboratories, power supply, etc and only used as a theory and not in realistic form and pursuit.
Internet, in many African countries (Nigeria inclusive), has mostly been affected by poor
financial and technical management and sometimes based on the inefficiencies by the
telecommunications sector. The internet infrastructure in most tertiary institutions is
inadequate when the students/computer ratio is compared. Many experts have accepted that
4 to 5 students per computer ratio is considered reasonable for learning. However, a ratio of
1:1 will very much enhance teaching and learning in the Nigerian schools unlike student-
computer ratio of 10:1 (Jegede and Owolabi, 2005) or more as obtainable in most of our
public school. Many countries now regard understanding ICT and mastering the basics skills
and concept of ICT as a part of core education (Noor-Ul-Amin, 2013). ICT has the potential
to innovate, motivate and engage students in learning technical and vocational skills which
otherwise might not have been engaging and of interest to the students. Adeoye, Oluwole and
Blessing (2013) confirm the fact that ICT has immensely contributed to the quality and
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 103
quantity of teaching, learning and research in traditional and distance educational institutions
more especially in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET).
To some extent, Technical and Vocational education cannot be taught effectively in the
absence of ICT facilities since some courses requires the use of computer systems, peripheral
devices, internet, etc. This is so because the present technological age has brought about a
lot of innovation where technical and vocational skills can be learnt and perfected through
simulation of real-world engineering practices. This facilitates the learning through virtual
practice which makes teaching and learning interesting and long lasting. It enhances teaching
and learning by engaging learners through interesting and challenging activities such as
experimentations, simulations, project, seminars, group discussions/work, etc. ICT
education has the potential to motivate and engage students learning and creates room for
academic interaction and research which consequently helps to relate school experiences to
real work practice that can in turn create economic viability for tomorrow's works and
national growth. It is difficult and may even be impossible to imagine future learning
environments that are not supported in one way or another, by Information and
Communication Technology (Punie, Zinnbauer and Cabrera, 2006). There is a belief that
ICT has an important role to play, it changes and modernizes the educational system and
creates different ways of learning which makes the learning interesting and easy to recall
what was learnt.
ICT in Education
The use of computer and ICT in Technical Education in Nigeria is getting an increasing
support. Computer education is spreading very fast in schools and not only in developed
countries, but increasingly in developing ones as well. Computers in schools were mostly
used for administrative purposes only, but since the introduction of ICT into the education
curriculum in schools at all levels, the teaching of ICT skills is being embraced for teaching
of all subjects. However, Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2012) argued that ICT in Nigeria education
is still at the preliminary phase. Although ICT is being taught in the Nigerian institutions,
because of some factors that is affecting the teaching-learning of the ICT such as irregular
power supply, unsteady internet access, poor maintenance culture, etc, one will agree that to
some extend the Nigerian schools have not fully utilize all the potentials. This is largely due
to a number of factors that limit the infusion of ICT in the Nigerian educational system. This
is partly because no much investment is being made compared to other investments such as
finance, banking sector and the GSM communication.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) which include radio and television, as
well as newer digital technologies such as computers and the internet - have been touted as
potentially powered enabling tools for educational change and reform (Tinio, 2002). When
these tools such as radio, television, computers, Internet, application soft-wares, etc., are
used correctly, it is said to expand and advance technical education. Education quality is
being raised and helped significantly in making teaching and learning engaging where real-
life problems can be solved. Tinio (2002) asserts that, ICT has the potential for increasing
access to and improving the relevance and quality of education. ICT is being used today as
one of the strategies to improve education which subsequently brings development. It greatly
facilitates teaching and learning, and absorption of knowledge, thereby, offering
unprecedented opportunities to developing country like Nigeria to improve its educational
system. Today, teachers and students have access to millions of articles, books and other
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 104
academic materials for research as a result of the ICT. The Network Society has created a
platform that has increased the availability of Education for all. This has broken the barriers
that used to exist between knowledge, traditional schools, and libraries that were the
gatekeepers of knowledge. The traditional constraints of time can easily be overcome when
this modern method of teaching and learning is used. Bartlett et al (2013) reported that in
November 2011, Ericsson gathered ICT leaders, world-renowned professors, top politicians
and inspirational global leaders to discuss how ICT can shape future learning. It was noted
that the importance of ICT can never be underestimated in transforming education because it
provides the tools and resources needed such as the computer system, internet, application
software’s, etc in teaching and learning. Any nation that seeks economic development will
certainly make ICT the centre of its education. This is simply because ICT offers new and
creative ways of combining classroom experience, laboratory/workshop learning,
connectivity of the students and teachers, especially in the development of TVET in an online
tutorial. Reliable internet connectivity and consistent power supply is essential in order to
achieve the desired goal.
In addition, ICT is used to reach out to greater number of students especially where
teachers cannot be physically present to teach a course. Technical skills can easily be learnt
and understood much better when simulation of the skills is used in the learning process.
Geographical distance is no longer a barrier in obtaining education as a result of technologies
such as the teleconferencing and distance education which is gradually taken its grip in
Nigeria.
The Role of ICT in TVET
In recent years, exploitation of information technology has been on the increase in schools
in all aspects of the study. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is a
type of education and training that prepares a person for employment. It is a deliberate
intervention which makes people productive after gaining education in areas of economic
activity. Practical skills can easily be taught and learnt using ICT. Programmed instruction
in form of software and interactive video made it easy for practical skills to be taught using
ICTs (Saud et al 2011). Practical skills can now be delivered virtually through an organized
ICT setup. In time past, such practical skills can only be taught using hands-on learning only.
But now, ICT revolution in education has removed distance from education, making
knowledge more accessible by all.
The use of ICT in TVET is more and more being used for teaching and learning and has
made it possible to cover wider curriculum content in a day as a result of the use of video in
teaching and thereby making the teaching efficient and enjoyable by the students. It is clear
that ICT are an emerging force in TVET, with the potential to transform technical and
vocational education (Kafka, 2013). In the increasing global interconnection of network,
newer technologies help to simplify teaching and learning technical education, more learning
materials are being made available even for free. It is clear that ICT is getting an appreciable
impact on training and education in general. However, education and training need to be
harnessed in a way that is favourable for the poorest in order to provide more widespread
access to good quality Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) (Kafka,
2013). With the use of ICT teaching-learning, it has become more affordable than the
conventional method. It enables students from resource-poor country to improve their
learning outcomes in which Nigeria is not an exceptional.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 105
The Benefits of ICT Education in TVET
The benefits of ICT education in TVET are overwhelming. ICT is gradually changing the
way people learn, which offers a new alternative method of learning where traditional
classroom is not necessarily needed. This method provides an opportunity to the learner to
access education at any time of the day, thereby making the education flexible and convenient,
this has been adopted by most tertiary schools in Nigeria. ICT allow the delivery of education
to adapt an individual needs as opposed to having the individual adapt to how the education
is delivered (Chinien, 2003). Most schools in Nigeria now have ICT centre to facilitate the
modern technique of teaching-learning.
Beside providing a free atmosphere to study, ICT has simplified research and development
in teaching and learning. It made research materials easy to access and more comfortable.
Internet/Web-Based training provides enabling environment where a student can access and
study course materials online. A student can equally enjoy a real time interaction with his
tutor. Other facilities such as chat and messaging, discussion boards, application sharing, etc
are equally available where a student can take advantage of these tools. Audio tele-conference
is the simplest and most inexpensive of the available interactive learning technologies (Steven,
2001). It is a telephoning system which enables multiple learners to be able to connect to
each other with an instructor in a real time. This is done through audio conferencing that
effectively creates a conference of instructor and a group of learners on a platform where
people can communicate simultaneously. Audio tele-training is usually done by providing
advanced copy of print materials along with other visual aids that can facilitate learning.
Hauenstennis (1970) developed a model of psychomotor skills organized on the sequence of
learning practical skills to include: Observing; Imitation; Manipulating; Performing and
Perfecting. In the model, learning of the skills start with observation of the skills and is
followed by imitating the practical and the student seek the perfect the concept. Practical
skills however can however can only be achieved by performing the practicals in the
workshops/labs.
Trained man power is required for the growth of every nation. Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) is the popular means by which training of skill manpower is
produced for economic and industrial growth of the country (Nigeria). TVET prepares human
resources needed in the changing world of work. With adequate ICT facilities in the Nigerian
institutions, the study of technologies can be effectively achieved. Saud et al (2011) reiterated
that, indeed, practical skill can be delivered virtually via a well-organized ICT set up and
that gone are the days where practical skills were taught using hands-on learning only.
Interactive application softwares and video have made it easier for practical skills to be
acquired using ICT. The use of ICT in teaching, training and learning cannot be obsolete,
rather the need for up-grading and retraining of workers in order to meet up with the
information age. Preparing people for self-employment is the aim of TVET which also serves
as a medium of evolution for people in this world of work.
Challenges Facing ICT Education in Nigeria
ICT Education and TVET can only be successful where equipped computer laboratory and
qualified teachers are available. In some of our schools, though ICT education are being
taught, there is insufficient systems to practice what is being taught, while some that have
are faced by lack of power or internet connectivity problem where by the laboratories are not
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 106
functional, especially only to convince accreditation team that a laboratory really exists.
Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2012) assert that indeed students do not have enough computer
laboratories or libraries, and that students who can afford laptops have to purchase one for
their use. Due to the problem of internet connectivity, staff, students and researchers
normally depend on campus business cyber cafes in order to get their research or study done.
According to Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2012), students and staff only browse when it is
necessary due to high cost of browsing. In this type of situation, it is certain that learning
conveniently and smoothly may not be there due to these bottle necks. In most of our schools,
internet subscription and maintenance of the ICT laboratories have become matters of
concern. However, if ICT education in TVET is to exist for upliftment of education, then
there is need for commitment to ensure that ICT laboratories are maintained and upgraded as
changes takes place in ICT equipment. Although there is an improvement in the electricity
power supply, more effort is being coveted in order to carry out successful research in our
universities and other institutions. Without the internet, access to interactive simulation of
some technical skills might not be possible. Not only that, but as much as possible the
computer systems should be readily available to individual students and teachers. According
to Torruam and Abur (2013), “computer laboratories are largely non-existent in many public
schools across the country” and that where such laboratories exist, they are nothing to cheer.
Computer labs should not be neglected where ICT skills are to be taught, but it should be
viewed as a fundamental facility without which the teaching and learning of ICT skills in
TVET would not be realistic.
The need to have qualified teachers for teaching ICT courses especially in TVET is
imperative. According to UNESCO and Microsoft (2011), the successful integration of ICT
into the classroom greatly depends on the ability of teachers to structure the learning
environment in a way that will enable technology interaction which leads to collaboration for
students to have conducive learning environment. When ICT teachers in Nigeria have the
required skills, teaching and learning becomes interesting and motivating. The teaching skills
required will include innovative ways of using technology focused on specific changes in
teaching which can encourage students to develop interest in learning.
Advantages and Disadvantages of ICT in TVET
Information and Communication Technology has swiftly changed the educational system
and the way people communicate in many ways. It is a powerful tool used for adapting to
the ever-changing demands of a global information society. Although ICT has some enormous
advantages such as making some common tasks simple and facilitates communication from
one geographical area to the other. It is a vast field which include virtually all technologies
that can store, receive or transmit signals electronically. Below are some advantages of ICT
in TVET:
i. Motivating Factor.
Using the ICT in teaching and learning motivates many students to learn. The use of
technology is captivating for most young people. They find it very exciting and interesting
about the internet and therefore enhances learning. It helps in providing additional learning
activities that is not readily available in the conventional class settings.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 107
ii. Cooperative learning.
Internet promotes cooperative learning and creates more engaging classroom thereby creating
dialog among the students. For example, using the class discussion forum through emails in
a way that is different from what is obtainable in the classroom.
iii. Fast Communication.
Fast communication across the geographical barriers exist through the use of information
technology thereby making it easy for students to be involved in collaborative projects from
any part of the world. Because the world has been reduced to global village, it is possible
through the use of the ICT tools for students to have a unique learning experience that cannot
be obtain in the classroom.
iv. Accessing research materials.
With the use of the Internet, it has now become very easy to have access to research materials
which otherwise might not be possible access in the Library locally.
Disadvantages:
Although ICT have so many advantages in TVET it is not without some disadvantages such
as:
I. Access to ICT tools such as internet or computer might not be feasible to students
in rural areas. Some tertiary schools are located in rural areas and might face
weak internet access or power supply problem that would not enable the students
access every web page such as graphic and videos successfully due to poor internet
connectivity. Having uninterrupted access to the material is very crucial if a
success teaching and learning is to be achieved.
II. Lack of moral value implementation of some websites can be a barrier to
successful learning. In such situation it is necessary to have a teacher who will act
as the facilitator who will guide the student in order to achieved the desired goals.
III. Student can easily be a victim of Plagiarism this is so because some web site
claims to help students in their course work but normally end up into submitting
the exact work for grades. Plagiarism can be minimized by the use of the online
services such as http://www.plagiarism.org/ to check if the paper is copied from
the internet.
IV. Students privacy cannot be guarantee completely when online, this is because
criminals, marketers and hackers are always seeking ways to break into ones'
privacy.
Conclusion
The paper discussed on the need to have Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
education in Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET). Particular emphasis
was made on ICT, that for higher institutions to achieve their desired goal in teaching and
learning technical skill, ICT education cannot be neglected. The study has shown that ICT
has contributed much to the quality and quantity of teaching, learning and research in both
traditional and distance education. The paper highlighted the need to have ICT education in
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 108
all arms of the educational structure in Nigerian. It is not just enough to have ICT in the
curriculum of education in Nigeria, but the need to ensure that the facilities are provided and
the required manpower and the enabling environment to ensure the policy is fully adhered to.
It was noted that several technical skills at advanced levels have to be simulated before
actualizing it for human use. ICT education cannot just be taught theoretically without an
equipped ICT laboratory and the qualified teachers required to teach the courses.
Recommendations
In order to have achievable and successful Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) the following is recommended:
i. There should be functional ICT tools such as the Computer, Printer, Internet,
application softwares, etc.
ii. There should be available stand by generator in case of power failure.
iii. There should be qualified personnel that will be able to use the ICT tools for the
teaching and learning of the technical skills.
iv. The training centre for the technical skills need to be funded in order to meet the
challenging needs, especially the upgrade of the tools and for general maintenance.
v. There is need to revise the curriculum from time to time in order to meet up with the
technological changes in the IT world.
REFERENCES
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communication technology (ICT) as a change agent for higher education in Nigeria,
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177-183, December 2013 DOI: 10.5897/IJEAPS12.027
Bartlett, L., Akala, W., Semyalo, R. and Stafford, T. (2013). ICT in Education Study.
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Accessed on: 28th Aug. 2015
Chinien, C. (2003). The Use of ICTs in Technical and Vocational Education and Training,
UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education (IITE), Available:
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Hauenstennis, A. D. (1970). Curriculum engineering for behavioural development.
Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University Research Foundation.
Idowu, A., Idowu, O. and Adagunodo, E. (2004). A Comparative Study of Information and
Communication Technologies at Higher Educational Institutions in Africa: Case Studies
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Educational Institutions: Trends, Perspectives and Possibilities. IEEE, Afr J Comp & ICTs
– Special Issue on ICTs in the African Environment Vol. 5. No. 4 Issue 2. Pp 77-84
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Jegede and Owolabi (2005). Computer Education in Nigerian Secondary Schools: Gaps
Between Policy and Practice, A Middle School Computer Technologies Journal a service
of NC State University, Raleigh, NC Volume 8, Issue 1, Winter 2005 ISSN 1097 9778
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and Vocational Education and Training, Germany. Available:
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20for%20TVET.pdf Accessed on: 7th Sept. 2015
Noor-Ul-Amin, S. (2013). An Effective use of ICT for Education and Learning by Drawing
on Worldwide Knowledge, Research, and Experience: ICT as a Change Agent for
Education, Available: http://www.nyu.edu/classes/keefer/waoe/amins.pdf Accessed on:
31st Aug. 2015
Punie, Y., Zinnbauer, D. and Cabrera, M. (2006). A Review of the Impact of ICT on
Learning, Working Paper prepared for DG EAC, European Commission. Available:
http://ftp.jrc.es/EURdoc/JRC47246.TN.pdf Accessed on: 28th Aug. 2015
Saud, M., Shu'aibu, B., Yahaya, N. and Yasin, M. (2011). Effective integration of
information and communication technologies (ICTs) in technical and vocational education
and training (TVET) toward knowledge management in the changing world of work.
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http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM. Accessed on: 07 Sept. 2015
Stevens, G. (2001). Distance learning for Technical and Vocational Education in Sub-Sahara
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Tinio, V. (2002). ICT in Education, United Nations Development Programme Bureau for
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THE FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE IN ORAL ENGLISH IN
SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS, IN YOLA METROPOLIS
by
Wada, Richard Sylvester, & Wappa, John Peter
Department of English Education
ABSTRACT
This research work takes a spectacular look at the speech production and the numerous
problems associated with the achievement of the set objectives of teaching and learning oral
English in five selected secondary schools in Yola metropolis. Questionnaires were
administered to both teachers and students of the selected schools, and the result obtained
was analysed using the simple percentage. The study shows that the availability of qualified
teachers and the adequacy of teaching facilities could help in the improvement of teaching
oral English in schools. Therefore, based on the findings, the study recommends that
emphasis should be placed on the provision of qualitative teaching facilities, qualified
teachers and a handsome amount of time be allotted for the teaching of oral English on the
schools' time-tables.
Keywords: Performance; Oral English; Secondary School.
INTRODUCTION
English is a second language in Nigeria. It is widely spoken in schools and offices, it is the
means of instruction in schools and it serves as a means of communication in places of
worship, and other societal functions in Nigeria because of the diversity of the language and
diverse nature of the country.
In the light of the aforementioned, there is the need for proficiency in the use of English
language among teachers as well as the students. Therefore, there is the need for the teaching
of oral English in Nigerian schools. Oral English needs to be taught by teachers who are
articulate in the field. The pronunciation of the English sounds is different from reciting the
English alphabets. Not all professionals in English have the knowledge of oral English. Some
teachers of English language shy away from teaching oral English in schools because of its
complex nature. The complex nature includes some aspects such as the consonants, the
vowels, the intonation, the stress and the segmental and supra-segmental features to mention
a few. To have a smooth flow of oral English teaching in schools, there is the need for
teachers to be properly trained. When efficient teachers are allowed to handle the subject,
students may perform creditably well in oral English.
In this study, the researcher intends to find out the factors responsible for performance
by students in oral English and how teachers' effectiveness can be improved upon to enhance
qualitative output and suggest ways in which some of the problems can both be resolved in
respect to the students and the teacher.
Oral English teachers most at times are very difficult to come by in schools, this is because
the teachers to an extent have little or no knowledge of the subject matter. Some of the
teachers who are brave enough to teach the subject give students substandard information or
the wrong information in most instances. Oral English is not theoretically taught; it is
something that should be practically taught in a laboratory with all the necessary gadgets put
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 111
in place. This study looks into the shortage of professional teachers in the field which is a
problem to efficiency and effectiveness and proffer ways in which some of the defects can be
corrected.
The aim of this study is to find out ways in which the teachers' effectiveness and students'
performance in oral English can be improved upon. This will be achieved through the
following: by examining the teachers' effectiveness in the teaching of oral English,
identifying the students' performance in English language and by analyzing the instructional
materials used in the teaching of oral English in schools.
Oral Communication and Teachers Effectiveness in Oral English Teaching
Joseph (1996) opines that Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal
communication typically relies on words, visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the
conveyance of the meaning. Oral communication includes discussion, speeches,
presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face
communication the body language and voice tonality plays a significant role and may have a
greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words. A great presenter
must capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For example, out of two
persons telling the same joke one may greatly amuse the audience due to his body language
and tone of voice while the second person, using exactly the same words, bores and irritates
the audience. Visual aid can help to facilitate effective communication and is almost always
used in presentations for an audience.
John (1989) believes that Phonetics is the only study of the sounds of a language. Phonetics
also deals with the inventory and structure of the sounds of speed. Human language has a
variety of sounds, called phones from a Greek word “phone” meaning (sound voice) or
speech sounds but not an infinite number of them.
There are two ways of approaching phonetic; one approach studies the physiological
mechanisms of speech production. This is known as articulatory phonetics. The other is
known as Acoustic phonetics, it is concerned with measuring and analysing the physical
properties of the sound waves we produce when we speak. Both approaches are indispensable
to an understanding of speech.
The paramount aim of the educational system is the social development of individuals so
that they may contribute maximally to the educational and economic development of the
society. The importance of oral English to the development of an individual is necessary.
When oral English is perfectly taught and students thoroughly understand the concept, it will
help the students in the future when they eventually become teachers. Teachers need to teach
the knowledge and skills which make oral English successful. A motivated student in
secondary school will have the intent for learning in science, art, literature, history and human
behaviour as a foundation for the child to have good social and vocational fulfilment. So, oral
English for the student is very vital and so must be recognized in the secondary school
curriculum.
Hadden (1991) said teachers of English and teachers of speech have the responsibility of
educating students in oral English language. There is the need for teachers to go for training
in other to improve their teaching and be better teachers in oral English. Sometimes teachers
of English language are hesitant to become deeply involved in the teaching of oral English in
schools. The major reason for hesitation by teachers to teach the subject is the fact they have
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 112
not been properly trained. The beginner teacher of oral English should be prepared to create
integrated learning experiences on entering the classroom.
Yano (2001) pointed out that the potentialities afforded by oral activities to assist readers
to interpret the substance of oral English and to appreciate it are an art all too often has
remained unexploited in the classroom. The knowledge of oral English reflects in every
aspect of life and not only in the English language. In literature, oral reading of a dialogue
can bring about a change in the intended or actual intention of the dialogue and if the reader
does not articulate the word in the dialogue properly and it can also negatively affect the
artistry of the rhythm of the work. Similarly, perfect articulation of words in a dialogue can
create meaningful intonations, pauses, and stress pattern upon which the dramatic effects of
the communicative event depends. Because of the receptive nature of oral English, the teacher
must be prepared to integrate as a communicative skill the oral communicative arts. The
teacher must be sensitive to the students' needs and also motivate them to speak purposefully.
The teacher must also be knowledgeable about the purpose and ways they speak in other
to assist the students in their development of skills in interpreting the spoken symbols. As
essential as the media is in teaching of oral English to Senior Secondary School Students, it
has been observed that most teachers do not use them. Some teachers that use them do not
use them effectively while some teachers have been unduly attached to using the same media
types which invariably has rendered oral lessons monotonous and boring. The media types
should be varied and teachers should prepare their students “by teaching them to ask and
respond to questions effectively, by giving them practice speaking, and by encouraging
classroom participation” (Tagg, 1996; Umunadi, 2009; Deang, 2012; Olaitan, Oniyanji,
Ojerinde and Onifade, 2012).
Students Performance and Techniques for Effective Teaching of Oral English
In rating English language speaking performance of normative speakers, certain
objectively measurable features of pronunciation are certainly relevant to true score variance.
On the other hand, variance due to rather background and disposition counts as measurement
errors. Hook et al (1970) talk about the issue of knowledge and skill on the part of the teacher,
according to them, “teachers need to know more than most of us do. We need, especially, to
know more about children than most of us do, so that, when each child comes to us in this
place called a school, we can help the student become the utmost that he is capable of
becoming, but we do not always do that”. They go further to explain that. “A specialized
methods course and carefully supervised student teaching can contribute extensively to the
prospective teacher's knowledge and skill. The rapidity with which the child learns language
is accounted for by the degree of motivation the child has. This is the view of Skinner and
Bloom Field as cited by Arhagba and Atonuje (2011).
According to Moedjito (2008, p.130), 'it is accepted as axiomatic by language teachers
that good pronunciation is a necessity for the mastery of a language'. The first thing the
teacher needs to do to improve the teaching of pronunciation is to identify the objectives of
his teaching. These include: accurate pronunciation, correct intonation, good phrasing and
fluency, intelligible communication of meaning, communicative competence. According to
Ogunsiji (2004, p.26), in teaching pronunciation, the learners 'should be made familiar with
the sound patterns of the language in order to reduce the occurrences of mother tongue
interference'. The emphasis should be on maintenance of proper pronunciation of English
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 113
sounds by the learner so as to be able to communicate meaning intelligibly. For example,
there is a difference in the pronunciation of /tʃ/ and /ʃ/ as in 'watch' and 'wash'. But there is
no difference in the pronunciation of the sounds by some Nigerians such that 'watching
television' and 'washing television' sound alike.
There are some techniques which when employed by teachers in the teaching of oral
English can enhance their effectiveness. These techniques some of which have been discussed
by Egwuogu (2004) include oral drills and repetitions, modelling, pronunciation games,
debates and impromptu speeches, role-playing/dramatization, simulation, panel discussions,
use of actual and concrete objects, recitation and storytelling, excursions, questioning and
turn-taking, reading aloud, matching sounds to form words and identifying the missing
sounds, free or guided conversation, and group activity.
Challenges of Teaching Oral English in Nigerian Secondary Schools
Jowitt (1991) confirms that the emphasis on proficiency in spoken English was introduced
in the New National Curriculum in English language for Nigerian Secondary Schools in the
1980s. It was previously neglected in the teaching of English in Nigeria as oral English was
made optional for the West African School Certificate students (though a compulsory course
for teacher grade II examinations). Roach (2000) confirms that pronunciation teaching has
not always been popular with teachers and language theorists and in the 1970s and 1980s. It
was fashionable to treat it as a rather outdated activity. It was claimed that it makes learners
try to sound like native speakers of Received Pronunciation, which became difficult and led
to repetitive exercises, and it also failed to give importance to communication.
Jowitt (1991), comments about the negligence of oral English teaching on teachers. He
stated that pupils unconsciously relied on mother tongue models when deprived of
consistently reliable guidance from teachers, as indeed many of teachers did: assuming that
there was a perfect correspondence between sound and spelling. Anthony (2001) and Uche
(1998) emphasize the difficulties of acquiring oracy skills. According to Williams (1990), the
factors to be enumerated could be categorised under one factor – the interference of mother
tongue. It is worth noting that for the non-native speakers, the mother tongue always affects
the acquisition of the second language. This has always, been a major problem in oral English
or pronunciation teaching especially in Nigerian schools.
Unoh (1986) also examines the situation of oral English in Nigerian secondary schools.
He asserts that teaching of English pronunciation in Nigeria suffers from peculiar handicaps
unknown to the teaching of English language or any other school subject (for that matter).
For any subject to be effectively taught, there are at least two very important conditions that
must be met: (i) a high degree of motivation on the part of both student and teacher; and (ii)
the teachers' competence in the subject, and his or her mastery of the techniques of imparting
knowledge in it. While the aforementioned conditions are rarely achieved in the teaching of
English Language, they are also hardly met in the case of the teaching and learning of English
pronunciation.
Okoli (2000) comments on the need to be proficient in the sound system of a new language
and explains that English should be pronounced in the accent normally chosen as the standard
form especially the model most often recommended for foreign learners studying standard
British English and also Received Pronunciation.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 114
The teaching of oral English in Nigerian secondary schools has previously been
overlooked. However, recent development in the teaching of English Language requires
greater emphasis on this aspect of English language. Oral English complements the
understanding and the use of English language so as to improve the standard of spoken
English.
According to Idris (2001), not much has been achieved since the introduction of oral
English in our West African School Certificate and National Examination Council due to the
problems associated with the teaching and learning of oral English. There are existing
publications on phonology written by Linguists such as Gimson, Daniel Jones, David Jowitt,
Peter Roach, among others. Recently, there is the emergence of new publications particularly
on Oral English by other language teachers, researchers and scholars such as Mannell, Cox,
and Harrington (2009), Akperero (2000), Enyeazu (2001), Idris (2001) and Jauro (2006).
This development has gone a long way in bringing oral English into focus.
Components of Effective Oral Language Instruction
“Oral Language is the child's first, most important, and most frequently used structured
medium of communication. It is the primary means through which each individual child will
be enabled to structure, to evaluate, to describe and to control his/her experience.
In addition, and most significantly, oral language is the primary mediator of culture, the way
in which children locate themselves in the world, and define themselves with it and within
it” (Cregan, 1998, as cited in Archer, Cregan, McGough, Shiel, 2012) at its most basic level,
oral language is about communicating with other people. It involves a process of utilizing,
thinking, knowledge and skills in order to speak and listen effectively. As such, it is central
to the lives of all people.
Although the Curriculum places a strong emphasis on oral language, it has been widely
acknowledged that the implementation of the Oral Language strand has proved challenging
and “there is evidence that some teachers may have struggled to implement this component
because the underlying framework was unclear to them”. The early years are a period in
which young children are using language to learn not only about their world but also how
language can be used to serve many purposes. This knowledge is referred to as pragmatic
knowledge (Otto, 2006). One component of pragmatic knowledge is conversational skills.
Ninio and Snow (1999) as well as Weiss (2004) assert that how well children develop
conversational skills can influence how well they interact with others (as cited in Otto, 2006).
To a certain degree, children pick up this knowledge naturally, but an astute teacher or parent
plays a vital role in assisting children in their ability to be good conversationalists.
Conversing with children is not the only way to increase vocabulary, however. The
strategies teachers use while reading with and to children can also build their word banks.
Asking open ended questions (questions in which there is no right or wrong answer and to
which the adult does not “know” the answer) helps teachers assess children's comprehension
but also helps them learn more vocabulary words (Whitehurst et al., 1988, as cited in Wasik,
2006). Kerry (1982) asserts that the vast majority (approximately 80%) of “teacher talk” in
classrooms is focused on tasks: giving instructions, providing information, or correcting
behaviour. Of this talk, 80% of it consists of low-level questions that ask children to recall
information rather than open-ended questions requiring children to think at higher levels (as
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 115
cited in Jalongo, 2008). A very important consideration in using any questioning technique
is the “wait time” given to children as they formulate their response.
In addition to giving children ample time to formulate answers, how teachers respond at
that point can encourage or discourage future participation in discussions (Otto, 2006).
Attentive body language, expanding children's responses, asking clarifying questions, and
using reflective listening techniques are ways to support children's continued participation in
current and future dialogues (Otto, 2006).
The Problems of Poor Teaching Procedures
Bright and McGregor (1970) talk about what most teachers do to enhance effectiveness in
the teaching of Oral English. In their words, “The majority of teachers still use reading aloud
as their main weapon in the battle to improve their pupils' Oral English. They then listen for
mistakes and “correct” the items as they arise by interrupting the reader and requiring him
to repeat a word or phrase in accordance with the model they provide”. Bright and McGregor
argue that this procedure is objective and is objectionable on a number of counts which
include the fact that:
i. It interferes with the proper business of the reading lesson, which is to create
imaginative response in the mind of the learner.
ii. Where it is used frequently, it slows down reading speed whereas the objective is to
increase it.
iii. It provides a small amount of practice for a few individuals and bores everybody else.
iv. It is highly embarrassing to the reader. Indeed, it is not unusual for a large number
of corrections to lead to a deterioration of performance.
v. The pupils' practice, such as it is, is random instead of specific. Nobody knows
whether the next thunder bolt will fall on an error of pronunciation, stress, intonation
or phrasing. After interruptions in a paragraph, teachers have even been known to
complain about lack of fluency and urge pupils to read with more expression.
vi. The exercise of reading unprepared literary material aloud is too difficult for all but
the best students.
vii. Unless students are going to be teachers or announcers, the ability to read aloud is of
little practical value compared with the ability to play an effective part in
conversations, discussions and committee meetings.
viii. Reading aloud of this kind is purposeless. Nobody listens because everybody has the
text.
In the opinion of Bright and McGregor, “reading aloud” is not a solution but a problem to
the effective teaching of Oral English. They point out that it could interfere with the reading
process, slow down the reading speed, and bore the student, and so on.
Methodology
The study examined the factors responsible for students' performance in oral English. The
study focused on staff and students of five selected secondary schools within Yola metropolis:
the schools selected include: Government Day Secondary School, Karewa, General Murtala
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 116
Mohammed College, Yola, Government Girls' Secondary School, Yola, Government Day
Secondary School, Luggere and Capital Day Secondary School, Yola.
A survey research design was used for the study. Njodi and Bwala 2004 are of opinion
that considerations should be paid to the conditions that exist with practices that prevail in
the teaching of oral English in secondary schools across the country. A sample is a subset of
a population selected for the purpose of a study, it is a fraction of the whole, selected to
participate in the research (Burns & Grove, 2001). In this research a subset of 40 students
and 10 teachers was selected for the study. The procedure for the research is the random
sampling technique which involves the selection of a given number of variables from a
population.
The questionnaire was personally administered to the respondents, and later collected. The
structured questionnaire was used to capture the relevant data needed for the study. Simple
frequency and percentage distribution was adopted. The data collected was presented in
tabular form and frequencies
Results and Discussion
Table 1: Teacher related response
Responses/Frequencies
S/No Items/Questions Yes No
1. Does ineffective teaching methodology cause student’s
poor performance in Oral English?
85 15
2. Are you satisfied students’ response in Oral English
language class
22 78
3. Do you have enough teaching aids for Oral English? 11 89
4. Are all the recommended text available for the
subjects?
14 86
5. Do you have a language laboratory in your schools? 00 100
6. Do you think the lack of language laboratory affect the
teaching of Oral English?
95 05
7. Do you have enough periods for Oral English in the
school’s Time- Table?
92 08
Total 325 375
Percentage % 35.99% 41.53%
Description for the above table
The above table shows that 85% of the respondents indicate that ineffective teaching
methodology militate against students' poor performance in English language while the
minority of 15% of the respondents think otherwise. 22% of the respondents are contended
with the response of their students in class while 78 respondents state that is 78% of the
respondents are of the opinion that there should be an improvement in the response of students
in class. Consequently, it can be deduced that students find oral English difficult that is why
they seem not to respond well in class. 11% of the respondents are contended with the
teaching aid they have in the school while 89% of the respondents are of the opinion that
there should be an improvement in the teaching aid used in the schools for the teaching Oral
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 117
English. Equally, 14% of the respondents are of the opinion that the schools do not lack the
recommended text books that are required for the teaching of oral English, while 86% of the
respondents believe a lot more in terms of provision of the required text for the teaching of
oral English should be put in place.
Meanwhile, it is obvious that the school does not have a language laboratory which is a
bad sign for the school and the learning of oral English cannot effectively take place. So,
there is no doubt that almost all the teachers agree to the fact the non- existence of a language
laboratory in the school is a huge milestone in the quest to give a sound knowledge of the
concept of oral English to the students. As 92% of the respondents agree that they have
enough time for oral English language teaching on the Time-Table, while 08% of the
respondents said that the periods allotted on the time-table is not sufficient for the effective
learning of oral English,
Table 2: Student related response
8. Do you like Oral English lesson? 45 65
9. Do you take Oral English in your terminal exams? 95 05
10. Does the Oral English teacher go to class regularly? 22 78
11. Do you study Oral English on your own? 45 55
Total 202 203
Percentage % 49.88% 50.12%
Description for the above table
In table 2, 45% of the students do not like oral English lessons while 65% like the lesson.
This therefore, indicates that a lot of the students in the schools are not comfortable with oral
English classes. However, a greater number of the students are comfortable with the subject.
Item serial number 9 on table indicates that 95% of the respondents agree to the fact they
always take the terminal exams in oral English; and only 05% of them say they do not from
this it can be deduced that even though these students take terminal exams in oral English
they still find it difficult to pass the exams; and as for the class attendance by teachers who
teach oral English, 22% of the students say the teachers do attend class regularly, and78%
of the students say that the teachers do not come to class regularly which can definitely affect
the students' performance. Failure of teachers to go to class signifies certain traits of
problems, some of which can be lack preparedness on the part of the teachers and
incompetence to an extent. The table equally shows that 45% of the students surveyed say
that they have extra time to study oral English on their own, while the remaining 55% only
rely on what is taught in class. It is pertinent that class work alone cannot give the students
the required knowledge in oral English and so students should be encouraged to study more
on their own.
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Conclusion
The basic aim of this study was to identify the problems of teaching oral English in
Government Day Secondary School Karewa, General Murtala Mohammed College, Yola,
Government Girls' Secondary School, Yola, Government Day Secondary School, Luggere
and Capital Day Secondary School, Yola.
The researcher was able to identify that there is a need to make more efforts towards the
teaching of oral English in schools. Students will learn a great deal in the concept of oral
English if the right learning environment is provided. The study was conducted through the
use of questionnaires which were administered among the teachers and students and they
responded based on their personal experience s and opinions.
The major findings of the research work that show the problems that to poor performance
by students are: inadequate teaching materials and insufficiency of qualified teachers as well
as poor motivation by and of the teachers is a major setback in the learning and teaching of
oral English. It simply means that the materials required for good teaching are not there
which makes teaching and learning very tedious. There is a lack of motivation on the part of
the teachers which makes students to lose interest. Lastly, the students are not given enough
periods for learning oral English in most of the schools.
Having done a critical review of the problems of teaching oral English, there is need for
a turnaround taking into consideration the various issues in this study and findings made. The
research hereby makes the following recommendations towards the production of effective
oral English students. There is need for the government to maximize efforts in the provision
of adequate materials. Most importantly, language laboratories and equipment should be
provided for the teachers and students to engage in constant practice of the Received
Pronunciation (RP) pattern of English language.
There should be more emphasis on the quality and quantity of the teachers who are
employed and sent to teach English in the secondary schools. The English teacher must be
competent enough to handle the subject; the basic availability of teachers should be within
the limit of one teacher to Thirty (30) student (1:30). The greater task lies on the teachers
themselves, who are considered as the conveyors of information and foundation of
knowledge. There has to be determination of their side to impact knowledge on their students.
They should also device a means of encouraging and motivating the students towards
developing affection for oral English. Teachers should as well try as much as possible to
avoid mother tongue interference when they use English words before the students.
The school administration should also allocation enough time or teaching and learning of
oral English in the timetable. Apart from the fact that language learning is perfected through
regular practice and consists of usage, the incorporation of audio-visual or aural aids should
be rated of greater importance in the study of language codes and rules; especially oral
English. This will provide a basis for an alternative linguistic environment which is another
basic criterion for efficiency in language learning.
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 119
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Brown, H. (2001) Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy
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Suggestions and Implications.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/3588145/full
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Lawrence Erlbaum Associations Inc.
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Challenges, the Benefits, and Evidence-Based Strategies. Early Childhood Education
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Jowitt, D. (1991). Nigerian English usage. Lagos: Longman Nigeria.
McDonongy, S.H. (1995) Strategy a skill in learning a foreign language. London: Edward
Arnold.
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vol.10, no.2pp. 129-142. www.Puslit.petra.ac.id/files/published/journals/ING. Retrieved
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Ogunsiji, A. (2004). Developing the Basic Language skill for Communicative Competence
in Learners of ESL in Nigeria, Ibadan Journal of English Studies. Vol. 1 No. 1
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Olaitan, O. L. & Oniyanji, S. O., Oyerinde, O. O. & Onifade, O. A. (2012). Availability
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Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 121
POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME ON ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN
NIGERIA
By
Joshua D. Zoaka
Department of Economics
ABSTRACT
This paper examined the effect of poverty alleviation programme on economic growth and
development in Nigeria. A general view was done on the importance of poverty alleviation
programme as a means of achieving economic development and strategies, to achieved
economic growth through poverty alleviation. However, poverty is a pressing problem today
in Nigeria and government have been trying their best to curb this economic menace through
the program of poverty alleviation programme (PAP) in conjunction with the Nigeria
agricultural cooperative and rural development Bank (N.A.C.R.D.B). Therefore, it concluded
that Poverty has been identified as one of the major macro-economic problems, which hinder
development. Poverty is more severe in developing countries where Nigeria belong:
Recommendations were also made and they include that poverty alleviation program should
concentrate on agricultural in rural areas. There is need for government to discourage
resources mismanagement through programme like war against indiscipline (WAI) and
rehabilitation and expanding infrastructure facilities.
INTRODUCTION
Poverty alleviation is a process of reducing poverty, while economic development is the
process that viewed as a multi-dimensional phenomenon involving changes in structure in
structure and capacity as well as the output changes in organizational changes which affect
efficiency and responsiveness to new demand. Invariably development embodies
enhancement of capacity of a society of function for the wellbeing of its members in the long
run. Poverty has been defined as “a condition where people's standard of living deteriorates,
that is the amount of income (or consumption) association with minimum accepted level of
nutrition and other necessities of everyday life are lacking (Smith, Stephen 2006).
In Nigeria today poverty is a pressing problem and there is a serious attempt to arrest it.
Different administrations have tried to curb it. The World Bank (2000) agrees that the large
number of people living in Africa, Asia and Latin America are poor due to their standard of
living, most of them live in compacted homes, some are experiencing ill health and diseases,
absence of portable water and lack of financial security, invariable shelter, wealth and
clothing and lack of enough food which brings about malnutrition and some associated
diseases.
The existence of the improvement in the socio-economic formation of a society is been
ensured by development. The alleviation of poverty in any economy, it is a necessary
condition for economic development to be attained, since poverty and development goes hand
in hand with development of human beings in terms of literacy level, finance level, health
level, political freedom and emancipation, equal opportunities in term of jobs, and
environment which facilitate and ensure steady growth and development in the economy. For
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development to be fostered and consolidated, some wants must be satisfied and met. Thus,
these wants are the availability of basics of human needs such as clean and portable drinking
water, food which is rich in colorific value, shelter, clothing, good and responsive health
care system, qualitative education, and most of all security without which the others cannot
be achieved.
In a nutshell, the essence development encompasses a wide range of values, needs and
things which ensure that a nation moves forwards.
Statement of the Problem
A number of programs have been introduced in the past by different government (both
military and civilian), yet we hardly point out some of the achievement of such programs.
Those various program were aimed at reducing the low standard of living to a minimal level.
Increase enough income and consumption in order to live meaningful life. If demand income
and saving are low, investment also is bound to be very low. This study is therefore aimed
at mapping out how poverty alleviation programmes can be used to achieve economic
development in Nigeria. The research looked at Nigeria experience in the alleviation of
poverty and programmes directed towards the removal of heavy strains on the populace,
such as low income, unemployment and diseases.
Objectives of the Study
The broad objectives of the study are to assess the effect of poverty alleviation programme
on economic growth and development in of Adamawa State
The specific objectives include:
i. To examine the cause and effect of poverty in Adamawa State.
ii. To assess the measures and strategies adopted to achieve economic development through
poverty alleviation.
iii. To show the importance of poverty alleviation as meant of achieving economic growth
and development in Nigeria.
Significance of the Study
The study offers contribution to existing knowledge on poverty alleviation in Nigeria as
well as insight into the cause and effects of poverty. Thus, they will be helpful to students
who wish to grasp the fundamentals of poverty in Nigeria.
Researchers and planners will be offered skills and techniques which will be meaningful
in economic development of the nation.
Scope of the Study
This study assesses the effect of poverty alleviation programme on economic growth and
development in Nigeria, but was restricted to Adamawa state as a case study.
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Concept and Nature of Poverty
The concept of poverty has generated a lot of controversies pertaining its definition.
Some contributions have been made at showing the problems of what constitute poverty
and how to identify the poor at any particular point in time. Economic in quality has long
been associated with human existence; poverty it is known today is much more recent
phenomenon, at a certain point in history and is tied to a particular form of economic and
social organization. Poverty is not the same as inequality although they are closely related.
To be poor is not just to have less than others, it is also to be without the means of security
the necessary requirement of life.
The inequality denotes difference in income or wealth. The Oxford English Dictionary
(2005) stressed that it is: inequality, disparity in magnitude or quality of income or wealth
and believes inequality carters on measuring the fact of occupying a more or less
advantageous position. People are considered poor if their standard of living falls below the
poverty line, that is the amount of income or (consumption) associated with a minimum
acceptable level of nutrition and other necessities of everyday life (World Bank, 2000). This
definition makes clear choice on three issues to be decided upon when identifying the poor,
these are, whether an objective or subjective measure. If an objective one, which of the
possible dimension of poverty is to be focus on. Given the dimension to be adopted in
identifying the poor it depends whether to fix poverty lines in absolute or relative terms.
William (1981) closes objective approach with income or more often standard of poverty
line. The choice of the concept of poverty would be highlighted shortly before the aspects of
poverty are looked at. The first conceptual issue about poverty is whether to use a subjective
or objective approach that is the dimension of poverty to be analysed chosen with reference
to those things or criteria held to be most important in this measurement either by society or
by the poor themselves.
The second issue concerned indicators, and this illustrate that income poverty is just one
of several dimensions of poverty which ranges from basic needs to political freedom. The
third conceptual issue is whether to use an absolute or relative definition of poverty. An
absolute poverty line can be set with respect to minimum consumption need for survival
purpose, often determined in relation to calorie requirement whereas relative poverty takes
to accounts societal norms so that definition of the minimum socially acceptance level of
consumption tends to rise with a country's overall standard of living. The genesis of poverty
lies in the origin of capitalism, within a capitalism economy, workers do not own or confront
the means of production, the factories they work in or the tools they work with, instead the
seal their labour power to those who own the means of production in returns ways. What
laborers produce does not belong to them, but to those who employ them, the surplus is taken
by the owners of the means of production. (Maduagwu & Anthony, 2000)
Poverty is viewed as consisting of lack of resources in an absolute sense. In this viewpoint,
the poor are these who are unable to maintain a minimum subsistence level of living. This is
known as the absolute subsistence concept of poverty. Novak (1998 ) argued that poverty is
much more than just a level of income, it also involves question of power and lack of
choice and he confirmed that poverty is seen in the context of class. According to him, if
a society is divided between those who own nothing but their labour, power and those who
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own the mean of production of wealth, are in position to command the livelihood of the
majority who do not own anything except labour power.
Essentially, it is easy to identify the poor. They have meagre incomes , they are illiterate
and in poor health , they have short life spans, their colonies in take are below minimum,
they lack access to basic necessities of life , such as clothing, food descent shelter and are
unable to meet social and economic obligation, they lack scale with which to get gainful
employment they have adequate possession or economic asset and sometime lack self-esteem
(Olayemi, 1995)
Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria
Poverty has earned recognition in the extent of its ravaging society and the affairs of
humanity at the international, national and local levels. The need exists now for urgent actions
towards its eradication and control. Indeed, poverty is a snare. It is dehumanizing it must be
eradicated (World Bank, 2002).
In a bid to overcome poverty, government initiated different policies and programs
between 1986 and 2004 to alleviate it. These programmes include: Community Bank (CB)
National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), Poverty Eradication Programme (PEP)
Directorate of Food Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) Direct Employment (NDE),
People Bank of Nigeria (PBN) Family Support Programme (FSP) National Economic
Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDS), Better Life Programme (BLP) and Family
Economic Advancement Programme FEAP whose aim were to ameliorate the suffering of
the people by providing them employment opportunities and access to credit facilities to
enable them establish their own business.
Faced with the problem of poverty in the country by successive government in the past,
the Federal Government under the present democratic to dispensation put in place policies
and programme to ameliorate the suffering of the people. These policies are initiated at home
and received support from abroad including the World Bank. For instance, in a bid to reduce
poverty, the World Bank has assisted the country in various projects. Since 1961 that Nigeria
joined the World Bank, the country has received assistance of 120 projects worth $1.87
billion (World Bank 2006). These projects includes:-
a. The Micro Small and Medium enterprises (MSMES)
This is use $32 million project which aims increase the performance and employment
levels of micro-small and medium enterprises in selected non-oil industry subs-sectors in
three targeted states of the country. The purpose of this scheme is to diversify the Nigerian
economy from replying solely on crude oil as her source of foreign exchange earner.
b. Local Empowerment and Environmental Management Project (LEEMP):-
This is a US $70 $70 million operation, that seeks to strengthen the institutional framework
at all three levels of government (Local Government, State and Federal Government) to
support an environmentally sustainable, and socially inclusive development and to pro-state
beneficiary’s participation in the planning, co-financing, and implementing of multispectral
micro-project (IBID).
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c. The Second Nation Fadama Development Project
This is a US $100 million project with objective to sustainable increase in income of
Fadama resources (fishers, gardeners, hunters, and pastoralist and service providers). The
purpose of this project is to provide meaningful means of livelihood to nomadic cattle's rears
in the northern part, hunters, and fishermen in the southern part of Nigeria with a view to
enhancing their living standard.
Courses and Effect of Poverty
The poverty in Nigeria is essentially related to income distribution. Income is not enough
to go round so that everybody has enough. Many of the factors responsible for
impoverishment in Nigeria can also be attributed to under development economy factor socio-
cultural, technology, over population and capital deficiencies. (Afouja, 2003).
a. Rapid Population Growth
Population growth in the developing world has been more rapid that is was in Europe and
America (Known Hung, 1976). Nigeria population problem is largely, due to growth rates
rather than density. Nigerian's population was projected to have raised to 95.2 million from
93.3 million in 1993 thus growing annual growth rate of 3.6 percent in (Nigeria Population
Commission 2006). The Nigerian's population is approximately 148 million (CBN 2009).
b. Under Development
The most obvious reason for poverty is under development of the country. It makes a large
percentage of the populace to go without even the most essential needs of daily life because
total national income and hence aggregate consumption is too small to the enormous size of
the population (Seers, 1969)
c. Inflation
A continues and persistent like in the general price rise the purchasing power of money
falls and they lead to the improvement of the lower middle and poorer section of the society.
d. Low Capital Formation
Nigerians level of savings has been generally low and thus not augured well for productive
investment in Nigeria. This is partly due to capital flight and dept accumulation and has thus
hindered economic development. The needs of capital formation or accumulation become
imperative if viewed in the context of increasing a country`s stock of real capital.
e. Technological Backwardness
A very serious obstacle to economic development of developing countries is the nation of
technological backwardness. In several case this a greater obstacle than the scarcity of capital,
which has been given a somewhat exaggeration importance. For instance, while the discovery
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of minerals and export market can lead to increase income for all, but technology
backwardness does make it possible (Agwumike, 2003).
f. Unemployment Rate:
In economic, it is wildly agreed that inflation and unemployment are indirectly related.
When the level of employment raises inflation rate falls and vice versa.
g. Corruption
This is a serious problem in the country. Money which accrued to governments at all level
are stolen and kept in private Bank Account, at home and abroad by public officials. No
meaningful investment which would have generated employment for the people could take
place in an environment plagued with corrupt practices.
h. Regional Disparities
The distribution of poverty is not even in the country there exist extreme disparities
accounting for the poverty of the people of certain region against property of others. For
instance, Lagos, Port Hart Court and Kano are the richest in term of per capital income on
the basic of rapid industrialization.
Various Circle of Poverty
Aspect of various circle of poverty area as follows:-
i. Since less money is spent per capital on school attained by student, they spent fewer
years in school, perform poorly and must often do not obtain Certificate, Diploma
and Degree which are essential for getting jobs (Chambers, 1995).
ii. Health Nutrition and Safety: -
The poor have less nourishing diet and more birth defects, accident diseases and
mental illness than others, they more likely to have reduced intelligence quotient
(IQ).As results of these factors of taking food, that does not have high calorific
value plus absent of proper prenatal and infant sensory deprivation, the poor are
more likely to be alcoholic and narcotic addicts. Absenteeism at work and school,
low energy and low productivity level.
Poverty Alleviation and Development
Poverty alleviation is defined as a process of reducing lessening or abolishing poverty.
The word alleviation could be used in various ways for the purpose of this research,
alleviation means reduction. Economic development is process of improving the quality of
human lives. Raising people living levels that is their income does this and consumption level
will improve medical services, education e.tc will be put through relevant growth processes,
the creation of condition that are conductive to the growth of people self-esteem through the
establishment system and institution which promote human dignity and respect and increasing
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people freedom to drive by entering the range of their choice variable. For instance,
increasing varieties of consumer's goods and services (Myrtal, 1976).
Economic development is viewed as an act of process whereby the economic goes through
process of natural growth differentiation or evolution by a successive change from a less
perfect to a more perfect or more highly organized state.
The World Bank (2006) state the primary task of development is to eliminate poverty. the
United Bank for Africa (UBA) Business and Economic Digest emphasizes that in the long
run, the permanent solution to the problem of poverty is through a calculated and conscious
economic growth in the range of 5-7 percentage.
The pervasiveness of poverty in Nigeria is so compounding that there were thought of
proffering acceptable and workable modalities, if its eradication in the long run is not only
intimidation, alleviation, goes hand in hand. Without poverty alleviation, development in any
economic particularly Nigeria is impossible. In this view, social welfare is seen as function
of Nigeria development.
Conclusion
In conclusion, poverty is one of the micro-economic problems that are hindering economic
development in Nigeria. Government in its efforts to alleviate poverty s among people has
introduce a number of programmes, which is believed to effective in alleviation poverty, but
the problem is that limited number of people are benefiting from such programmed. Also,
other problem like inflation are making things thing difficult for the impact of such programs
to be felt.
Recommendations
Based on the literature and the conclusion above the researcher wishes to recommend that-:
i. Tackling major policy lapses head on which have depraved agriculture and agro- business
the former prominence that these enjoyed in a year past. This is certainly even more
relevance in the case northern Nigeria.
ii. There is need for government to discourage resources mismanagement through
programmers like war against indiscipline.
iii. Government should provide generous and attract time incentives for private initiate
programmed could be in form of grants, tax break, or seed capital for starting new
economic activities that would aim at rehabilitate the poor.
iv. The poor should be help and thought how self- help cooperatively initiated in implement
project, by first identifying their need, prioritizing those need and designing and implement
strategies regarding same.
vi. Pro-poor policies should target education health and housing.
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vi. Sponsorship of micro-credit programmed which world aid women and girls improve their
lot at the rural areas. Mainstream economic activity for privet alleviation world require a
detailed, step by step and systematic analyses of the nation and northern Nigerian's
agricultural policy in particular. It is however, recommended that a tri-partite approach be
adopted in this regard to include the public sector, private and NGO'S for accountability.
On the prorate side inched world-be formers, at various levels private agro-business
enterprise, and venture capitalist.
REFERENCES
Afouja B. and Ogunika O.F (2003): “meaning measurement, and courses of poverty” (Pp:
316).
Agwumike, fidelis (2003) an appraised of poverty reduction strategies in Nigeria: Central
Bank of Nigeria (CBN) (2009) economic and financial review, vol 39 no. 4 Chambers R
(1995): poverty livelihood whose reality counts” a policy paper commission by UNDP for
the world bank summit for social development.
Known. Hung (2000): the concept of power: identify the causes and ideas of poverty east St.
Louis action research project.
Maduagwu, Anthony (2000) alleviating poverty in Nigeria Africa economic analysis.
Myrtal (1976): “Poverty eradication as indices for economic development”
Novak T. (1998): “Poverty and they state, an historical sociology” University Press
Philadelphia is edition Pp: 185-188”.
Oleyemi J. K. (2001) a survey of approach to poverty alleviation” a paper presented at the
national workshop on integration of poverty alleviation strategies into place and
programme in Nigeria. Oxford English Dictionary (2005) Oxford University Press
Seers O. (1969): the meaning of development international development counted and
measuring of social and economic development: Pp: 102-107
Smith, Stephen (2006): how to help the poor out of poverty” retrieved from htt://www.global
policy forum.org.com.
William, G. (1981) “The World Bank and the Problem” in Rural
World Bank (2000), World Development Report, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
World Bank (2006), Nigeria: Poverty in the midst of Plenty. The Challenge of Growth with
Inclusion. A World Bank Poverty Assessment.
World Bank (2002) The Assault on World Poverty. John Hopkins University Press,
Baltimore, USA.
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THE NEED FOR ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC GRAPHICS IN ENGINEERING AND RELATED
CURRICULA
By
Mohammed Usman Michika
Electrical/Electronic Department
ABSTRACT
This paper documents the needs of electrical and electronics graphics to introductory general
engineering graphics curricula. It includes an overview of the architectural, mechanical, and
electrical/electronic graphics language. The electrical/electronic field is the largest branch
of engineering and continues to grow. This dynamical changing field interfaces with
architectural, civil, mechanical, industrial, computer, and other many disciplines of
engineering. A common, seamless, and interrelated graphics language is used to prepare
drawings and diagrams by engineering design group. Electrical/electronic graphics is
frequently overlooked in introductory engineering graphics courses and texts. Electrical and
electronic graphics is part of the universal engineering graphic language used to prepare,
read, and interpret plans, and should be included in engineering and related curricula. This
paper describe how electrical/electronic graphics can be incorporated to effectively introduce
students to design, creative thinking, visualization, and the understanding of the widely used
graphics language.
INTRODUCTION
Engineering graphics is a fundamental communication medium used by technically trained
people worldwide to design, construct, and operate structures, machines, or products. The
registered professional engineer assumes a working and legal responsibility for the technical
correctness of a device or design as represented by the engineering graphic language.
Engineering graphics cannot be described in English nor visualized in math. It is a unique
language which is indispensable in generating, forming, reading, and transmitting ideas.
Graphics is a universal technical language without equal: a vocabulary of engineering with
its own alphabet, symbols, abbreviations, slang, terms, idioms, grammar, and conventions.
The design effort is hampered by the inability of engineers to read their design plans or to
read the interfacing plans of the other engineering disciplines. Graphic illiteracy creates a
schism in engineering not only between applied and research engineers but also between
engineers of different disciplines. Industry readiness requires a working knowledge of the
engineering graphics language. Graphic illiteracy should not be tolerated in the Information
Age.
The Disciplines of Engineering Graphics
The three main disciplines of engineering graphics are architectural, mechanical, and
electrical/electronic graphics. Architectural graphics is generally used in the representation
Scietech Journal, Volume 5, ……….. 130
of large-scale structures, machines, or products. Examples include: buildings, bridges,
towers, ships, aircraft, pipe, vent, and cable systems. Architectural graphics has been used
since ancient times, and is more widely used in modern times as structures become larger
and more complex. The methods of architectural representation include orthographic (plans
and elevations) with associated sections and details, axonometric, and perspective.
Mechanical graphics is generally used to represent objects at or near full size – for
example: half or double size. Major mechanical drawing methods include detail and assembly
drawings. Methods of pictorial representation include orthographic, axonometric, and
oblique drawings with associated details, sections, and developments. Mechanical graphics
has become more highly developed and widely used during the Industrial Revolution.
Mechanical graphics is frequently taught as the only “engineering graphics”, with
architectural and electrical/electronic graphics omitted.
Electrical/electronic graphics represents the largest of engineering disciplines, surpassing
all others in the 1970's. This is the newest form or dialect of engineering graphics with most
of its growth occurring in the twentieth century. Electrical/electronic graphics differs
markedly from the more closely related architectural and mechanical graphics. Electrical and
electronic symbology and drawings are not drawn to scale unless required by a structure
(printed-circuit board) or machine interface. The electrical and electronic engineering
drawings include block, line, schematic, wiring, terminal, and logic diagrams. Architectural
and mechanical based electrical/electronic drawings include: contracts, guidance,
arrangement, and installation drawings.
Description of Electrical/Electronic Graphics
The electrical/electronic graphics language functions as a common interface between the
major engineering disciplines and is in common usage throughout industry worldwide. For
instructional purposes, the presentation of electrical/electronic graphics to first-year students
may be divided into two divisions.
The parent division, electrical graphics, may be taught as generation, transmission, and
distribution of electrical power for residential, commercial, and industrial users. Industrial
users include lighting, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC), and most types of
equipment operation. All engineering graphics students should know basic electrical graphical
symbols including receptacles, switches, batteries, fuses, and circuit breakers. Cable and
wiring drawings, including their colour coding, and wire connectors should also be presented.
Student design projects might include basic power riser diagrams, circuit mapping,
transmission diagrams, and substation layouts.
The electronics graphics division is far larger than the electrical graphics. Electronics
graphics may be taught as the processing and control of electrical energy in small amounts.
Electronics includes: computers, circuitry of appliances, guidance and control systems, and
communications networks. Electronics symbols include many discrete components from
integrated circuits to be a power vacuum tube. Students should recognize basic electronic
symbols such as transistors, diodes, resistors, inductors, capacitors, relays and solid-state
circuitry including a variety of internal descriptive and external interconnection symbols.
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Student design projects include the application and interconnection of power tubes,
transistors, solid-state and integrated circuits as applied to alarms, radios, televisions, and
computers.
Suggestions for Curriculum Delivery
The electrical/electronic education model includes emphasis on visualization, training in
form and arrangement, rapid and accurate sketching techniques [1] and electrical/electronic
based computer software packages such as AutoCad for printed-circuit wiring. The
widespread use of freehand sketching and electrical/electronic-based computer software
within the industrial application of electrical/electronic graphics the documents the need for
its instruction. Presentation of curriculum material may evolve towards competency-based
instruction. The curriculum material may be delivered, taught, and evaluated Just-In-Time
so that the preceding and following knowledge is linked. The electrical/electronic engineering
graphics is incorporated into an introductory engineering course. It is delivered under the
following four topics:
Drafting Practices
i. Diagram Titles states the type of diagram or components
ii. Drawing Size and Format, specified by ANSI Y14.1, describes drawing sheet size
and layouts.
iii. ANSI Line Weight Conventions are used for electrical and electronic diagrams.
iv. Lettering is size and font is specified. 4. Standards
Symbols
i. Graphic Symbols (ANSI Y32.2) describe how combinatorial symbols can be drawn
and explained on the drawing.
ii. Graphical Symbols include geometrical design representing an electrical or electronic
device or component.
Diagrams
i. Power Riser Diagrams may be the most frequently used diagrams on electrical
working drawings. They show the required components and how these components
are interconnected.
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ii. Circuit Mapping uses numbers and electrical symbols that describe the working
drawing of the electrical system.
Block Diagrams are similar to flow charts. They typically consist of interconnected
single lines and rectangular blocks that indicate major functions of component parts
of a circuit or system.
iii. Line Diagrams consist of single lines and graphic symbols. They are typically used to
indicate the course of the circuit or system with principal circuit connections.
iv. Schematic Diagrams are elementary diagrams that consist of single lines, graphic
symbols
v. that show circuit connections and functions without showing the physical size, shape,
or location of devices. They are used in performing design calculations, selecting
components, and troubleshooting the circuit.
vi. Wiring Diagrams or Connection Diagrams are used to show the connections of
component devices which form the circuit. They show the general physical
arrangement of and the internal and/or external connections.
vii. Terminal Diagrams are used to show the internal circuits of a unit or device and its
relationship to the terminal configuration, locating the terminal with respect to the
shape or outline of the device. Logic Diagrams contain logic symbols and notes, and
the details of signal flow and control.
Standards
i. ANSI Y32.9-1972 (Reaffirmed 1989) American National Standard Graphic Symbols
for Electrical Wiring and Layout Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building
Construction IEEE Std 815-1975 (Reaffirmed 1989) Standard Graphical Symbols for
Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (ANSI/DoD approved)
ii. IEEE Std 815A-1986 Supplement to Standard
iii. Graphical Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams (ANSI/DoD approved)
iv. Z10.1 – Abbreviation for Scientific Engineering Terms
v. IEEE STD 200-1975 (Reaffirmed 1988) Standard Reference Designations for
Electrical and Electronics Parts and Equipment (ANSI/DoD approved)
vi. Students should become familiar with selected Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineer (IEEE) standards, American National Standard Institute (ANSI) standards,
and International Standards Organization (ISO) standards, National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) standards, and Electronic Industry of America (EIA) standards,
as well as general specifications (GEN SPECS) and military circuit specifications
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(MIL SPECS). Students should understand how, where, and when to apply governing
standards to electrical and electronic design.
Future Curriculum Development
For several years, the IEEE and ANSI have worked with the ISO Secretariat to devise a set
of international standards for Documentation and Graphical Symbols. These will include four
subsets of graphical documents:
i. Graphical Symbols for Diagrams that will contain rules for symbol elements, basic or
general symbols, qualifying or additional symbols, conceptual symbols, and rules for
different forms and orientations of symbols.
ii. Documentation that will contain graphical symbols for use in documentation and for
use on equipment; general rules for preparing technical documentation of a device,
equipment,
iii. system, or plant, including diagrams, charts, and other descriptions; definition and
coordination of the information required to plan, develop, describe, install, maintain,
and operate a device, equipment, system, or plant, taking into account all facilities of
information processing systems, their data handling and system independent data
exchange formats.
iv. Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment that will contain standards for the creation
of graphical symbols; the graphical symbols themselves, and graphical symbols for
use on equipment.
v. Data Sets for Libraries of Electric Component Data that will contain standards for
data sets suitable for inclusion in libraries of data (in human-readable and machine-
readable and processible form) on electric components, including electronic and
electromechanical components to be used in computer-aided design, manufacturing,
and testing; including technical data elements, geometrical shapes, graphical symbols,
and models for simulation of the function.
The following is a list of available IEEE standards categories for which documents have been
developed. In establishing curriculum topics for graphics, the asterisked (*) categories are
suggested for inclusion in graphics course(s).
IEEE Standards Categories
Aerospace Electronics
Antennas & Propagation
Circuits & Systems*
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Communications*
Information Technology*
Abbreviated Test Language for all Systems (ATLAS)*
Bus Architectures & Microprocessors/Microcomputers
Computer Glossaries
Design Automation
Local & Metropolitan Area Networks (LAN/MAN) (802's)
Portable Applications (POSIX)
Software Engineering
Test Technology
Electrical Insulation
Electricity Metering
Electromagnetics
Electron Devices*
Instrumentation & Measurement
Magnetics Medical Device Communications
National Electric Code*
National Electrical Safety Code*
Nuclear Engineering
Power Electronics*
Power & Energy*
Cement Industry Applications
Dispersed Power Generation
Electric Machinery
Insulated Conductors
Insulation Coordination
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Marine Transportation
Petroleum & Chemical
Pole Line Hardware
Power Capacitors
Power Dielectrics & Insulation
Power Distribution & Regulating Transformers
Power Generation
Power Systems
Protective Relaying
Roadway Lighting
Static Power Converters
Substation & Switchgear
Surge-Protective Devices
Transmission Line Construction
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, & Frequency Control
Symbols, Designations, & Units*
Students should at least be aware of the above categories
and their general content. They will learn the details on the job.
Transmission & Distribution
Conclusion
An industrial strength graphics program based on a balanced architectural, mechanical,
and electrical/electronic graphics will prepare students for upper-level courses and
employment in the engineering field. A deficiency in graphics education creates a vertical
weakness in the engineering curriculum as it impacts the design process in future courses.
Student enhancement of electrical/electronic graphics material is necessary so they can read
and prepare design drawings, communicate creative design effectively, and visualize the
entire engineering project. Graphic literacy across the engineering spectrum creates a
common base among applied and research engineering, engineering technology, designers,
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drafters, and technically trained people worldwide. Enhancement and enrichment of
electrical/electronic graphics is vital to all engineering and technical disciplines.
REFERENCES
Hansberry, Eric W. (1989), “Sketching in the Graphics Curriculum”, Proceedings of ASEE-
EDGD Mid-Year Meeting
Hansberry, Eric. W (1990), “The Need for Architectural Graphics in the General
Engineering Curriculum”, ASEE 1 Annual Conference
Hulbert, Thomas E., Hansberry, Eric W., and Angus, Robert B. (1995), Just-In-Time
Education: An Idea Whose Time is Overdue, Proceedings of ASEE Annual Conference
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