Manual de Cátedra - Traducción Técnica

Traduccin Tcnica - 1

TRADUCCIN TCNICA

MANUAL de CTEDRA

2013


INTRODUCCIN Nueva didctica de la traduccin tcnico-cientfica: enfoque textual

Diferencia entre textos tcnicos y cientficos

Prstamos innecesarios

CAPTULO I

MTODO DE TRADUCCIN DEL GNERO EDUCATIVO Y DE DIVULGACIN

Caractersticas lingsticas y textuales

CAPTULO II

MTODO DE TRADUCCIN DEL GNERO PUBLICITARIO


CAPTULO III

MTODO DE TRADUCCIN DEL GNERO INSTRUCTIVO

Caractersticas lingsticas y textuales.

TEXTOS PARA ANLISIS TEXTUAL Y PRCTICA DE LA TRADUCCIN


INTRODUCCIN Nueva didctica de la traduccin tcnico-cientfica: enfoque textual Como parte de la capacitacin inherente a su carrera, los estudiantes del Traductorado de Ingls, de la Facultad de Lenguas de la Universidad Nacional de Crdoba, debern ser capaces de reconocer distintos gneros textuales, y de traducir en consecuencia. En los textos cientficos, la problemtica se explica en su origen primero, y luego se describe el desarrollo del pensamiento en relacin a ella, generalmente con una finalidad didctica (en ocasiones encubierta) o de difusin, que va desde lo causal hasta las definiciones finales. El estilo impersonal necesariamente refleja un viso de objetividad y formalidad en el texto tcnico y cientfico. Adems de la eleccin de vocablos, este estilo es abonado por elementos tales como el uso frecuente de Passive Voice en ingls y Pasiva con se

en espaol (particularmente en Argentina) y como el recurso de nominalizacin, que le proporciona un carcter formal al texto. Algunas veces la longitud de las unidades sintcticas, a travs de coordinacin o subordinacin, se entienden muy cerca de la frontera de la incomprensin en los textos tcnicos y cientficos en ingls. Tanto es as que a menudo debemos los traductores decidir cortes sintcticos en espaol, con el cuidado de que esos cortes no malogren la unidad de coherencia semntica. Idntica precaucin se debe tener con las largas frases sustantivas, sin modificadores, que constituyen en ingls una forma objetiva y fcil de expresar unidades semnticas. Su traduccin al espaol debe respetar el orden jerrquico y la carga semntica de los modificadores, a la vez que resolver sintcticamente la relacin entre los mismos, a travs de preposiciones o partculas conectoras. El traductor tiene ante s la concreta, y a la vez apabullante, tarea de verter ideas de una lengua a otra. Su funcin es tan natural como el inters de los pueblos por comunicarse, y tan compleja como los innumerables escollos que obstaculizan la comprensin entre las diferentes formas de expresarse de diferentes culturas. Proponemos el anlisis textual como punto de partida, y una gran vocacin de bsqueda para lograr la excelencia en nuestra profesin. La capacidad para documentarse ocupa un lugar central en el conjunto de competencias del traductor, ya que le permite adquirir conocimientos sobre el campo temtico, sobre la terminologa y sobre las normas de funcionamiento textual del gnero en cuestin.

Diferencia entre textos tcnicos y cientficos

Estamos de acuerdo con Pinchuck (1977) en que lo que diferencia a una gran parte de los textos cientficos es que tienen la finalidad de difundir ampliamente los resultados

de la

investigacin entre la comunidad de especialistas; por ejemplo, a travs de artculos, ponencias en congresos, o conferencias. Esta situacin de uso no se presenta nunca en el mbito tcnico. Por supuesto, tambin se escriben artculos de investigacin sobre campos tcnicos, pero aqu se produce un divorcio entre el tema y el mbito comunicativo de uso. La situacin comunicativa en la que se produce un artculo de este tipo no es tcnica, puesto que no surge en el seno de la industria ni estn implicados tcnicos en su emisin, ni su finalidad est relacionada directamente con la


aplicacin prctica de conocimientos tericos. Por tanto, un artculo de investigacin sobre el control de la polucin del aire (ingeniera y tecnologa ambiental) es un texto cientfico, mientras que un proyecto de medidas para la rpida descontaminacin del medio ambiente en una determinada zona geogrfica (idntico campo temtico) es un

texto tcnico.

Otras situaciones comunicativas son compartidas con los textos tcnicos, porque al igual que ellos, los textos cientficos pueden utilizarse para transmitir el conjunto de saberes propios de una disciplina a los especialistas en formacin (manual sobre un campo determinado, cientfico o tecnolgico) o, en algunos casos, para divulgar unos conocimientos bsicos entre el pblico general (monografa divulgativa, artculo divulgativo en la prensa general, documental televisivo, todos ellos sobre temas cientficos o tecnolgicos). Pero aqu acaba el inventario de posibilidades, mientras que el mbito de uso de los textos tcnicos es mucho ms amplio, e incluye la produccin de textos con el fin de contribuir a la organizacin de los procesos industriales (plan de produccin, solicitud de desarrollo del producto, etc.), ofrecer informacin al usuario de los productos (manual de instrucciones, prospecto de medicamento), anunciar productos (publirreportaje, anuncio tcnico, etc.), y otros

muchos ms, como veremos ms adelante.

La traduccin de textos tcnicos - Silvia Gamero Prez Editorial Ariel, Barcelona, 2001

Prstamos innecesarios

M ngeles Sastre

En esta seccin hemos tratado en varias ocasiones de las palabras procedentes de otras lenguas partiendo de la base de que los prstamos (o extranjerismos) no son en absoluto rechazables porque todos los idiomas del mundo se han enriquecido a lo largo de su historia con aportaciones lxicas procedentes de lenguas diversas. Ninguna lengua se ha visto libre de prstamos. En el caso concreto del espaol, muchos hablantes lamentan la invasin de extranjerismos, cuya consecuencia directa dicen es la desaparicin de palabras y expresiones propias de la lengua espaola, y se preguntan cmo es posible que la Real Academia de la Lengua no tome cartas en el asunto, es decir, que no frene esta riada, como si de una invasin se tratara. Para la tranquilidad de muchos de ustedes, puedo asegurarles que a la RAE siempre le han preocupado los extranjerismos, aunque no ha sido hasta el ao 1995, fecha de la publicacin del Diccionario panhispnico de dudas, cuando ha dejado patente su postura (los extranjerismos no son rechazables en s mismos) y sus lneas de actuacin (es importante que su incorporacin responda en lo posible a nuevas necesidades expresivas y, sobre todo, que se haga de forma ordenada y unitaria, acomodndose al mximo a los rasgos grficos y morfolgicos del espaol). En el Diccionario panhispnico de dudas (DPD) figuran como entradas muchas voces extranjeras habitualmente empleadas por los hispanohablantes, bastantes ms de las que se registran en la vigsima segunda edicin del Diccionario acadmico (2001). Los criterios que se tienen en cuenta en el comentario a cada entrada son los siguientes: a) distinguir los extranjerismos superfluos de los necesarios o muy extendidos; b) mostrar la procedencia y el significado de la palabra; c) proponer la adaptacin grficay fnica cuando el caso lo requiera de los prstamos necesarios o muy extendidos; d) ofrecer una mnima informacin gramatical, como, por ejemplo, de


gnero y nmero en el caso de los sustantivos. Esta semana nos ocuparemos de algunos extranjerismos innecesarios para los que existen equivalentes con plena vitalidad: pack, kit, password, planning y online. Para designar el conjunto de artculos iguales o similares que se agrupan, especialmente para su reparto o venta, los hispanohablantes acudimos casi siempre a la voz inglesa pack cuando el espaol posee las palabras vocablo, lote, paquete o envase, dependiendo del contexto. Es, por tanto, un anglicismo evitable. Utilizamos frecuentemente el vocablo kit cuando queremos referirnos a un juego de piezas para armar o montar un objeto o a un conjunto de productos y utensilios que se venden juntos y que van destinados a un mismo fin. La mayora de los hoteles ofrecen un kit de higiene a los clientes, las marcas cosmticas comercializan kits de maquillaje y al comienzo de cada curso acadmico la mayor parte de los alumnos estrenan su kit de artculos de escritorio. Como ustedes podrn comprobar, en la mayora de los casos esta voz (procedente del ingls, que a su vez lo tom del neerlands) es sustituible por las palabras juego, equipo o estuche. Recuerdan los equipos de msica con los que soaban los jvenes de al menos tres dcadas? No es nada infrecuente escuchar la voz password para referirse a la secuencia de caracteres que permite el acceso a un sistema. No creen que es mucho ms apropiado hablar de contrasea o, si se desea mayor precisin, de clave de acceso, de clave personal, de cdigo de seguridad o, simplemente, de clave? Por qu se oye cada vez ms la voz planning en referencia a la organizacin de actividades u operaciones con arreglo a un plan o programa? Es que se alude a algo distinto si se utilizan los vocablos plan, planificacin, programa o programacin? Qu es eso de preguntarle a alguien que si tiene algn planning para el fin de semana? Y, por ltimo, qu necesidad hay de utilizar la expresin inglesa online para referirse a la conexin directa con un sistema a travs de Internet cuando en espaol tenemos el calco en lnea? Podramos seguir con muchos ejemplos de este tipo. Pero tambin quiero dejar constancia de que el uso de estos prstamos innecesarios no tiene por qu empaar la percepcin que los hablantes tengan del prstamo en general. Hay muchsimos prstamos que son necesarios y muchos tambin que son imprescindibles, de los que hablaremos en otra

ocasin.

Anlisis textual previo a una tarea de traduccin

Items que deben ser identificados:

1. Tipo y gnero textual

Los gneros: esta propiedad textual hace referencia al propsito comunicativo de un acto comunicativo y a su reflejo en la formulacin del mismo (Swales en Bhatia 1993: 13). Esa formulacin est sumamente estructurada y normalizada, lo que permite clasificar los textos en varios gneros, reconocibles por aspectos formales (Gamero Prez 2001: 50-60). Entre otros gneros, podemos nombrar los siguientes: artculos, conferencias, catlogos, manuales de instrucciones, folletos, monografas, diarios de laboratorio, charlas informales, etc.

El gnero instructivo o educativo se expresa a travs del texto expositivo y relaciona

aspectos del conocimiento en forma cronolgica, organizada y detallada.

El texto cientfico de consulta es aquel que presenta organizadas, de manera

general o especializada, las diversas reas del conocimiento. A este tipo de textos


pertenecen los diccionarios especializados o temticos, las enciclopedias, los

catlogos, los resmenes, etc.

El texto cientfico didctico es aquel en el que se presentan los conocimientos

cientficos explicados de manera gradual y sistemtica para facilitar el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Esencialmente lleva al lector a aprender, a desarrollar habilidades o

estrategias y a asumir fundamentos axiolgicos o de valores.

Se caracteriza por:

-utilizacin de mtodos y procedimientos que facilitan el aprendizaje

-su condicin (generalmente) de textos escolares

-explicacin del conocimiento cientfico de manera gradual

-inclusin frecuente de una o varias explicaciones, ejemplos, aplicaciones, ejercicios,

resmenes y evaluaciones

Aunque su objetivo es igualmente el conocimiento, su propsito no est slo en transmitirlo como el texto divulgativo, sino en fijarlo en el alumno, en darle la posibilidad de analizarlo, reflexionar sobre l y desarrollar as, en ste, habilidades

para su aplicacin futura.

Este texto se caracteriza por el ajuste del lenguaje a un lector predeterminado por su edad, nivel escolar, caractersticas culturales y perfil que se quiere lograr en l, lo cual lo diferencia del lector hasta cierto punto annimo del texto divulgativo o del lector iniciado y maduro del texto cientfico. De lo anterior se infiere la capacidad del texto didctico de asumir el lenguaje del educando y desarrollar en l otros niveles de significados y sentidos nuevos, pero, eso s, conservando la amenidad que requiere un texto que es ledo con un fuerte componente de obligatoriedad circunstancia subjetiva que no caracteriza los otros tipos de textos cuya lectura es siempre volitiva.

El texto informativo y divulgativo comprende tanto a los diarios, revistas y

materiales publicitarios y divulgativos ligeros, como a los libros destinados a la divulgacin o difusin amplia de un tema de inters general. Su principal caracterstica formal es la simplicidad de su estructura y el empleo del lenguaje comn del modo ms depurado y correcto posible, con el cuidado de explicar con palabras de dominio comn los trminos y las nociones que no pertenezcan a este mbito. A diferencia del texto didctico, su objeto no es ensear y fijar el conocimiento, sino ser ameno,

convincente e informar.

Por divulgacin suele entenderse todo intento de comunicacin de los descubrimientos generados en el mbito de la ciencia a un pblico no experto. Se trata, pues, de una traduccin o reformulacin de un mensaje para una nueva audiencia. Dado que el nivel de formacin de los lectores previstos puede variar segn los contextos, podemos hablar de algunos tipos de divulgacin ms llanos que otros. Fundamentalmente, la diferencia est marcada por el medio empleado para la divulgacin (revista, diario, televisin, folleto, libro) y el autor (periodista, docente,

cientfico).

La divulgacin masiva a menudo muestra seales evidentes de un texto publicitario,

sobre todo cuando se trata de una campaa masiva para modificar una conducta, o cuando es, sin ms, una publicidad camuflada como texto cientfico. Si bien en esta


ctedra no cubrimos la traduccin de textos publicitarios per se, encontramos que los elementos de carcter publicitario nos llevan a modificar el enfoque del traductor al realizar su trabajo. El objetivo es entonces aprender a identificar esa intencionalidad, a veces encubierta, en un texto descriptivo o instructivo. Es por esto que vamos a revisar las caractersticas de este gnero:

Desde un punto de vista comunicativo, la publicidad es una tcnica de carcter complejo, propia de la sociedad de consumo, que utilizan los productores de bienes y servicios, instituciones o asociaciones para dar a conocer algo al pblico y persuadirlo para que realice una accin concreta: comprar, evitar, adoptar determinados

comportamientos, votar a un partido poltico, etctera.

Clases de publicidad

Bajo la denominacin comn de publicidad se recogen actividades comunicativas muy variadas que, aunque comparten los recursos empleados para elaborar sus mensajes, son diferentes en cuanto al fin

que persiguen. Segn sea ste pueden distinguirse tres clases:

La publicidad comercial, orientada a la venta de productos o a la

contratacin de ciertos servicios.

La comunicacin social o publicidad institucional, dirigida a modificar las

conductas o comportamientos de los ciudadanos.

La propaganda poltica, cuyo objetivo es que la opinin pblica asuma determinadas ideas polticas y sociales como propias.

El discurso publicitario

En los mensajes publicitarios puede distinguirse una estructura textual claramente argumentativa, aunque muchas veces tienen la apariencia de

textos expositivos.

La organizacin de los contenidos como texto lingstico del mensaje publicitario responde a una estructuracin en tres partes: encabezamiento o titular, cuerpo o desarrollo, y rbrica o cierre.

Las partes primera y tercera suelen ser ms concisas y llamativas, pues incluyen la llamada de atencin, la identificacin del producto y el eslogan, mientras que la segunda parte suele ir en letra ms pequea para hacer una descripcin del producto.

Anlisis funcional del mensaje publicitario

El anuncio se compone de elementos diferentes cuyas principales

funciones son:

Implicar al lector (elementos implicativos).

Informar sobre el producto (elementos predicativos).


Ponderar el producto (elementos ponderativos), para tratar de convencer al pblico de la conveniencia de su adquisicin.

Favorecer la fijacin del mensaje en la memoria (elementos de extraamiento o retricos).

2. Temtica

La temtica: conocer el tema tratado en el texto supone averiguar el mbito del conocimiento en cuyo seno se ha producido. Cuando los diccionarios bilinges ofrecen varias posibles traducciones a un trmino, especifican la ciencia a la que corresponde cada uno de los equivalentes. Los diccionarios monolinges tambin clasifican los posibles significados de un trmino en funcin del mbito cientfico, lo que es interesante si tratamos de establecer una relacin entre lenguas por comparacin de las definiciones de trminos equivalentes(Arntz y

Picht 1995: 196-199).

Por absurdo que parezca, hay ocasiones en las que el traductor desconoce o confunde el campo cognitivo al que pertenece el texto que debe traducir. En la prctica, debemos preguntarnos qu es esto? o de qu se trata? para luego

indagar sobre el tema y adquirir los conocimientos bsicos necesarios para

poder traducir.

3. Destinatario (registro y grado de especializacin)

El traductor generalmente recibe informacin adecuada sobre las caractersticas del destinatario de su traduccin. En los textos cientficos es particularmente importante conocer la franja etrea a la que pertenece el

destinatario, as como tambin su nivel educativo y entorno cultural.

El grado de especializacin est directamente relacionado con el receptor del

texto, en lo que respecta al nivel de conocimientos que tenga del tema tratado

y, en consecuencia, de los trminos empleados. De esta manera, se puede

clasificar los textos como especializados o divulgativos. En los primeros se har

un mayor uso terminolgico que en el segundo y en los divulgativos se incluirn

las explicaciones y aclaraciones necesarias sobre los trminos empleados y los

conceptos tratados.

El conocimiento del destinatario del texto va a determinar los dems aspectos

de la traduccin, ya que est ntimamente ligado a la intencionalidad, a la

densidad terminolgica, a las caractersticas del encargo y, especialmente, al

registro, es decir, al grado de formalidad del texto.

4. Intencionalidad del autor

El traductor ha de tener presente la intencionalidad del autor antes de comenzar su traduccin. Pocas veces tiene el traductor acceso a conversar con el autor o a preguntarle por su verdadera intencionalidad, de manera que generalmente esta caracterstica se deduce a partir del texto y de su


destinatario. De todas formas, es saludable hacer una reflexin y aclarar este

aspecto de la tarea en forma fehaciente.

Debemos tener en cuenta tambin que la intencionalidad del autor no siempre coincide con la intencionalidad del encargo. Un cliente puede tomar un texto determinado para ser traducido con un objetivo distinto al del autor, o en un contexto especial, o para destinatarios especficos que el autor no concibi

cuando escribi el artculo.

Quienes estamos trabajando o capacitndonos en el mbibto acadmico tendemos a considerar que todo texto cientfico tiene una intencionalidad didctica, es decir, que apunta al aprendizaje o a la adquisicin de conocimiento. La prctica real de la traduccin muchas veces se contrapone a este presupuesto, ya que no todos los pooseedores de conocimiento tienen como meta la enseanza o la divulgacin. Como traductores, debemos ser minuciosos observadores de estos elementos extralingsticos encerrados en

los textos antes de traducirlos.

5. Densidad terminolgica

La terminologa se presenta como uno de los problemas que los alumnos encuentran en la traduccin (Sevilla y Sevilla 2004) porque dificultan la comprensin del texto y el establecimiento de equivalentes entre la lengua original y la terminal. De hecho, el dominio de la terminologa y un uso apropiado de la misma es uno de los objetivos pedaggicos que forma parte de varias programaciones didcticas de traduccin (Bdard 1987: 12-15; Durieux 1998: 125-128; Gamero Prez y Hurtado Albir 1999: 142-145).

Con el fin de alcanzar el segundo objetivo general de los tres que componen su

programacin, Gamero Prez y Hurtado Albir incluyen, entre otros, un objetivo

especfico relacionado con la terminologa:

2.3. Dominar la terminologa. Que el alumno sepa cmo llegar a comprender la

terminologa del texto original y cmo utilizar la terminologa de la lengua

trmino.

2.3.1. Ser crtico ante el vocabulario tcnico y ser consciente de sus

limitaciones.

2.3.2. Saber hallar equivalencias, utilizando, en su caso, los recursos

terminolgicos apropiados.

2.3.3. Saber crear equivalentes inexistentes.

2.3.4. Utilizar terminologa coherente.

2.3.5. Saber adquirir un bagaje terminolgico.

Encontramos un reflejo de esta necesidad de los traductores por dominar la terminologa en la propuesta de Cabr (1996) para formar a los alumnos de traduccin en terminologa.


As, conviene que los alumnos de traduccin sean capaces de identificar los trminos en el texto que vayan a traducir y de manejar fuentes de informacin temtica y terminolgica para definir relaciones entre las dos lenguas que hagan posible establecer trminos equivalentes.

Los trminos constituyen una parte esencial del discurso, pero adquieren plena significacin como parte integrante de la unidad superior, que es el texto, en la que se engarzan y a la que aportan su carga semntica. De este modo, no se puede concebir un texto especializado sin la participacin de los trminos, ni un trmino sin el contexto que le da la vida.

No comprenderemos, por tanto, todo lo que un trmino simboliza si no prestamos antes atencin al discurso del que forma parte. Por ello, el objeto de trabajo del traductor debe ser el texto, entendido como un ente unitario, como la unidad mnima de traduccin. Una vez comprendido y admitido este hecho, trabajemos con los trminos y concedmosles relevancia en funcin del discurso en el que se utilizan (Sevilla y Sevilla 2004a).

De este modo, el texto es la primera fuente de informacin temtica y terminolgica para comprender el significado de los trminos que contiene y poder llegar a su correspondencia en la lengua terminal (Sevilla y Sevilla 2004b).

6. Organizacin textual

Miguel Snchez (1993) distingue variados estilos para expresar un texto expositivo:

-Secuencia, donde el desarrollo del tema sigue un ordenamiento especfico.

-Descripcin, cuyo objetivo es presentar las caractersticas del tema u objeto.

-Problema-solucin, como un estilo esclarecedor para presentar un tema.

-Causalidad, que es una forma de secuencia con un origen y una accin directa o

consecuencia.

-Comparacin, que es una forma de descripcin, pero con el agregado de tomar dos o ms aspectos paralelos.

Cabe destacar que la mayora de los textos, y en especial aquellos textos que tienen un objetivo didctico, combinan en su composicin dos o ms de estas formas de organizacin textual con la finalidad de hacerlos ms amenos o de aportar a la claridad

de expresin.

7. Caractersticas del encargo de traduccin

A new proposal

Andrew Chesterman


2000b. Translation typology. In A. Veisbergs and I. Zauberga (eds), The Second Riga Symposium on Pragmatic Aspects of Translation. Riga: University of Latvia, 49-62.

I distinguish first between four sets of variables, A-D:

A) Equivalence variables (having to do with the relation between source text and

target text)

B) Target-language variables (having to do with the style of the target text)

C) Translator variables

D) Special situational variables

These variables are ways in which translations can vary, parameters along which

clients and translators can make choices.

A) Equivalence variables

A1) Function: same or different? Is the main function of the target text intended to be the same as that of the source text, or not? If not, what? (Different function leads to an adaptation of some kind.)

A2) Content: all, selected, reduced or added, or some combination of these?

Does the translation represent all the source content, or select particular parts of it (keyword translation) or reduce the content overall (summary translation, gist translation; subtitling), or add some elements such as explanations (exegetic translation)?

A3) Form: what are the formal equivalence priorities, what formal elements

of the source text are preserved? The main ones are text-type (same or different? Different genre, e.g. verse to prose, sonnet to lyric?); text structure; sentence divisions (full-stops preserved; a common interpretation of what is meant by literal translation); word/morpheme structure (gloss translation, linguistic translation); other (e.g. sounds phonemic translation, transliteration, transcription; or lip-movements dubbing).

A4) Style: evidently intended to be same or different? If different, in what way (another sense of adaptation)?

A5) Source-text revision for error correction: evident or not (implicit or

explicit)? Minimal or major? Has the translator edited the source text during translation, corrected factual errors, improved awkward style and communication quality, or is the source reproduced without corrections or improvements? This is the cleaning-up transediting mentioned by Stetting (1989). (For cultural transediting, see under B2.)

B) Target-language variables


B1) Acceptability. A small number of subtypes can be distinguished here.

(i) Good native style: fluent and readable, may involve editing (communicative translation).

(ii) 100% native style: no signs of translationese, conforms to target text-type norms (covert translation).

(iii) Deliberately marked, resistant to target stylistic norms (foreignized translation).

(iv) Grammatical: grammatically faultless but clearly a translation, features of translationese (overt translation, whether by intention or not).

(v) Intelligible: comprehensible, but with grammatical and stylistic weaknesses. Usually not publishable without native revision.

(vi) Machine translation (with or without postediting).

(vii) Unintelligible.

(Some of these subtypes thus require a competent native speaker of the target language.)

B2) Localized or not? Is the translation adapted to local cultural norms (localized translation, yet another sense of adaptation)? Stylistic norms such

as British or American English also come in here.

B3) Matched or not? Is the translation matched with a defined set of previous texts, e.g. those produced by the clients company, to conform to client-specific norms (e.g. via the use of a translation memory system)? (EU hybrid translations, for instance, or translations that have to be standardized to a particular format.) An extreme form of literary translation might even seek to match the style of a particular individual writer (parody

translation).

C) Translator variables

C1) Visibility. Is the translator visible, e.g. in footnotes, a commentary or preface, via inserted terms from the source text in brackets, via evidence of the translators own particular ideology (learned translation, philological translation, commentary translation, thick translation; feminist translation,

polemical translation)?

C2) Individual or team? Are there indications suggesting that the text was translated by more than one translator?

C3) Native speaker of target or source language, or neither ( inverse translation if the translator is a native speaker of the source language)?

D) Special situational variables


The number of situational variables is virtually infinite, and many (such as client helpfulness, actual availability of documentation...) may leave no visible traces in

the translation. Here are three main ones:

D1) Space: constraints of layout, screen space, speech bubbles, total

pages...

D2) Medium: same (written or spoken) as source text, or not? (E.g. sight

translation, from written to oral.) Also: use or presence of other semiotic systems, other media, diagrams... (screen translation, dubbing, Gouadecs (1990) diagrammatic translation...).

D3) Time: are there indications suggesting that the translation had to be done in an unusual hurry? A careless translation might (rightly or wrongly) give

such an impression, for instance.

Default values

Mathematically, the total number of possible combinations of these variables is enormous. Fortunately, by no means all of them are equally likely to occur, and not all the configurations are even logically possible. We might start reducing the number of possible and reasonably likely types to a more manageable size, first, by specifying default values for each of the variables, for example as follows (where same is of course understood to have quotes around it):

A1: Same function

A2: All content

A3: Same text-type and structure

A4: Same style

A5: Minimal implicit source-text revision

B1: Good native

B2: Not localized

B3: Not matched

C1: Invisible translator

C2: Individual translator

C3: Target language native

D1: No special space constraints

D2: Same, written, medium


D3: Adequate time...

CAPTULO I

MTODO DE TRADUCCIN DEL GNERO EDUCATIVO Y DE DIVULGACIN Caractersticas lingsticas y textuales

El gnero instructivo o educativo se expresa a travs del texto expositivo y relaciona

aspectos del conocimiento en forma cronolgica, organizada y detallada Miguel Snchez (1993) distingue variados estilos para expresar un texto expositivo: - Secuencia, donde el desarrollo del tema sigue un ordenamiento especfico. - Descripcin, cuyo objetivo es presentar las caractersticas del tema u objeto. - Problema-solucin, como un estilo esclarecedor para presentar un tema. - Causalidad, que es una forma de secuencia con un origen y una accin directa o consecuencia. - Comparacin, que es una forma de descripcin, pero con el agregado de tomar dos o ms aspectos paralelos. El texto cientfico de consulta es aquel que presenta organizadas, de manera

general o especializada, las diversas reas del conocimiento. Sus caractersticas son: - est destinado a especialistas o al pblico en general - resume conocimientos generales o especializados - su estructura interna consta de introduccin, desarrollo y conclusin - se utiliza para aclarar dudas A este tipo de textos pertenecen los diccionarios especializados o temticos, las enciclopedias, los catlogos, los resmenes, etc. El texto cientfico didctico es aquel en el que se presentan los conocimientos cientficos explicados de manera gradual y sistemtica para facilitar el aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Esencialmente lleva al lector a aprender, a desarrollar habilidades o estrategias y a asumir fundamentos axiolgicos o de valores. Se caracteriza por: - utilizacin de mtodos y procedimientos que facilitan el aprendizaje - su condicin (generalmente) de textos escolares - explicacin del conocimiento cientfico de manera gradual - asesoramiento a docentes en el proceso enseanza aprendizaje - inclusin frecuente de una o varias explicaciones, ejemplos, aplicaciones, ejercicios, resmenes y evaluaciones Aunque su objetivo es igualmente el conocimiento, su propsito no est slo en transmitirlo como el texto divulgativo, sino en fijarlo en el alumno, en darle la posibilidad de analizarlo, reflexionar sobre l y desarrollar as, en ste, habilidades para su aplicacin futura. Este texto se caracteriza por el ajuste del lenguaje a un lector predeterminado por su edad, nivel escolar, caractersticas culturales y perfil que se quiere lograr en l, lo cual lo diferencia del lector hasta cierto punto annimo del texto divulgativo o del lector iniciado y maduro del texto cientfico. De lo anterior se infiere la capacidad del texto didctico de asumir el lenguaje del educando y desarrollar en l otros niveles de significados y sentidos nuevos, pero, eso s, conservando la amenidad que requiere un


texto que es ledo con un fuerte componente de obligatoriedad circunstancia subjetiva que no caracteriza los otros tipos de textos cuya lectura es siempre volitiva. La diferencia entre texto explicativo y texto expositivo: El texto explicativo demuestra, facilita la comprensin, tiene una funcin didctica. El texto expositivo cuenta con una organizacin cuidadosamente planificada, un desarrollo temtico claro, informa con alto grado de organizacin y jerarqua. Ambos tienen un propsito comunicativo. El texto informativo y divulgativo comprende tanto a los diarios, revistas y

materiales publicitarios y divulgativos ligeros, como a los libros destinados a la divulgacin o difusin amplia de un tema de inters general. Su principal caracterstica formal es la simplicidad de su estructura y el empleo del lenguaje comn del modo ms depurado y correcto posible, con el cuidado de explicar con palabras de dominio comn los trminos y las nociones que no pertenezcan a este mbito. A diferencia del texto didctico, su objeto no es ensear y fijar el conocimiento, sino ser ameno, convincente e informar. Por divulgacin suele entenderse todo intento de comunicacin de los descubrimientos generados en el mbito de la ciencia a un pblico no experto. Se trata, pues, de una traduccin o reformulacin de un mensaje para una nueva audiencia. Dado que el nivel de formacin de los lectores previstos puede variar segn los contextos, podemos hablar de algunos tipos de divulgacin ms llanos que otros. Fundamentalmente, la diferencia est marcada por el medio empleado para la divulgacin (revista, diario, televisin, folleto, libro) y el autor (periodista, docente, cientfico).

CAPTULO II MTODO DE TRADUCCIN DEL GNERO PUBLICITARIO


Desde un punto de vista comunicativo, la publicidad es una tcnica de carcter

complejo, propia de la sociedad de consumo, que utilizan los productores de bienes y

servicios, instituciones o asociaciones para dar a conocer algo al pblico y persuadirlo

para que realice una accin concreta: comprar, evitar, adoptar determinados

comportamientos, votar a un partido poltico, etctera.

Clases de publicidad

Bajo la denominacin comn de publicidad se recogen actividades comunicativas muy

variadas que, aunque comparten los recursos empleados para elaborar sus mensajes, son

diferentes en cuanto al fin que persiguen. Segn sea ste pueden distinguirse tres clases:

La publicidad comercial, orientada a la venta de productos o a la contratacin de ciertos

servicios.

La comunicacin social o publicidad institucional, dirigida a modificar las conductas o

comportamientos de los ciudadanos.

La propaganda poltica, cuyo objetivo es que la opinin pblica asuma determinadas

ideas polticas y sociales como propias.

El discurso publicitario

En los mensajes publicitarios puede distinguirse una estructura textual claramente

argumentativa, aunque muchas veces tienen la apariencia de textos expositivos.


La organizacin de los contenidos como texto lingstico del mensaje publicitario

responde a una estructuracin en tres partes: encabezamiento o titular, cuerpo o

desarrollo, y rbrica o cierre.

Las partes primera y tercera suelen ser ms concisas y llamativas, pues incluyen la

llamada de atencin, la identificacin del producto y el eslogan, mientras que la segunda

parte suele ir en letra ms pequea para hacer una descripcin del producto.

El lenguaje de la publicidad

Se distinguen tres niveles dentro de este tipo de lenguaje:

Niveles grfico y fnico Destaca la variedad tipogrfica. Adems, los textos adoptan disposiciones libres o

formas determinadas que imitan el producto (semantizacin del significante).

Se ven con frecuencia transgresiones ortogrficas que aseguran la atencin del lector y

juegos fnicos con el fin de que el mensaje se fije en la memoria del receptor:

Qu bien, qu bien, hoy comemos con Isabel!

Nivel morfosintctico El estilo del mensaje lingstico en publicidad se caracteriza por la condensacin, la

concisin y la economa.

Se perciben los textos como conjuntos de unidades informativas mnimas (frases

breves), de fcil lectura y memorizacin, que buscan involucrar al receptor

(implicacin), transmitir rpida y eficazmente el mensaje (economa y condensacin) y

destacar las cualidades del producto que se anuncia (ponderacin). Algunos ejemplos

son: Galicia, prtico de la gloria; Cuba, la alegra de vivir.

Nivel lxico-semntico Existe preferencia por el lxico connotativo, referido a campos semnticos que

pertenecen a los valores simblicos que pueden ser atractivos para el receptor, segn su

edad, nivel social, modas, etctera: lo natural, lo tecnolgico, lo tranquilo, la aventura,

lo exclusivo... Por ejemplo: El sabor de lo autntico; Pura leche de vaca.

El lxico utilizado, adems de evocador, ha de ser innovador. Esto lleva a la creacin

lxica, lograda por medio de la derivacin y la composicin de lenguas clsicas, la

alteracin o descomposicin de palabras, las grafas extranjerizantes y la abreviacin.

Un ejemplo claro de creacin lxica sera: Te falta, TEFAL.

Anlisis funcional del mensaje publicitario

El anuncio se compone de elementos diferentes cuyas principales funciones son:

Implicar al lector (elementos implicativos). Informar sobre el producto (elementos predicativos). Ponderar el producto (elementos ponderativos), para tratar de convencer al pblico de la conveniencia de su adquisicin.

Favorecer la fijacin del mensaje en la memoria (elementos de extraamiento o retricos).

Nota de aclaracin:


Si bien en esta ctedra no cubrimos la traduccin de textos publicitarios per se,

encontramos que en la descripcin de artefactos o equipos tcnicos hay a menudo

elementos de carcter publicitario que nos llevan a modificar el enfoque del traductor al

realizar su trabajo. El objetivo de esta Unidad es aprender a identificar esa

intencionalidad, a veces encubierta, en un texto descriptivo o instructivo.

CAPTULO III

MTODO DE TRADUCCIN DEL GNERO INSTRUCTIVO Caractersticas lingsticas y textuales.

El manual de instrucciones es un tipo de texto exhortativo segn Silvia Gamero

(2001) porque trata de provocar una accin en el receptor: la correcta utilizacin

del producto.

Los objetivos de aprendizaje son:

Conocer la estructura tpica del manual de instrucciones general

Conocer las convenciones del gnero y sus subgneros en las 2 lenguas

Identificar los problemas de traduccin que presenta este gnero tcnico Distincin segn el Receptor

Caracterizacin del manual de instrucciones general

El manual de instrucciones general es un prototipo de texto que se refiere a una clase de productos de uso habitual y cotidiano.

Est dirigido al usuario o consumidor general, al gran pblico, de cualquier edad, no especialista en el tema del producto.

Segn la complejidad del campo temtico -tipo de producto o aparato- se pueden identificar variedades o subgneros.

RECEPTOR GENERAL (USO EXTERNO)

manual de instrucciones general

= son instrucciones que acompaan a los productos de consumo generalizado y que

estn dirigidas al pblico general.

RECEPTOR ESPECIALIZADO (USO INTERNO)

manual de instrucciones especializado

= son instrucciones especializadas y de

cumplimiento interno dentro de la empresa.


Subgneros del manual de instrucciones general

Subgnero

1:

pequeos

electro-

domsticos

Subgnero

2:

grandes

electro-

domsticos

Subgnero

3:

imagen

y sonido

Subgnero

4:

telefona

Subgnero

5:

informtica

Subgnero

6:

sistemas

complejos

afeitadora

aspiradora

auriculares

secador

pelo

ventilador

cocina

heladera

horno

lavarropas

microondas

cmara fotos

radio

reproductor

televisor

video

casetera

fax

telfono con

contestador

telfono mvil

t. inalmbrico

lectora

monitor

mdem

software

hardware

automvil

embarcacin

motocicleta

maquinarias

Descripcin de los subgneros

Los subgneros son 6 y estn agrupados por orden ascendente de

complejidad, desde los productos ms sencillos (Sg1) hasta los ms sofisticados (Sg6).

Los parmetros de clasificacin son los siguientes:

1. complejidad del producto 2. frecuencia de uso o de consulta por parte del usuario 3. grado en que es necesario leerlo Factores pragmticos del MIG El manual de instrucciones general (MIG) tiene 3 propsitos: 1. Explicar al usuario cmo funciona el aparato adquirido, cmo sacarle el mximo

provecho y cmo resolver los posibles problemas en el manejo. 2. Avisar al consumidor de los riesgos y accidentes que pudieran producirse durante

la instalacin o utilizacin. 3. Constituir un elemento publicitario, lo que confirma al usuario que ha realizado una

buena compra y le motiva a adquirir productos de la misma empresa, o a recomendarlos.

Factores comunicativos del MIG

El autor del texto es un redactor tcnico, ingeniero, empleado del departamento

de publicidad o relaciones pblicas, que trabaja directa o indirectamente para la empresa, y cuya identidad no aparece en el texto. (C.Nord, 1998)


Es parte de la documentacin tcnica que acompaa a un producto. Contienen

informacin sobre la estructura y el modo de hacer funcionar el producto.

La situacin es de tipo formal e implica una comunicacin de tipo externo.

El modo es por lo general escrito por la necesidad de disponer de la informacin para consultarla cuando convenga.

Factores normativos del MIG

En el mbito nacional e internacional existen organismos oficiales que emiten disposiciones denominadas normas tcnicas con la finalidad de proteger los derechos del consumidor.

1.1 Normas argentinas

1.2. Normas internacionales

Superestructura del MIG

La superestructura de un gnero est compuesta por una serie de fragmentos textuales, que se encuentran ordenados jerrquicamente y que reciben el nombre de bloques, secciones y subsecciones.

Los Bloques son aquellas partes del manual que tienen una determinada funcin especfica; por ej., hacer que el usuario maneje correctamente el producto (Bloque Instrucciones).

Los bloques se dividen en Secciones que poseen una finalidad concreta respecto de la funcin del bloque; por ej., inducir al usuario a que realice correctamente la instalacin del producto (Seccin Instrucciones de instalacin).


Bibliografa: Gamero Prez, S. (2001) La traduccin de textos tcnicos. Ariel: Barcelona.

TEXTOS PARA ANLISIS TEXTUAL Y PRCTICA DE LA TRADUCCIN

Texto 1

Multiplication of decimals. Multiply as with whole numbers. The number of decimal

places in the product is the sum of the number of decimal places in both the multiplier and multiplicand. 416 x .25 = 101.00 .4016 x .025 = .01001 Division of decimals. Divide as with whole numbers.

Rules for pointing off in the quotient: Rule 1. The number of decimal places in the quotient is equal to the number of places in the dividend minus the number of places in the divisor. If there are more places in the divisor than in the quotient, add enough zeros to make the number of places equal to the number of places in the divisor. Rule 2. If the divisor is a whole number, insert the decimal point in the quotient when it is reached in the dividend. If the divisor is not an integer, multiply both divisor and dividend by the least power of ten that will make the divisor a whole number and proceed as described before. If there is a remainder in the division of decimals, zeros may be added and the division carried to as many places in the quotient as is desired.

Texto 2

Reduction of Fractions

To change a fraction to its lowest terms, divide its numerator and its denominator by the largest whole number which will divide both exactly. When you do not at once see the largest number which can be divided exactly into a large numerator and denominator, reduce the fraction by repeated steps. When a fraction has been reduced to its lowest terms, the numerator and the denominator of the fraction are said to be prime to each other. Numbers are prime to each other when there is no other whole number that is contained exactly in both of them. Thus 8 and 15 are prime to each other because there is no number that will divide both of them without a remainder. A number that cannot be divided by any other number at all except 1, is called a prime number. A number that is contained exactly in two or more other numbers is called a common divisor of these numbers.

Texto 3

Geometry: Surface Measurements The area of a rectangular surface is the number of square units which it contains. When finding an area the unit of measure is a square each side of which is a unit of the same denomination as the given dimensions. Hence to find the area of a rectangular surface 8 feet long and 5 feet wide, the measuring unit will be 1 square foot, since the denomination of the length and width is feet. To find the area of a rectangular surface multiply the two dimensions.


To find either dimension of a rectangular surface when the other dimension and the area are given, divide the area by the given dimension.

Texto 4

Angles A straight angle is one of 180. Its two sides lie in the same straight line. A right angle is one of 90. Hence, it is half a straight angle. An acute angle is any angle that is less than a right angle. Thus, it must be less than 90. An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle but less than a straight angle. Hence, it must be between 90 and 180. Measuring angles. Angles are measured by determining the part of a circle that the sides intersect. Therefore one measures the opening between the sides of an angle rather than the length of the sides. To measure or lay off angles one uses a protractor as shown in the illustration. To measure an angle with the protractor: Place the center of the protractor at the vertex of the angle, and the straight side on a line with one side of the angle. Read the degrees where the other side of the angle crosses the scale of the protractor. To draw an angle with a protractor: Draw a straight line for one side of the angle. Place the center of the protractor at the point of the line that is to be the vertex of the angle, and make the straight side of the protractor coincide with the line. Place a dot on your paper at the point on the scale of the protractor that corresponds to the size of the angle to be drawn. Connect this dot and the vertex to obtain the desired angle.

Texto 5

The Atom

Atomic nuclei consist of combinations of protons, or positively-charged particles, and neutrons, or uncharged particles. The number of protons and neutrons in each element can vary, but only certain combinations are stable. For example, Calcium-48, having 20 protons and 28 neutrons, is a stable isotope of Calcium. But if there is an excess or deficiency of neutrons in any combination, the isotope will be unstable. A nucleus is more likely to be unstable if it is a heavy onethat is, if it contains a large number of protons and neutrons. Unstable nuclei attempt to achieve stability by emitting some form of radiation, until they transform themselves into stable isotopes.

Isotopes All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons in the nuclei. However, not all the atoms of some elements contain the same number of neutrons, and in nature, a given element will have various forms each with a different number of neutrons. Additional neutrons do not add any charge to the nucleus of an atom, but rather increase its atomic mass, leaving the atom with the same atomic number. Such forms of the same element are known as isotopes. Sometimes an isotope of an element has a further characteristic. It is unstable and decays into another isotope. In the case of the heavier elements especially, an isotope of one element decays into another element altogether. For example, an atom of the radioactive element uranium-238 decays first into an atom of thorium-234 with the release of an alpha particle (2 protons and 2 neutrons is generally called an alpha-particle), which has a mass of 4. The decay of one isotope into another takes a constant amount of time for each element. The time it takes for half of the isotope to break down is called its half-life. One elements half life may be a few seconds while anothers may be a million of years.


Texto 6

Nuclear Energy Once men thought that atoms never broke or split. About 1900, however, the French scientists Pierre and Marie Curie discovered that the atoms of the heavy metal radium

do split of their own accord, throwing out smaller particles and changing into new elements. Then it was found that the nucleus, or central part of an atom, is made up of a number of particles called protons and neutrons. Each of these particles is about 1,850 times as heavy as one of the electrons that orbit around the nucleus. The atoms of radium and several other heavy elements, called radioactive elements, break down

from time to time, throwing out particles consisting of protons and neutrons at one stage and electrons at another. Radium, in fact, is but one of many forms through which atoms of the metal uranium pass as they break down into lead. During the 1930s it was discovered that the breakdown of some elements could release tremendous amounts of energy. A ton of uranium, for instance, could release about three million times as much energy during fission or splitting as a ton of coal releases while burning.

Texto 7

Aristotle

Aristotle believed that the rate of falling of objects from any height was proportional to their weights. It was Galileo (1564-1642) who showed that two objects, even if one was much heavier than the other, fall at the sae rate if air resistance is not taken into account. Galileo found that a body falling from rest has a velocity at the end of the first second of 32 feet/sec. At the end of the next second, it has a velocity of 64 feet/sec., and at the end of the third second a velocity of 96 ft/sec. He concluded that is gains a velocity of 32 ft/sec. for every second that it falls.

The acceleration of a falling body varies with the elevation above the earths surface and from point to point on the earths surface. Its smallest value is at the equator (32.09 ft/sec/sec.) and its greatest is at the poles (32.26 ft/sec/sec.). A useful formula relating the distance (s) an object falls in time (t) is s= a t2

Texto 8

The Properties and uses of Metals Name Properties Some uses

Aluminum Low density. Soft and ductile. High electrical and thermal conductivity.

Lightweight electrical conductors.

Copper Ductile and malleable. Medium tensile strength. High electrical and thermal conductivity. High heat capacity. Corrosion

Electrical conductors and heat exchangers.


resistant. Lead Soft and ductile. Low tensile

strength. Corrosion resistant. Electric cable sheaths.

Mild Steel Elastic, ductile and soft. Structural material. Iron Magnetic, ductile and

malleable. Used in the manufacture of steel and tools.

Tin Corrosion resistant. Coating of mild steel sheet to give tin plate.

Zinc Soft and ductile. Corrosion resistant.

Coating of steel sheet to give galvanized steel.

Wrought iron Ductile and malleable. Fairly high tensile strength.

Chains. Crane hooks.

Medium carbon steel (hardened and tempered)

Tough and relatively hard. Cold chisels. Motor car crankshafts. Springs.

Texto 9

Heat Transfer

In the foregoing discussion of the process of turning water into steam, we referred constantly to the addition of heat. Lets look now at some of the basics of transferring that heat to water to make steam. We can distinguish three types of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction is the transfer of heat from one part of a material to another or to a contiguous material. Heat is visualized as molecular activity crudely speaking, as the vibration of the molecules of a material. When one part of a material is heated, the molecular vibration increases. This excites increased activity in adjacent molecules, and a heat flow is set up from the hot part of the material to the cooler parts. In any one material, if energy flow rates remain constant, temperature decreases uniformly from the hottest to the coolest points.

Texto 10

Entropy

Since heat always flows downhill, within a closed system everything will eventually reach the same temperature. For example, a warm mug of tea set on a cold table will pass heat to the table. Once the mug and table are the same temperature, no more work can be extracted from the mug. The molecules of the system (mug and table) are more disordered than initially and cannot be made more orderly without an injection of energy from the outside.

In mathematical and physical terms, a system in which everything is at the same temperature is considered orderly, and higher temperature introduce disorder. The term entropy is the quantitative measure of the relative disorder of a system. When

work is done, the total entropy of the system increases. This principle applies to all kinds of energy. Some scientists believe that the energy in the universe will eventually be distributed evenly and irrevocably, creating a condition of universal entropyor the heat death of the universe.

Texto 11

Efficiency and power

Like most other engines, the human engine is a wasteful user of fuel.


If you are pedalling hard on a bike, for every 100 joules of energy released from your food, only about 15 joules is used to work: the rest is turned into heat you sweat to get rid of it. The efficiency of an engine is calculated as follows: Work output Efficiency = _________________________ Energy input So the efficiency of a cyclist = 15 / 100 This can be written as a percentage: 15%. Why are engines such poor energy converters? It isnt the fault of the manufacturers. They constantly seek new ways of reducing engine friction and improving fuel burning. The problem lies with the law which governs how molecules behave. Once molecules absorb heat, it is impossible to use some of that energy for work. Texto 12

Erosion

EROSION of a solid surface can take place in a liquid medium even without the presence of solid abrasive particles in that medium. Cavitation, one mechanism of liquid erosion, involves the formation and subsequent collapse of bubbles within the liquid. The process by which material is removed from a surface is called cavitation erosion and the resulting damage is termed cavitation damage. The collision at high speed of liquid droplets with a solid surface results in a form of liquid erosion called liquid-impingement erosion. Cavitation damage has been observed on ship propellers and hydrofoils, on dams, spillways and other hydraulic structures and in hydraulic pumps and turbines. High speed flow of liquid in these devices causes local hydrodynamic pressures to vary widely and rapidly. In mechanical devices, severe restrictions in fluid passages have produced cavitation damage downstream of orifices and in valves, seals, bearings, heat-exchanger tubes and venturis. Cavitation erosion has also damaged water-cooled diesel-engine cylinder liners. Liquid-impingement erosion has been observed on many components exposed to high velocity steam containing moisture droplets, such as blades in the low-pressure end of large steam turbines. Rain erosion, one form of liquid impingement erosion, frequently damages the aerodynamic surfaces of aircraft and missiles when they fly through rainstorms at high subsound or supersonic speeds. Liquid impingement and cavitation erosion are of concern in nuclear-power systems, which operate at lower steam quality than conventional steam systems, and in systems using liquid metals as the working fluid, where the corrosiveness of the liquid metal can promote rapid erosion of components.

Texto 13

Ampere The ampere is the most commonly used unit for measuring the strength of an electric current. It is the amount of current that one volt of electron-moving force can send through a resistance of one OHM. It gets its name from the French scientist ANDRE AMPERE, who lived from 1775 to 1836. The strength of the current in a television set is about one and one-half amperes. En ordinary electric bulb uses about one-half an ampere. An electric iron requires about ten amperes. An ampere is equal to a flow of one COULOMB per second, where the coulomb is a quantity of ELECTRICITY equal to the charge on 6.25 x 1018 electrons. The ampere


has been standardized so that it is the steady current which deposits silver at the rate of 0.01118 grams per second when passed through a silver nitrate solution. It is helpful to distinguish between a quantity itself and its flow or rate. A container may be filled with ten gallons of water (quantity) but a faucet may deliver a gallon of water per minute (rate). Similarly, there is a coulomb of electricity (quantity) and an ampere (rate). An ammeter is a sensitive electrical instrument which measures the amount of an electrical current (amperes) flowing through an electrical circuit. The word ammeter is a contraction of the two words AMPERE (amount of a current) and meter (measuring instrument). The operation of a common ammeter is based on magnetic attraction and repulsion. The movable part of an ammeter is a small coil of wire wound around a soft iron core and suspended on jewel bearings between the poles of a permanent MAGNET. The coil rotates against two spiral springs that retard the swing of the coil and also serve to carry the current into and away from the coil. When a current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is created within the coil which is perpendicular to that of the fixed magnet. The coil turns until its magnetic field is parallel to that of the permanent magnet. The pointer attached to the coil indicates the amount of current flowing through the coil. Most ammeters are arranged so that the amount of deflection (movement of the pointer) is proportional to the amount of current. Texto 14

Iron and Steel The earth contains a large number of metals which are useful to man. One of the most important of these is iron. Modern industry needs considerable quantities of this metal, either in the form of iron or in the form of steel. A certain number of non-ferrous metals, including aluminum and zinc, are also important, but even today the majority of our engineering products are made of iron or steel. Moreover, iron possesses magnetic properties, which have made the development of electrical power possible.

The iron ore which we find in the earth is not pure. It contains some impurities which we must remove by melting. The process of melting consists of heating the ore in a blast furnace with coke and limestone, and reducing it to metal. Blasts of hot air enter the furnace from the bottom and provide the oxygen which is necessary for the reduction of the ore. The ore becomes molten, and its oxides combine with carbon from the coke. The non-metallic constituents of the ore combine with the limestone to form a liquid slag, which floats on top of the molten iron and passes out of the furnace through a tap. We can melt this down again in another furnace a cupola- with more coke and limestone, and tap it out into a ladle or directly into moulds. The resulting cast iron does have the strength of steel. It is brittle and may fracture under tension. But it possesses certain properties that make it very useful in the manufacture of machinery. In the molten state it is very fluid, and therefore it is easily cast into intricate shapes. It is also easily machined. Cast iron contains small proportions of other substances. These non-metallic constituents of cast-iron include carbon, silicon and sulphur, and the presence of these substances affects the behavior of the metal. Iron which contains a negligible amount of carbon, for example wrought iron, behaves differently in relation to iron which contains a great proportion of carbon.

The carbon in cast iron is present partly as free graphite and partly as a chemical combination of iron and carbon, which we call cementite. It is a very hard substance and it makes the iron hard, too. However, iron can only hold about 1 % of cementite. Any carbon content above that percentage is present in the form of a flaky graphite. Steel contains no free graphite and its carbon content ranges from almost nothing to 1 %. We make wiring and tubing out of mild steel with a very low carbon content, and drills and cutting tools from high carbon steel.

Texto 15

The kinetic theory


According to this theory, solids, liquids and gases are made up of tiny particles called molecules. These are far too small to see. They are constantly on the move. When close, they attract each other strongly, and may even stick together. A solid, such as rock, has a fixed shape and volume. Its molecules are held close together by strong forces of attraction. They vibrate to and fro, but cant change positions. A liquid, such as water, has a fixed volume, but can flow to fill any shape. Its molecules are still close together. But they vibrate so vigorously that the forces of attraction cant hold them in fixed positions. A gas, such as air, has no fixed shape or volume. It quickly fills any space available. Its molecules move about at high speeds colliding with each other and the walls of their container. Texto 16

Acceleration Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity of an object changes. As a runner starts to sprint toward the end of his run, his speed accelerates. When an airplane starts taxiing down the runway and the passengers are jolted backward in their seats, the speed of the plane is accelerating. Acceleration may be variable as in the case of a rocket after take off or fairly steady as in the case of a freely falling body. It may be negative as in the case of a car whose driver suddenly steps on the brakes. Acceleration, velocity and time are all related by the formula v = a t , where v stands for the velocity, t for the time and a for the acceleration of the object. The speed of an object is the rate at which it travels. It is not necessary to know the direction of travel only how fast the object is moving. Velocity, however, is speed in a given direction. A change in speed means only a change in the rate at which a body moves. A change in velocity implies a change in speed or a change in direction, or both. Velocity is thus defined as the time rate of change of position of an object. This means it can be computed by dividing the distance d by the time t. Texto 17

Acoustics Acoustics is that branch of science which deals with the production, behavior and reception of sound. In common practice Acoustics deals chiefly with the design and control of sound within a limited and confined area, such as a room.When the source of a sound has ceased, in most rooms the effect of the sound will continue. This is the result of sound waves bouncing back and forth in a closed space. Such a lingering sound is called a reverberation. For singing and orchestral design, the reverberation time should be two and one-half seconds. A lecture hall functions best when the reverberation time is close to one second. Careful planning and engineering will, in general, make an auditorium usable for both, music and speech. Sounds may reflect off curved interior surfaces in such a way that in some areas the sound will be louder than desirable and in other areas barely audible. Classrooms, libraries, hospitals and other establishments need to be designed so that noise will be at a minimum. If ceilings, walls and doors of a room are covered with sound-absorbing surfaces, noise levels are considerably lowered. Texto 18

Kinds of Solutions


Solutions in which the solvent is water are known as aqueous solutions. When the solvent is alcohol, the solution is known as a tincture. Solutions are not limited to liquids. Gas solutions include air, which is made up primarily of oxygen and nitrogen; solid solutions also exist, in which one solid is mixed with another on the molecular level, such as in alloys of metals.

Kinds of solutions Examples Solid in solid Steel (carbon in iron) Liquid in solid Rubber cement Gas in solid Alloy of palladium and hydrogen

Solid in liquid Saltwater

Liquid in liquid Vinegar (acetic acid in water)

Gas in liquid Carbonated drink

Liquid in gas Humid air

Minimum Work of Separation

The separation of a solution by distillation or by any other process will require the expenditure of a certain amount of energy in the form of heat or work. In the great majority of distillation processes, heat rather than work has been used. From an economic standpoint, it would have to be considered important to discover the least possible amount of heat or work to be used to achieve a given separation. This value could be used as a measure of thermodynamic efficiency and thermal controlling step of any actual process.

Texto 19 Sodium Chloride

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the most important chloride of all. 1. It occurs naturally as rock salt, and in sea water. 2. It is the starting point for many other chemicals. For example electrolysis of

molten sodium chloride gives sodium and chlorine. Electrolysis of a concentrated solution (brine) gives sodium hydroxide, chlorine, and hydrogen. Sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen are also made by sodium chloride.

3. It improves the flavour of food. But more important, it provides you with sodium ions, which are essential for body fluids. However, doctors think that too much salt can cause high blood pressure.

4. It is used to melt ice on the roads in winter. But this can have a harmful effect on things like cars, trucks and lamp posts, because sodium chloride makes iron rust faster.

Test for chlorides

Only silver and lead chlorides are insoluble in water. All the others are soluble. This is the basis of the test for chlorides. To see if an unknown solution contains a chloride, this is what to do: 1 First add a few drops of nitric acid, to acidify the solution. 2 Then add a little silver nitrate solution. 3 If a chloride is present, a white precipitate of silver chloride will form.

Texto 20

Chemical Kinetics and Gas Laws Chemical kinetics is especially important in the study of gases and is based on the principle that all gases respond similarly to specific volume, temperature, and pressure.


All the laws about the behavior of gases are consequences of the kinetic molecular theory, which explains the physical properties of gases in terms of the motion of molecules, under the assumption that all gases are composed of discrete molecules that are relatively far apart and are in continuous random motion, exerting pressure on the walls of the containing vessel. It also assumes the molecules collide with the walls of their container and with each other with perfect elasticity. The composition of the gas is not of concern in chemical kinetics. When the temperature either for any natural or artificial process-is raised, the speed of the molecules increases, and so does the pressure against the container. If more particles are introduces or if the volume is reduced, there are more particles bombarding per unit area of the walls and the pressure also increases. When a particle collides with the wall, it experiences a rate of change of momentum, which is proportional to the force exerted. Texto 21

Organic Chemistry: Organic Chemistry is the branch of Chemistry that specializes in the composition, properties, and reactions of hydrocarbon compounds.

Hydrocarbons Compounds that contain only the elements carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. The principal source of hydrocarbons is crude oil, which is distilled to produce its many components. Hydrocarbons are classified into several series, depending on the types of bonds. The alkanes have open chains (known as aliphatic chains) in which hydrogen attaches to carbon atoms in all of the available bonding sites. The alkenes are also aliphatic but contain one pair of carbon atoms connected by a double bond. The alkynes are also

aliphatic but contain one pair of carbon atoms connected with a triple bond. The alkadienes are aliphatic and contain two pairs of carbon atoms connected with a double bond. The fifth series is called the aromatics because they each have a strong

characteristic odor. Aromatics have six carbons arranged in a closed ring. Benzene is a typical aromatic hydrocarbon; its carbon ring is usually referred to as a benzene ring.

A 3-dimensional rendered Ball-and-stick model of the methane molecule. Methane is

part of a homologous series known as alkanes, which are forms of hydrocarbons that

comprise single bonds. Texto 22

The processing of orange juice

Orange juice is defined in the United States Code of Federal Regulations as the

unfermented juice obtained from mature oranges of the species Citrus sinensis or of


the citrus hybrid commonly called Ambersweet. True fresh squeezed juice is difficult to market commercially because it requires special processing to preserve it. Orange

juice is commonly marketed in three forms: as a frozen concentrate, which is diluted

with water after purchase; as a reconstituted liquid, which has been concentrated and

then diluted prior to sale; or as a single strength, unconcentrated beverage called NFC or

Not From Concentrate. The latter two types are also known as Ready To Drink (RTD)

juices.

Texto 23

Car safety is the avoidance of car accidents or the minimization of harmful effects of accidents, in particular as pertaining to human life and health. Special safety features have been built into cars for years, some for the safety of car's occupants only, and some for the safety of others.

Every year tens of thousands of people are killed in road accidents. Major factors in accidents include driving under the influence of alcohol or other drugs, inattentive driving, driving while fatigued, reckless driving, or encounters with road hazards such

as snow, potholes and crossing animals.

Car safety became an issue almost immediately after the invention of the automobile, when Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot crashed his steam-powered "Fardier" against a wall in 1771. The first recorded automobile fatality was Bridget Driscoll on August 17, 1896 in

London.

The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) was established by the United States Congress on October 15, 1966 with automobile safety one of its purposes. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) was created as an independent organization on April 1, 1967, but was reliant on the DOT for administration and funding. However, in 1975 the organization was made completely independent by the Independent Safety Board Act. The NTSB and its European equivalent, EuroNCAP

have issued standard safety tests for all new automobiles.

In June, 2004 the NTSB released new tests designed to test the rollover risk of new cars and SUVs. Only the Mazda RX-8 got a 5-star rating. However, the correlation between official crash test results and road deaths in vehicles is not exact. An alternative method of assessing vehicle safety is to study the road accident statistics on

a model-by-model basis.

Despite technological advances, the death toll of car accidents remains high: about 40,000 people die every year in the US. While this number increases annually in line with rising population and increased travel, the rate per capita and per vehicle miles travelled decreases. In 1996 the US has about 2 deaths per 10,000 motor vehicles, comparable to 1.9 in Germany, 2.6 in France, and 1.5 in the UK. In 1998 there were 3,421 fatal accidents in the UK, the fewest since 1926. These numbers are not higher thanks to tech. advances that place various systems working together inside the car to

minimize the damage to the cars occupants.

When an accident occurs, various systems work together to minimize damage to those involved. Much research has been done using crash test dummies to make modern cars safer than ever. Recently, attention has also been given to the cars design regarding the safety of pedestrians in car-pedestrian collisions. Controversial proposals


in Europe would require cars sold there to have a minimum/maximum hood height. This has caused automakers to complain that the requirements will restrict their design choices, resulting in ugly cars. Others have pointed out that a notable percentage of pedestrians in these accidents are drunk. From 2006 the use of "bull bars"' (known as

"roo bars" in Australia), in fashion on 4x4s and SUVs will be illegal.

Seatbelts (or safety belts) keep a person from being thrown forward or ejected

from the vehicle

Seat belt is a harness designed to hold the occupant of an car or other vehicle in place if a collision occurs. Seat belts are intended to reduce injuries by stopping the wearer from hitting hard interior elements of the vehicle or from being thrown from the vehicle. In cars seat belts also prevent rear-seat passengers from crashing into those in the

front seats.

Lap belts are seat belts that go over the wearer's hips. These were an earlier style of belt and are today less common in the developed world, being found mostly in passenger aircraft. In early SAABs a different kind of two-point belt similar to a three-point belt, but without the lap part was used. Shoulder belts, or three-point belts, include a lap belt and a second belt going from one anchor point on the lap belt to a point over and behind the occupant's shoulder. Three point harnesses were first made readily available in mass-produced vehicles by Volvo. It was Swedish engineer Nils Bohlin who patented the modern three-point belt design along with Volvo. This design is crucial in aiding a person in the event of a crash. The three-point design greatly reduces the effects of secondary collisions. A secondary collision is the impact between a person and the interior of the automobile. The three-point innovation helps spread out the energy of the moving body inside of the car during a wreck. It spreads that energy out over the stronger parts of the body. This includes the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Until recently shoulder belts were only available in the front seats of the cars, the back seats having only lap belts. Evidence of the potential for lap belts to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome", has led to a revision of safety regulations in nearly all of the

developed world requiring that all seats in a vehicle be equipped with three-point belts.

Five-point harnesses are safer but more restrictive seat belts, typically found in child safety seats, and also in racing cars. The lap portion is connected to a belt between the legs and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five points of attachment to the seat. Seat belts were first invented by George Cayley in the 1800's. Seat belts were introduced in aircraft in the 1930s. The automotive seat belt was introduced into the United States by William Myron Noe, whose patented quick release seat belt, the AutoCrat Safety Belt, was the first seat belt installed as original equipment in the US by Ford in its 1956 model year. However, they were not required by law in the US on passenger vehicles until the 1968 model year.

Airbags

o Front airbags inflate in a medium speed head on collisions to cushion the blow of a head on the dashboard or steering wheel.

o Side airbags inflate in a side (T-bone) collision to cusion the torso

o Curtain airbags protect the heads of passengers in a side collision

An airbag is a flexible membrane or envelope, inflatable to contain air or some other gas. Air bags are most commonly used for cushioning, in particular after very rapid inflation in the case of an automobile collision. It was marketed for automobiles first by


Allen Breed in 1967, to Chrysler, after his invention of the ball-in-tube sensor for crash

detection.

Automobile airbags

There have been airbag-like devices for aeroplanes as early as the 1940s, though the first actual example in a production car was in 1974, when dual airbags were an option on several full-sized Cadillacs, Oldsmobiles, and Buicks.

The design is conceptually simpleaccelerometers trigger the ignition of a gas generator propellant to very rapidly inflate a nylon fabric bag, which reduces the deceleration experienced by the passenger as they come to a stop in the crash situation. The bag has small vent holes to allow the propellant gas to be (relatively) slowly expelled from the bag as the occupant pushes against it.

On July 11, 1984, the U.S. government required cars to have driver's side air bags or automatic seat belts by 1989. 15,000 lives have been saved by air bags in last 20 years since. Initially, most vehicles featured a single airbag, mounted in the steering wheel and protecting the driver of the car (who is the most at risk of injury). During the 1990s, airbags for front seat passengers, then separate side impact airbags placed between the door and occupants, became common. Most jurisdictions now explicitly require at least driver airbags in all cars, or set passenger safety standards that can only be met by their use.

Statistics show that passengers in cars fitted with airbags have approximately 30% less chance of dying in an accident than in comparable cars without airbags fitted. Despite this, airbags have occasionally caused controversy, as the initial expansion of the bag is in itself a violent event, and if an individual is too close to the airbag when it is initially triggered they can be seriously injured or killed. This was partly due to American airbag designs triggering much more quickly than airbags designed for other countries, to protect occupants not wearing seat belts. Newer airbags trigger slightly less violently; nonetheless, passengers must remain at least 25 centimetres (10 in) from the bag to

avoid injury from the bag in a crash.

Smoking a pipe in a seat protected with an airbag should be avoided: if it inflates and

hits the pipe while it is in the mouth this may well be deadly.

Automobile airbags are supplemental restraints, and operate best when the occupant is also using a seat belt. Air bags supplement the safety belt by reducing the chance that the occupant's head and upper body will strike some part of the vehicle's interior. They also help reduce the risk of serious injury by distributing crash forces more evenly across the occupant's body.

Other systems that work together to minimize damage to those involved are:

Crumple zones to absorb the energy of an impact when the car hits something Cage construction designed to protect vehicle occupants. Some racing

vehicles have a tubular roll cage Reinforced side door structural members Fuel pump shutoff devices turn off gas flow in the event of a collision for the

purpose of preventing gasoline fires.

Safety Features


To make driving safer and prevent accidents from occurring, cars have the following

safety features:

Turn signals and brake lights, including Center High Mounted Stop Lamps

(CHMSL)

A Center High-Mounted Stop Lamp (usually seen abbreviated as CHMSL) is a third stop lamp, or brake light, mounted on the rear of a vehicle. It is usually placed above the rear window, or is affixed inside the window and projects through it. In some creative arrangements, the CHMSL is integrated into a spoiler. A CHMSL is usually thought of as a car safety feature. The stop lamps on vehicles are traditionally placed in the same housing as the tail lights and turn signals. This may confuse other drivers, and reduce their reaction time while they determine if a vehicle is actually braking. This effect is worse in North America, where the same red lights are often used for all three functions. There was a need to place an additional stop lamp on vehicles to supplement the two traditional lamps. One of the greatest advantages to CHMSL is the ability to see that the vehicle two vehicles ahead are braking through the windows of the vehicle immediately ahead. Traditional lamps are nearly always obscured by the vehicle directly in front. The 19681971 Ford Thunderbird could be ordered with additional high-mounted brake and turn signal lights. These were fitted in strips on either side of its small rear window. This option was rarely specified. The Oldsmobile Toronado from 1971 had high-mounted supplemental brake lights as standard. These innovations were not widely adopted at the time. In the early 1980s, a study involving taxicabs and other fleet vehicles found that a third stop lamp reduced rear-end collisions by about 50%. The lamp's novelty probably played a role, since today the lamp only reduces collisions by about 5%. It is possible that today, familiarity with the third stop lamp has reached the extent that drivers may indeed not respond quickly enough if an older vehicle without such a lamp decelerates in front of them, since the familiar cue is absent. In 1986, the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration mandated that all new passenger cars have a CHMSL installed. Light trucks were required to have the lamps installed in 1994. CHMSLs are so inexpensive to incorporate into a vehicle that even if the lamps prevent only a few percent of rear end collisions they will pay for themselves in reduced damages. CHMSLs, unlike most other automotive lamps, often employ light-emitting diodes. CHMSLs are often difficult to access or are manufactured in irregular shapes. The longevity and versatility of LEDs leads to their use in these situations.

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) with EBV (Electronic brake pressure distribution), which prevents the brakes from locking and losing traction while braking. This shortens stopping distances in almost all cases.

An anti-lock braking system (commonly known as ABS, from the German name "Antiblockiersystem" given to it by its inventors at Bosch) is a system on motor vehicles which prevents the wheels from locking while braking. The purpose of this is twofold: to allow the driver to maintain steering control and to shorten braking distances.

Effectiveness


On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, whether wet or dry, most ABS-equipped cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that would be possible without the benefit of ABS. A moderately-skilled driver without ABS might be able, through the use of cadence-braking, to match the performance of a novice driver with an ABS-equipped vehicle. However, for a significant number of drivers, ABS will improve their braking distances in a wide variety of conditions. The recommended technique for non-expert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-braking emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate, to steer around obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of a skid and subsequent loss of controlparticularly with heavy vehicles.

In gravel and snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these surfaces, locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from occurring. Some ABS controllers reduce this problem by slowing the cycling time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock. The primary benefit of ABS on such surfaces is to increase the ability of the driver to maintain control of the car rather than go into a skidthough loss of control remains more likely on soft surfaces like gravel or slippery surfaces like snow or ice.

When activated, the ABS causes the brake pedal to pulse noticeably. As most drivers rarely or never brake hard enough to cause brake lockup, and a significant number rarely bother to read the car's manual, this may not be discovered until an emergency. When drivers do encounter an emergency that causes them to brake hard and thus encounter this pulsing for the first time, many are believed to reduce pedal pressure and thus lengthen braking distances, contributing to a higher level of accidents than the superior emergency stopping capabilities of ABS would otherwise promise. Some manufacturers have therefore implemented "brake assist" systems that determine the driver is attempting a crash stop and maintain braking force in this situation. Nevertheless, ABS significantly improves safety and control for drivers in on-road

situations if they know not to release the brakes when they feel the pulsing of ABS.

It is worth noting that the heavier a vehicle is, the more it will benefit from ABS. This is particularly true of vehicles with less-sophisticated hydraulic braking systems where fine control is not as easy as with the more developed braking systems. Conversely, lighter vehicles, especially sports cars with highly-developed braking systems without

ABS can outbrake comparable vehicles even with ABS.

Traction control (TCS)

Traction control and Vehicle Stability Control systems, on current production vehicles, are typically (but not necessarily) electro-hydraulic systems designed to prevent loss of control when excessive throttle or steering is applied by the driver.

The intervention can consist of any, or all, of the following:

1. Retard or suppress the spark to one or more cylinders 2. Reduce fuel supply to one or more cylinders 3. Brake one or more wheels 4. Close the throttle, if the vehicle is fitted with drive by wire throttle.

The brake actuator, and the wheel speed sensors are the same as that used for Anti-

lock braking system.


Traction Control is usua

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