La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

26
"#$%"&’($)( !"#$"%&’ )*+,- .’/"# !" $%&’(’)’*+" (% )", -.%/-.", ,’-.")%, %/ 0"/1%) 2"-3.,&4/ 5 63"/-.,-’ 6%3/4/(%7 81%5 9.4)’*’ %/&3% :’,; 2<==>?@ <@9<!AB 5 2")C"(’3 !?DEB <=@<! 2")C"(’3 !FG%7 <3/") %, G3’H%,’3 (% 0"&%$4I-", %/ )" A@E9J E/&3% ,1, ).K3’,L (%,&"-"/ ’K3", -’$’M !" $%"&’ () "% *+),*+% NOPPQRL -&..)’/012,3 )*&4 () 1, ()5%6) NOPPSR 5 7% *+),*+% ), )" 89&’% NOPQORJ E, %,G%-.")$%/&% -’/’-.(’ G’3 ,1 &3"K"T’ %/ )" 3%U -1G%3"-.F/ 5 (.C1)*"-.F/ (%) G%/,"$.%/&’ (% 0"U /1%) 2"-3.,&4/J 631&’ (% %,&% &3"K"T’ V" %(.&"(’ /1U $%3’,’, ).K3’,L %/&3% %))’,M :;<;=;>; :8?+@%4A %B&C ’+4@&4 D ’)E)?+&,)4 *&, %"91,%4 $%’+%5")4 "+5’)4 NOPPSRL !4*’+6&4 4&5’) !" F%.+6%" GD 6)?6&4 %H,)4I NOPPWRL J&5’) (+%"K*L*% NOPPXR 5 !,6’) F"84+*&43 J%C *’+468, D "% &5’% .&"ML*&CH"&4NH*% () 71O8*4 NOPQQRJ E/&3% ’&3", 3%C.,&",L %, -’)"K’3"(’3 V"K.&1") (% ’)5)"+&,;&’9 5 (% !" P+)Q& R&.&J :’,; 2"33.F/ </(")17 %, G3’H%,’3 (% )" AD2< %/ )", $"&%3.", (% <,6’&.&"&9M% 5 F+),*+%A *1"61’% D 4&*+)C (%(J E, -’)"K’3"(’3 (% 3%C.,&", -’$’ -%.)")4 () "% ST: 5 U6&.M%4 C V1)46’% 5%,()’%L 5 $.%$K3’ (% )" ,%--.F/ (% G%/,"$.%/&’ (% )" S1,(%*+N, () T,$)4LC 9%*+&,)4 :%’?+46%4J !"#$ "&’() *+,-./0 ’&.-1*’ )2-( 3) &+0’1& /’)4 5&6/0’*) 7*/)3 & *+/&3&6/-)3 8& 9)+-&3 ")6’*.4 /:+ 5 8& ;’)+6*.60 ;&’+:+8&< =-&5> "*+ &14 ?)’@0A &. B’&6*.0 ?0.2-&,)’ -+ ?’&7(.*10 )B-+/& B)’) &3 3&6/0’ +&CD*/0> E)?3)’ 8& 9)4 +-&3 ")6’*./:+ &. F)?3)’ 8& -+) !"!" "$%& 8&3 B)+0’)1) *+/&3&6/-)3 &.B)G03> ")6’*./:+ 604 1&+<C 6010 -+ ?’*33)+/& &./-8*)+/& 8& D*30.04 D() 60+ @’)+ 60+06*1*&+/0 8& 30. 63:.*60. @’*&@0.A 1&8*&7)3&. 5 )3&1)+&.A 1-5 *1B3*4 6)80 &+ 80. ’&7*./). -+*7&’.*/)’*). &.B)G03). 8-’)+/& 30. )G0. HI J’"() 5 *$"+!",-)K> L+ &./). ’&7*./).A ")6’*./:+ 5) .& *+/&@’) &+ -+ +M63&0 8& ,C7&+&. *+/&3&6/-)3&. JN*3 8& =*&84 1)A O)./&33&/A ;&’’)/&’A O0./)D’&8)A P)37&’8&A &/6>K> Q) 3*6&+6*)80A &./-8*) 3C@*6) &+ &3 R+./*4 /-/0 8& SC@*6) 5 ;-+8)1&+/0. 8& 3) O*&+6*) 8& 3) T+*7&’.*8)8 8& 9U+./&’A 8*’*@*80 B0’ E&*+’*6F "6F03<> L./& F&6F0 &. D-+8)1&+/)3 B)’) &3 /&1) 2-& &./)10. /’)/)+80A B-&. .*4 /-C ) ")6’*./:+ 6010 -+0 8& 30. B’*+6*B)3&. &VB&’/0. &+ 3C@*6) &+ L.B)G)A .&@-’)1&+/& WI !"#$%#&’()(*+ $-./012 #341/52 6- #/-75/20 *85/29-0 :: 7;<= >?@>= AA+ B?CDD T"146’%*+N,3 W%$+( :+)()4 F%4%4

Transcript of La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

Page 1: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'(')'*+"#(%#)",#-.%/-.",#,'-.")%,#%/#0"/1%)#2"-3.,&4/#5#

63"/-.,-'#6%3/4/(%7#81%59.4)'*'#%/&3%

:',;#2<==>?@#<@9<!AB#52")C"('3#!?DEB#<=@<!

2")C"('3#!FG%7#<3/")#%,#G3'H%,'3#(%#0"&%$4I-",#%/#)"#A@E9J#E/&3%#,1,#).K3',L#(%,&"-"/#'K3",#-'$'M#!"#$%"&'#()#"%#*+),*+%#NOPPQRL#-&..)'/012,3#)*&4#()#1,#()5%6)#NOPPSR#5#7%#*+),*+%#),#)"#89&'%#NOPQORJ#

E,#%,G%-.")$%/&%#-'/'-.('#G'3#,1#&3"K"T'#%/#)"#3%U-1G%3"-.F/#5#(.C1)*"-.F/#(%)#G%/,"$.%/&'#(%#0"U

/1%)#2"-3.,&4/J#631&'#(%#%,&%#&3"K"T'#V"#%(.&"('#/1U$%3',',#).K3',L#%/&3%#%))',M#:;<;=;>;#:8?+@%4A#%B&C

'+4@&4#D#')E)?+&,)4#*&,#%"91,%4#$%'+%5")4#"+5')4#

NOPPSRL#!4*'+6&4#4&5')#!"#F%.+6%"#GD#6)?6&4#%H,)4I#NOPPWRL#J&5')#(+%"K*L*%#NOPPXR#5#!,6')#F"84+*&43#J%C*'+468,#D#"%#&5'%#.&"ML*&CH"&4NH*%#()#71O8*4#NOPQQRJ#

E/&3%#'&3",#3%C.,&",L#%,#-')"K'3"('3#V"K.&1")#(%#')5)"+&,;&'9#5#(%#!"#P+)Q&#R&.&J

:',;#2"33.F/#</(")17#%,#G3'H%,'3#(%#)"#AD2<#%/#)",#$"&%3.",#(%#<,6'&.&"&9M%#5#F+),*+%A#*1"61'%#D#4&*+)C(%(J#E,#-')"K'3"('3#(%#3%C.,&",#-'$'#-%.)")4#()#"%#ST:#5#U6&.M%4#C#V1)46'%#5%,()'%L#5#$.%$K3'#(%#)"#

,%--.F/#(%#G%/,"$.%/&'#(%#)"#S1,(%*+N,#()#T,$)4LC9%*+&,)4#:%'?+46%4J

!"#$%"&'()%*+,-./0%'&.-1*'%)2-(%3)%&+0'1&%/')4

5&6/0'*)%7*/)3%&%*+/&3&6/-)3%8&%9)+-&3%")6'*.4

/:+%5%8&%;')+6*.60%;&'+:+8&<%=-&5>%"*+%&14

?)'@0A % &. % B'&6*.0 % ?0.2-&,)' % -+ % ?'&7(.*10%

)B-+/&%B)')%&3%3&6/0'%+&CD*/0>%E)?3)'%8&%9)4

+-&3%")6'*./:+%&.%F)?3)'%8&%-+)%!"!"#"$%&#8&3%

B)+0')1)% *+/&3&6/-)3 %&.B)G03> %")6'*./:+%604

1&+<C%6010%-+%?'*33)+/&%&./-8*)+/&%8&%D*30.04

D() % 60+ % @')+ % 60+06*1*&+/0 % 8& % 30. % 63:.*60.%

@'*&@0.A%1&8*&7)3&.%5%)3&1)+&.A %1-5%*1B3*4

6)80%&+%80.%'&7*./).%-+*7&'.*/)'*).%&.B)G03).%

8-')+/&%30.%)G0.%HI%J'"()% 5 %*$"+!",-)K>%L+%

&./).%'&7*./).A%")6'*./:+%5)%.&%*+/&@')%&+%-+%

+M63&0%8&%,C7&+&.%*+/&3&6/-)3&.%JN*3%8&%=*&84

1)A%O)./&33&/A%;&'')/&'A%O0./)D'&8)A%P)37&'8&A%

&/6>K>%Q)%3*6&+6*)80A%&./-8*)%3C@*6)%&+%&3%R+./*4

/-/0%8&%SC@*6)%5%;-+8)1&+/0.%8&%3)%O*&+6*)%

8& % 3) % T+*7&'.*8)8 % 8& %9U+./&'A % 8*'*@*80 % B0'%

E&*+'*6F %"6F03<> %L./&%F&6F0%&.%D-+8)1&+/)3%

B)')%&3%/&1)%2-&%&./)10.%/')/)+80A%B-&.%.*4

/-C%)%")6'*./:+%6010%-+0%8&%30.%B'*+6*B)3&.%

&VB&'/0.%&+% 3C@*6)%&+%L.B)G)A%.&@-')1&+/&%

WI !!!!!!!"#$%#&'()(*+,$-./012,#341/52,6-,#/-75/20,*85/29-0,,::,,,7;<=,>?@>=,AA+,B?CDD

T"146'%*+N,3#W%$+(#:+)()4#F%4%4

Page 2: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&#'%(%&#"&'"()*$)&+*&#!"#,"-!*!#".#$/0)(*#

12.+%#*#3)02"$#45.(6"783*7*&#9#:;(+%-#45.8

(6"7#!"#<*,*$*=#>.#+2#%').)/.?#4*$,*!%-?#@"$#

(%.%()A)".+%#B2"#4*(-)&+5.#+)"."#!"#$*#$/0)(*#

).C$29"#".#&2#(%.("'()/.#!"#$*#C)$%&%C;*#9#A"8

+%!%$%0;*#!"#$*#()".()*D#

!"#$%"&%'()&*+,&%-'%.&*/'0%!&+1,()2*%'*%'0%3*(),4

)/)5%-'%"67,+&%8%9/*-&:'*)5(%-'%0&%;,'*+,&%-'%0&%

<*,='1(,-&- %-' %.>*()'1? % -5*-' % +5*5+,6 % & %<01,@'%

.',*A5BB % CA&D06 % -' % '005 % '* % 0& % E'*F0),:& %-' % (/(%

+5*B'1'*+,&($ % G!5D1' % "/@2+(HI? % '* % IJKLM % ,*B0/86%

B/'1)':'*)'%'*%(/%B51:&+,6*%8%'*%(/%+5*+'E+,6*%

-'% 0&%+,'*+,&N%!&+1,()2*% ,*,+,&%'('%=,&O'%&% 05(%PQ%

&R5(?%8%*5%'(%B2+,0%'SE0,+&1%E51%T/U%'(+57'%'0%3*(),4

)/)5%-'%"67,+&N%V15D&D0':'*)'%E51T/'%T/,'1'%:'4

O51&1%(/%&0':2*%C:2(%&07/*&%1&W6*%+5:E0':'*)&4

1,&%T/'%('%:'%'(+&E&M?%E51T/'%A&()&%'*)5*+'(?%(,%

*5%&*-5%'11&-5?%*5%A&DX&%'()/-,&-5%:/+A&%067,+&N%

Y&DX&%0'X-5%0,D15(%-'%'E,()':5057X&%8%-'%A,()51,&%-'%

0&%+,'*+,&%-'(-'%0/'75N%#0D'1)%Z5:,*75%;/1)5%*5(%

A&%A&D0&-5%-'%'005[N%V'15%*5%('%0'%+5*5+'*%&B,+,54

*'(%067,+&(%'*%&T/'005(%:5:'*)5(N%\5%'(%/*&%'S4

E0,+&+,6*%+5*=,*+'*)'%0&%T/'%'()58%&E/*)&*-5N%"5%

(U%:/8%D,'*N%]&:D,U*%"/,(%^'7&%('%A&%&E15S,:&-5%

&0%)':&PN%^&0'%0&%E'*&%0''10'N

_'+51-':5(%T/'%!&+1,()2*%'1&%'*)5*+'(%/*&%E'14

(5*& %T/' %A&DX& %'()/-,&-5 % B,05(5BX& %8 % -'1'+A5? % 8%

T/' % ='*X&? % A&D,'*-5 % 15)5 % -/1&*)' % 05( % E1,:'15(%

&R5( %-' %<*,='1(,-&-? %-'0 % +&:E5%-'0 % B&0&*7,(:5N%

;5:5%!&+1,()2*%(,':E1'%05%A&+X&%)5-5%:/8%'*%('4

I% !#;_3!]`\? %.&*/'0N % [QQLN % G!5D1' % "/@2+(HN % a* %!"#$%&'()"*"(&#+$, % !'-*" % .+ % /*+0#&#1( %2+*3#$/+ % 4 % .'$ % (5"6'$%7*'-."2+$? % -' %.N %!&+1,()2* % Ca-,+,6* %-'%!&0=&-51 % "6E'W%#1*&0MN%b&1+'05*&$%a0%^,'O5%]5E5N[% Zc.3\dc % ;<_]c? % #0D'1)N % IJJJN % G"& % D,D0,5)'+& % -'%O/='*)/- %-' %.&*/'0 %!&+1,()2*HN %VEN % eP4LI? %'* %89%+:'$%0"$75;$<%+&"*&+%0".%'7=$&5.'%0"%>+(5".%!+&*#$/?(%@5A1(%B!'-*"%".%.5C+*%0"%.+%)#.'$')D+%0"(%.'$%"$/50#'$%$57"*#'*"$E?%+551-,*&-5%E51%VN%-'%0&%9/'*)'%;/00'00?%#N%Z5:,*75%;/1)5?%!N % "6E'W % #1*&0 % 8 % .N % V&/ % ^,02N % b&1+'05*&$ % a-,+,5*'(%<*,='1(,)&1,&(%-'%b&1+'05*&NP% ^ad#%_afg\? %"N %[QQLN % Ga0 % 0/7&1 %-'%!&+1,()2*%'*% 05(%'()/-,5( %-'% 067,+& %'* %a(E&R&HN %VEN %IJ4LQ%'* %F'(0"%('%G+-#/+%".%'.6#0',%H(%".%I9%+(#6"*$+*#'%0"%.+%75-.#&+&#1(%0" %JK(/*'05&&#1(%+% .+ % .1C#&+%4%+.%+(?.#$#$% )'*2+.E %0"%>+(5".%!+&*#$/?( % @5A1(L %+551-,*&-5 % E51 % !N% "6E'W % #1*&0? % #N%Z5:,*75%;/1)5?% %VN%-'%0&%B/'*)'%;500'00?%hN%.,1%d&1+X&?%9N%]&/()'N%b&1+'05*&$%.5*)'(,*5(N

1,5?%('%A&DX&%,*)15-/+,-5%C+1X),+&:'*)'M%'*%0&%5D1&%

-'%h5(U%#*)5*,5%V1,:5%-'%_,='1&%8%5)15(%&/)51'(%-'%

'(&%+5(:5=,(,6*%*&-&%1'+5:'*-&D0'N %a(+1,D,6%/*%

&1)X+/05%(5D1'%'0%A,O5%-'0%-,+)&-51?%(5D1'%'0%T/'%B/'4

1&%+&E,)2*%7'*'1&0%-'%;&)&0/R&?%E&1&%0&%a*+,+05E'4

-,&%#175(%^'17&1&%T/'%+551-,*6%a()'D&*%V,*,00&(%-'%

0&(%Y'1&(N%V/'-'%0''1('%&A51&%'*%@"&/5*+$%0"%)#.'M

$')D+%2'0"*(+%4%&'(/"27'*?("+I%C'-,)&-5%)&:D,U*%

E51%Z5:,*75%;/1)5MN

;5*%)5-5%'('%:/*-5?%,*(,()5?%15:E,6%!&+1,()2*%&%

05(%=',*)'%8%E5+5(%&R5(%E51%:5),=5(%1'0&+,5*&-5(%

+5*%0&%1'E1'(,6*?%+/&*-5%('%)51)/16%&%/*5(% %'()/4

-,&*)'( % +&)&0&*,()&(N % a()5 % 05 %A& %'SE0,+&-5 %:'O51%

T/'%*&-,'%91&*+'(+%^,+'*(N%

E%#.*--*#).(-";F$"A".+"#F)".#".#"$#$)F-%#B2"#

*(%A'*G*#*#!"#$%&'()*'+&,-#."H=

!X?%(X?%:/8%D,'*?%8%)&:D,U*%'*%0&%'*)1'=,()&%T/'%

0'%A,+,:5(%E&1&%05(%-5+/:'*)&0'(%T/'%-,1,7,6%)&*%

:&7*XB,+&:'*)'%'0%+,*'&()&?%*5='0,()&%'%A,()51,&-51%

i&=,'1%h/*+5(&%C/*&%1'+5:'*-&+,6*$%(/%*5='0&%Ga0%

:'*(&O'15%-'0%B1X5HN%jV&1&%+/2*-5%/*&%)1&-/++,6*%

+&()'00&*&kMN

!&+1,()2*%+50&D516%8%'(+1,D,6%'* %N5+0*+(/"?%+5*%

d&1+X&%b5116*?%-5*-'%8&%E/'-'%='1('%+0&1&:'*)'%

(/%-,()&*+,&:,'*)5N%"/'75%00'7&%0&%UE5+&%-'%@+4"?%

'*% 0&%T/'%U0 %A&+'%/*&% 0&D51 %:/8% ,:E51)&*)'%-'%

'-,+,6*?%8%'(+1,D'%-'%+&(,%)5-5N%Y&+'%+1X),+&%0,)'1&4

1,&?%+1X),+&%:/(,+&0?%'(+1,D'%(5D1'%&+5*)'+,:,'*)5(%

E50X),+5(%8%0,)'1&1,5(%-'%0&%UE5+&%8%'(+1,D'%&07/*5(%

)'S)5(%-'%B,05(5BX&%&+&-U:,+&N%a0%&1)X+/05%(5D1'%c14

)'7&%8%Y',-'77'1%-5*-'?%(51E1'*-'*)':'*)'?%A&4

D0&%&0 % B,*&0 %-'%_',+A'*D&+A%8%_/(('00? % ,*+0/(5%('%

W&:D/00'%'*%0&(%)/1D/0'*)&(%&7/&(%-'0%E1,*+,E,5%-'%

,*+'1),-/:D1'N%Y&D0&:5(%-'0%&R5%LP4LeN%

a0%=,&O'%&%#0':&*,&%'(%-'+,(,=5%E51T/'%&AX%('%,*4

)15-/+'%+5*%E15B/*-,-&-%'*%05(%2:D,)5(%-'%0&%067,4

e% !#;_3!]`\? %.&*/'0N % [QQlN % GV'*(&:,'*)5 % E50X),+5 % -'%h5(U%#*)5*,5%V1,:5%-'%_,='1&HN%VEN%lI4KQ%'* %@"&/5*+$%0"%)#.'$')D+ % 2'0"*(+ % 4 % &'(/"27'*?("+L %-' % .N % !&+1,()2*,%.&-1,-$%]15))&?%[QQlNL% h<\;c!#?%i&=,'1%C_'&0,W&-51M%[QQlN %K(/"C*+.%!+&*#$/?(%mZ^ZnN%a(E&R&$%a0%^,'O5%]5E5N

IJ !!!!!!a\;_<;3h#Z#!N%_'=,()&%;1X),+&%-'%;,'*+,&(%!5+,&0'(%%oo%%%*pe?%[QI[?%EEN%PQ4LL

Page 3: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$#%&# '"#&()*+&,-'-./"0#1("2+&#!-3-!&#"#45)&3#

'5&.-#*&26#53#.2"3#'7.)!-#&52-(&-8#&'#)+"')"3-#9++-:

2&#;"**"2)8#45&#&*#"%&,6*#'"#(&2*-3"8#-#53"#%&#'"*#

(&2*-3"*8#45&#'&#)3+2-%5!&#&3#&'#6,<)+-#,"2=)*+":

!-,53)*+"0#

13+&*#%&'#>)"?&8#(-2#"!"<"2#&3#"'.@3#(53+-#&3#53#

"*53+-#45&#%"2/"#("2"#,5!A-#,6*8#B"!2)*+63#>&3:

%2/"#"#*&2#53#C)'7*-C-#,5$#(&2-#45&#,5$#2).52-*-8#

53" #!"!"#"$%&# &3#'"#D"2!&'-3"#$#&3#'"#9*("E"#%&#

"45&''-* # "E-*8 # )3*+"'"%"* # &3 # 6,<)+-* # C)'-*7C)!-*#

+2"%)!)-3"'&*0#9'#&*45&,"#)3)!)"'#%&#'"#45&#*&26#!)3:

!-#"E-*#,6*#+"2%&#*5#+&*)*#%-!+-2"'#*-<2&#F&)%&:

..&2G#&*#%&#HIJK8#%&#"3+&*#%&#*5#,"2!A"#"'#L3*+):

+5+-#%&#MN3*+&20

!"#$"%$&'#()%*+,-./#,"#%&/%+0+1#)#,2 #3+,3&#

%&3&#4/ # 516+%&' #)4/74"# 54"6&#8+9"*,), #%+*:

%4/,-)/%+),#*"5)%+&/)8),#%&/#5)#8+%-)84*)#5"#

+3;+8+"*)/#"<"*%"* #) #-+"3;&#%&3;5"-&#%&3&#

-)5=#

;5"3%-#>5&'>&#%&#1'&,"3)"#*&#."3"#'"#>)%"#!-,-#

(2-C&*-2#3-#+)+5'"28#%"3%-#!'"*&*#%&#OP53%",&3+-*#

%&#P)'-*-C/"Q#$"#&3#&'#!52*-#JG:JR8#&'#,)*,-#"E-#

%&#*5#2&.2&*-8#+2"*#("*"2#(-2#S"2/*#$#(&%)2#*5#)3:

.2&*-#&3#&'#S"2+)%-#;-,53)*+"#%&#9*("E"#TS;9U#$#

&'#S"2+)%-#B-!)"')*+"#V3)C)!"%-#%&#;"+"'5E"#TSBV;U0#

;-3+)357 # %"3%- # &*" # "*).3"+52" # %52"3+& # '-* # %-*#

!52*-*#*).5)&3+&*8#$#&3#'-*#"(53+&*#45&#3-*#A"3#

''&."%-8#53"*#HJW#(6.)3"*#-#,6*8#A"</"#,5!A-#%&#

X7.)!"0 # 1("2&!&3 # +",<)Y3 # "5+-2&* # !'6*)!-* # (&2-#

>)*+-*#!-3#-?-*#%)*+)3+-*8#$#'5&.-#"'.53-*#2&C&2&3:

!)"*#*-2(2&3%&3+&*#"#Z"')'&-#(-2#&?&,('-0#B"!2)*:

+63#&2"#53#<5&3#!-3-!&%-2#%&#'"#-<2"#!)&3+/C)!"#$#

C)'-*7C)!"#%&#Z"')'&-0#1E-*#%&*(5Y*#%)!+"2/"#,".3/:

C)!"*#!-3C&2&3!)"*#*-<2&#"*(&!+-*#%&#'"#-<2"#."'):

G#B1;[LB\]^8#M"35&'0#HIIJ0#'"&#%()"&#*+,&),-.*%/"&#()#0)%()**)!0#;2/+)!"_#D"2!&'-3"0

'&"3"0#`">)&2#P-'!A#A"#A"<'"%-#!-3#"%,)2"!)73#%&#

+-%-#&*+-0#

;5"3%-#53-#,)2"#%&*(5Y*#'-#45&#A)a-8#'&#2&*5'+"#

&>)%&3+& #45&#&*"#&*+"3!)"8 #&*& #"(2&3%)a"?&8 #&*"#

(2-C53%)a"!)73 #&3 # '-* #6,<)+-* #%&# '" # X7.)!" #$ # '"#

&()*+&,-'-./"8#C5&#,5$#),(-2+"3+&0#93#"45&'#"2+/:

!5'-#'"2.-#*-<2&#'"#C)'-*-C/"#&52-(&"#&3#'"#(-*.5&:

22"R8#45&#*&#(5<')!"#&3#HIGH#*)#3-#2&!5&2%-#,"'8#

(&2-#45&#&*!2)<&#"E-*#"3+&*8#$"#3-*#A"<'"#%&#"5:

+-2&*#!-,-#;"23"(#T!2&-#45&#&*#&' #"5+-2#"'#45&#

%&%)!" #,6* #(6.)3"*U0 #\-%" # '" # ("2+& # %&%)!"%" #"'#

3&-(-*)+)>)*,- # %&,5&*+2" # 53 # .2"3 # !-3-!),)&3+-#

%&'#+&,"0#\",<)Y38#%&*%&#'5&.-8#'"*#(6.)3"*#%&%):

!"%"*#"'#&=)*+&3!)"')*,-#$#!-22)&3+&*#"C)3&*8#!-,-#

Y'#,)*,-#&*!2)<&0

(+/#848)'#,&*;*"/8"#"5#6*)/#8&3+/+&#"/#",-"#

%)3;&'#%),+#8",%&/&%+8&#"/#>,;)?)=#@4/74"#

/&#,&*;*"/8"#3"/&,#"5#",;)%+&#8"8+%)8&#)#5),#

A+5&,&A2),#%$+/)' # +/8+)#B#<);&/",)= #C)05)3&,#

8"#4/&#8"#5&,#;"/,)8&*",#3"<&*#A&*3)8&,#8"#

5)#D;&%)=

b&#Y'#A"<'",-*0#X"*#%-*#-#+2&*#(6.)3"*#%&%)!"%"*#

"#'"#C)'-*-C/"#&3#c3-#%&':#9=+2&,-#d2)&3+&#'&#''&>":

2-3#,6*#%&#53#,&*#%&#'&!+52"*0#X-#!5&3+"#&3#53"#

!"2+"#45&#&*!2)<)7#"#*5#",).-#$#!-,("E&2-#Z"2!/"#

D-22730

d+2-#"*(&!+-#%-3%&8#%&*%&# '5&.-8#*&#3-+"#,5$#

<)&3#*5#!-3-!),)&3+-#%&#'7.)!"#$#&()*+&,-'-./"#&*#

*5#+&*)*#%-!+-2"'8#%-3%&#*&#>&#!'"2-8#&3#35,&2-*-*#

("*"?&*8 # "'.53-* # %& # &''-* # %&*'5,<2"3+&* # T(-2#

&?&,('-8#'"*#!-3!'5*)-3&*#%&'#&*+5%)-U8#&*"#C-2,":

!)73#'7.)!"#$#&()*+&,-'7.)!"0#93#HIIG8#!5"3%-#;2/:

+)!"#A)a-#53"#2&&%)!)73#%&#'"#+&*)*8#S"!-#P&2363%&a#

D5&$#:45&#C5&8#!-,-#&*#*"<)%-8#53#.2"3#",).-#%&#

Y'8 # 53- # %& # *5* # .2"3%&* # %)*!/(5'-*8 # "'.5)&3 # 45&#

+",<)Y3#3-*#A"#%&?"%-#,5$#(2&,"+52",&3+&:#2&:

*"'+7#&3#*5#(2&*&3+"!)73#'"# ),(-2+"3!)"#45&#("2"#

B"!2)*+63#+5>)&2-3#&*-*#%-*#"E-*#%&#C-2,"!)73#T&*#

R# B1;[LB\]^8 # M"35&'0 # HIJR0 # OX" # C)'-*-C/" # %&*%& # '"#+&2,)3"!)73#%&#'"#B&.53%"#Z5&22"#M53%)"' #A"*+"#HIJeQ0#S(0#IW:ffW#&3 #1"+2-)3,&#4#5"3)!%"-)&#668 #B5('&,&3+-#%&#HIJR:Je#%&#'"#93!)!'-(&%)"#9*("*"0

EF !!!!!!9^;[V;Lg1b1B0#[&>)*+"#;2/+)!"#%&#;)&3!)"*#B-!)"'&*##hh###3iK8#fWHf8#((0#jW:JJ

!"#$%&'()*+,-*.%/#+#+'-%+0*+123'454+607+%&80%4'49+0*#+!"!"#"$%&+-*+2#+:#%$-24*#+7+-*+2#+;'<#=#+.-+#>0-224'+#=4'9+&*'(#2#.#'+-*+)6?&(4'+124'31$4'+(%#.&$&4*#2-'@

Page 4: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&$'!'$()*"%&'$+&,+#'-$*!".!&-$/#0#$'*1&2

0#'-$&3$*!+#)$%&$!"#$%"&#'(%)*%+",-.&$"#'$4*$%&5*2

%#$/&"+&"*)&'$%&$6()*"%&'$+&,+#'789

:";/;*30&"+&$<*/);'+="$"#$%&5>$+#+*30&"+&$3*$;"2

?&'+;(*/;>"$3>(;/*9$@#$'&$A#%B*$%&%;/*)$A3&"*0&"+&$

*$&33*$%&1;%#$*3$+;&0A#$.!&$3&$&,;(B*"$'!'$/3*'&'$%&$

C!"%*0&"+#'-$D$A#)$'!A!&'+#$3*'$+)*%!//;#"&'$.!&$

+&"B*$.!&$4*/&)$A*)*$A#%&)$?;?;)9$<*/);'+="$+)*%!2

/B*-$%&$0*"&)*$0;3*()#'*-$/;"/#$#$'&;'$A=(;"*'$*3$

%B*- $';'+&0=+;/*0&"+&-$*3(#$.!&$D#$"#$"!"/*$4&$

3#()*%#$&"+&"%&)-$ ;"/3!'#$&"$*E#'$%&$F!&)+&$0;3;2

+*"/;*9$@#$#3?;%&0#'$!"*$/#'*$0!D$;0A#)+*"+&$&"$

'!$1;#()*FB*9$C!&$&"+#"/&'$/!*"%#$/#"#/;>$*$3*$4;'2

A*";'+*$;+*3;*"*$G;!3;*$H%;"#3F;-$/#"$.!;&"$'&$/*'>$

&"$IJKL9$H3$*E#$';(!;&"+&$"*/;>$'!$4;5*$M&)*9$N*02

1;O"$G;!3;*$ F*33&/;> $ 5#?&"9$P*'; $* $ 3*$0;'0*$&%*%$

.!&$Q#"+'&))*+$R#;(-$*3(!;&"$&"$.!;&"$D#$A;&"'#$

0!/4*'$?&/&'$&"$&'+#'$S3+;0#'$*E#'9$

T3$';(!;>$A!&'$&"$&'+&$=01;+#$%&$3*$3>(;/*9$@#$#32

?;%&0#'$3*$"&/)#3>(;/*$%&$IJKL$'#1)&$</4#3UV-$&,2

/&3&"+&$W&'+=$&"$/"'(0(1#2(#3-041435"8-$D$'!$0&0#2

);*$%&$#A#';/;#"&'-$3*$.!&$&'/);1;>$*$A);"/;A;#'$%&$

3#' $'&'&"+*- $/!*"%#$'&$A)&'&"+> $&"$Q*%);% $* $ 3*$

/=+&%)*$%&$3>(;/*$%&$M*3&"/;*$&"$IJXY-$.!&$"#$/#"2

';(!;>$/#0#$&'$'*1;%#$A#).!&$&3$ZA!'$[&;$+&"B*$D*$

'!$A)#A;#$/*"%;%*+#9$\]*$'#01)*$%&3$ZA!'$';&0A)&$

4*$';%#$0!D$A&)#$.!&$0!D$*3*)(*%*^$N*01;O"$&"$

3*$*/+!*3;%*%9$]#'$+&"&0#'$%;);(;&"%#$&3$Q;";'+&);#$

%&3$:"+&);#)9$@*%*$0&"#'9$

!"#$%$# &"'&($# )*+,-($#$"#."$/0"1."1#230,3$#

-($3$4#513#."#"))3$#"$#6%"#73-0,$&81#1(#"19

&,"1."#)3#)*+,-3#-(:(#%1#$3;"0#3,$)3.(#."#)3#

0"3),.3.<#$,1(#-(:(#%1#$3;"0#),+3.(#3)#-(1(-,9

:,"1&(#.")#:%1.(4#=1#$%#,:/(0&31&>$,:(#:39

1%3)## !"#$%&'(()*"+,+ -, +.*/)(, +0 +1- +2"3-)4)4+

5%$6,-7<#-(1$,."03.(#/(0#1%:"0($($#"$/"-,39

),$&3$#-(:(#)3#/,".03#31+%)30#."#)3#.,?%$,*1#

V$<HPR:<N_@-$Q*"!&39$IJV`9$6]>(;/*$F#)0*3$D$F;3#'#FB*$&"$3* $ #1)* $ %& $ a&;");/4 $ </4#3U79 $ bA9 $ KX2VJ $ &" $/"'(0(1 # 2(#3-0414356 # /"&30()41 # 7 # 8")(%-"0(1 # 99:$ %& $ Q9 $ <*/);'+="9$c*)/&3#"*d$:/*);*9J$<HPR:<N_@-$Q*"!&39$IJX`9#9&)%42*,,-.&#"#0"#0.$-,"#7#"0#"&;0-1-1#34%<"09$c*)/&3#"*d$H);&39

."#)3#)*+,-3#-(1&":/(081"3#"1#=$/3@3<#.".,9

-3#230,($#/3$($#3#&03&30#)3#0")3-,*1#"1&0"#)3#

)*+,-3#?(0:3)#-(1#)3#2"0.3.#&"*0,-3#:3&"0,3)<#

3$>#-(:(#3#)3#0")3-,*1#"1&0"#)*+,-3#A#-,"1-,3$#

/30&,-%)30"$BC4 #D(0#$%/%"$&(#"$#%13#0")3-,*1#

:".,3.3<#-(:/)"E3<#/"0(#6%"#73-0,$&81#"$+0,9

:"#?0"1&"#3#6%,"1"$#-(1$,."031#)3#)*+,-3#%1#

"E"0-,-,( #."#/%03#3;$&03--,*14 # F1-)%$(#"1# )3#

F1&0(.%--,*1#."#.,-G(#:31%3)#,1.,-3#6%"#1(#

)(#G3#0".3-&3.(#/"1$31.(#"1#?,)*$(?($#$,1(#"1#

"$&%.,31&"$#."#-,"1-,3$#/($,&,23$<#&31&(#13&%9

03)"$#-(:(#$(-,3)"$4#HI*:(#,1?)%A"#$%#?(0:39

-,*1#)*+,-3#"1#$%#-(1-"/-,*1#."#)3#?,)($(?>3J

]*$/#"/&A/;>"$%&$3*$3>(;/*$%&$<*/);'+="$D$'!$)&3*2

/;>"$/#"$3*$)&*3;%*%$D$/#"$3#$.!&$33*0*'$6?&)%*%$

+&>);/*$0*+&);*37$&'$*'!"+#$/#0A3&5#-$.!&$0&)&/&2

)B*$&"+)*)$/#"$0!/4#$0='$%&+*33&9$@#$&"+)#$&"$O39$

]#$%&5*0#'$A*)*$#+)#$0#0&"+#9$

[&'%&$'!$&'+*"/;*$&"$H3&0*";*-$'&$*3&5*$%&$'!'$

A#';/;#"&'$ 3* $ ;%&*$%&$ 3* $ F;3#'#FB* $/#0#$!"$'*1&)$

'!'+*"+;?# $ .!& $%& $*3(!"* $0*"&)* $ &'A&/;*3- $ /*';$

0;3*()#'*- $ '&)B* $ /*A*U $ %& $ %&/;) $ /#'*' $ '#1)& $ &3$

0!"%#$D$'!'$*?*+*)&'$0='$*33=$D$0='$A)#F!"%*2

0&"+&$%&$3#$.!&$A!&%&"$%&/;)$3#'$'*1&)&'$/;&"+BF;2

/#2A#';+;?#'9$N*3$?&U$*"+&'$+*0A#/#$&'+!?;&)*$0!D$

A)&'&"+&$&'+*$/#"/&A/;>"$.!&$*A!"+#-$A&)#$*$A*)+;)$

%&$&'&$0#0&"+#$<*/);'+="$%&F;&"%&$!"$F;3#'#F*)$%&$

#)%&"$0!D$%;'+;"+#$*3$+)*%;/;#"*39$a*D$"!0&)#'*'$

A)!&1*' $%& $&33# $D $"# $ '>3# $&" $ '! $ /3=';/#- $&" $ '!$

#AS'/!3#$'#1)&$&3$A*A&3$%&$3*$F;3#'#FB*$&"$3#'$&'+!2

%;#'$'!A&);#)&'9

<!$F#)0*/;>"$&A;'+&0#3>(;/*-$'!$"!&?#$/#"/&A+#$

%&$3*$F;3#'#FB*-$'&$"#+*$&"$'!'$*)+B/!3#'9$b#)$&5&02

A3#-$/!*"%#$4*13*$%&$+O)0;"#'$/#0#$A#';+;?;'0#$!$

#+)#'$';0;3*)&'$&"$6N)&'$"#+*'$'#1)&$3*$*3;*"U*$;02

AB*7II-$O3$'*1&$0!D$1;&"$%&$3#$.!&$&'+=$4*13*"%#9$

@#$)&A;+&$/#0#$!"$3#)#$)&/&+*'$D*$A)&A*)*%*'$D$*$

Ie$<HRR:f@$H@[H]gh-$i#'O9$YeIY9$6]>(;/*$D$?&)%*%$&"$&3$A);0&) $ Q*"!&3 $ <*/);'+="7 $=*"2(%&41 # >"0<"&)-&41 # 2(#?-041435"-$"j$kJ-$AA9$``J2`XV9II$<HPR:<N_@-$Q*"!&39$YeeJ9$6N)&'$"#+*'$'#1)&$3*$*3;*"U*$;0AB*79 $ bA9 $ KL2LY $ &" $>4+%( #2-"0@,)-,"$ %& $Q9 $<*/);'+="9$c*)/&3#"*d$M;&5#$N#A#9

KK !!!!!!l@PRgP:iH[H<9$R&?;'+*$P)B+;/*$%&$P;&"/;*'$<#/;*3&'$$mm$$$"j`-$YeIY-$AA9$ke2KK

Page 5: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#"$%&"%"$#'$(%$')(*%+%#',-&'&.%/(%(#0**"%,(%1-$2

1(%#(3%10#4($%(5*($% 5"65($%&"%1'*6-$5'$%&"% ,'%

78(#'9%:0"%4'),'3%&"%;-,($(;<'%'3',<5-#'9%8($-5-!-$2

1(%(%3"(8($-5-!-$1(%,=>-#(%10+%&"$8"#5-!'1"35"9%

$-3%'8"3'$%1'5-#"$9%$-3%$')"*%10+%)-"3%&"%:07%"$2

5')'3%4'),'3&(9%$-3%4')"*%,"<&(%#(3%#',1'9%"$50&-(%

+%$-3%-*%'%,'%()*'%&"%',>03(%&"%"$($%'05(*"$.%?'2

#*-$5@3%"3%#'1)-(%303#'%#'"%"3%"$5'$%&"$#',-;-#'2

#-(3"$%&"%"35*'&'.%A0'3&(%4'),')'%&"%A'*3'89%:0"%

3(%;0"%"3%')$(,05(%03%*"'##-(3'*-(9%(%&",%8($-5-!-$2

1(%(%3"(8($-5-!-$1(%,=>-#(9%$')<'%&"%,(%:0"%"$5')'%

4'),'3&(.%B')<'%,"<&(9%4')<'%5*')'C'&(%"3%",,(.%D3%

",%'*#4-!(9%"3%,'%)-),-(5"#'%&"%,'%E'#0,5'&%&"%D#(2

3(1<'%+%D18*"$'%&"%,'%FG9%&(3&"%$"%>0'*&'%$0%

&(#01"35'#-=39 % $0$ % *"$H1"3"$9 % $0$ % ;-#4'$9 % $0$%

1'30$#*-5($9%4'+%()*'$%&"%10#4($%&"%"$5($%'05(2

*"$%:0"%;0"*(3%'3(5'&'$%8(*%7,.%I,%$')<'%&"%,(%:0"%

"$5')'%4'),'3&(.%D*'%1'*#'%&"%$0%#'$'.%

J5*'%#($'% -18(*5'35"K%?'#*-$5@3%C'1@$%#'+=%"3%

3-3>H3%5-8(%&"%&",-*-(%'%;'!(*%&"%,'%,=>-#'%&-',7#5-2

#'9%303#'%$"%,"%(#0**-=%8"3$'*%:0"%4')<'%03'%,=>-2

#'%&-',7#5-#'%L8*(,"5'*-'M%$08"*-(*%'%,'%,=>-#'%;(*1',%

L)0*>0"$'M9%(%:0"%"$5'%H,5-1'%;0"*'%03'%,=>-#'%;-2

C-$5'9%')0*>0"$'&'9%*"'##-(3'*-'9%"5#.%D$5'%1H$-#'%

>*($"*'%"$50!(%10+%,"C($%&"%$0$%8'*5-50*'$%1'5-N'2

&'$.%

!"#$%&'()*+"),%)-".-"(/01).',$2/#%)3",)4-%15

*+/(&')/&./3/0)%)6%#-/(271)3"3/#%-(").-'4"5

(/'1%,&"12" ) % ) ,% ) ,08/#%9 ) :-%( ) +1%( ) 4%,,/3%()

'.'(/#/'1"( )% )+1% );72"3-% )3" ) <08/#% )3" ) ,%)

=1/>"-(/3%3)3")?%,"1#/%@)*+")&+#A'()%#%3B5

&/#'()3"),%)B.'#%)#'1(/3"-%1)*+")4+"-'1)+1)

C2'18'D)#'12-',%3').'-)",)E.+()!"/@)6%#-/(271)

(")3"3/#0)%)/&.%-2/-)#,%("()3")F"2'3','8$%)3")

,%();/"1#/%()6'#/%,"()"1),%)G%#+,2%3)3")H#'105

&/#%()3" ) ,% )=1/>"-(/3%3)3" )I%-#",'1%9 )H(2%)

3'#"1#/% ) ,% ) /&.%-2/0 )"1)3/>"-(%( )"2%.%(J ) ,%)

.-/&"-%)#+,&/10)#+%13')4+")"K.+,(%3')3"),%)

=1/>"-(/3%3)"1)LMNO@)P+12')%)Q8+(2$1)R%-#$%)

;%,>'@)S'(B)<+/()<0."T)Q-%18+-"1)U)H1-/*+")

:/"-1')R%,>719):-%(),%)&+"-2")3")G-%1#')>',5

>/0 )% )"P"-#"- ) ,% )3'#"1#/% )3" )3/#A% )&%2"-/%9)

VH().'(/W,")-"(+&/-),%(),$1"%()","&"12%,"()3")

,%)#'1#".#/01)3")F%1+",)6%#-/(271)%#"-#%)3")

,% ) F"2'3','8$% ) 3" ) ,%( ) ;/"1#/%( ) 6'#/%,"(X)

V;0&'),,"80)6%#-/(271)%)("-).-'4"('-)3")F"5

2'3','8$%)3"),%();/"1#/%()6'#/%,"()"1)+1%)G%5

#+,2%3)3")H#'1'&$%X

O*'$%03($%'P($%&0*'35"%,($%:0"%?'#*-$5@3%"$50!(%

-18'*5-"3&(%,'%'$->3'50*'%&"%QE03&'1"35($%&"%E-2

,($(;<'R9%,'$%8*"$-(3"$%&",%S*N()-$8'&(%&"%G'*#",(2

3'%4-#-"*(3%'#5(%&"%8*"$"3#-'.%T'%U>,"$-'%A'5=,-#'9%

S8($5=,-#'%+%V(1'3'%#'5','3'%W)'*#",(3"$'9%3(%,'%

&"%QX'&*-&R2%"$5')'%8*"(#08'&'%8(*:0"%?'#*-$5@3%

"68,-#')'%'%Y'35%&"%1'3"*'%-,0$5*'&'%+%"$(%"3%,'%

G'*#",(3'%&"%;-3',"$%&"%,($%'P($%Z[%"*'%03%"3(*1"%

8"#'&(9%+%"3%')$(,05(%!"3-',.%B0)(%8*"$-(3"$%8'*'%

"680,$'*,"%&"%,'%E'#0,5'&9%+%"$(%'%8"$'*%&"%:0"%?'2

#*-$5@3%8*(!"3<'%&"%&(3&"%8*(!"3<'%+%$0%8'&*"%$"2

>0<'%$-"3&(%"3%':0",%"35(3#"$%03%#'*>(%8(,<5-#(%&"%

,'%E','3>"%(%#0'35(%1"3($%"$5')'%10+%)-"3%*",'2

#-(3'&(%#(3%"$5($%@1)-5($%LS35(3-(%?'#*-$5@39%$0%

4"*1'3(%8":0"P(9%3(%5"3<'%5'18(#(%1','$%*",'2

#-(3"$%#(3%"$"%103&(M.%\->(%5(&(%"$5(%8'*'%1($2

5*'*%,'%"3(*1"%;0"*N'%:0"%5'1)-73%5"3<'%"35(3#"$%

,'%U>,"$-'%)'*#",(3"$'%+%#'5','3'.%?0%$(1)*'%,,">'2

)'%4'$5'%,(%:0"%$"%"68,-#')'%"3%,'$%;'#0,5'&"$%03-2

!"*$-5'*-'$.%?'#*-$5@3%"$50!(9%80"$9%'%8035(%&"%$"*%

"680,$'&(%+%A'**"*'$%S*5'09%:0"%"$5')'%'%#'*>(%&"%

,'%#@5"&*'%&(3&"%7,%5*')'C')'9%;0"%$0%&-*"#5(*%&"%

5"$-$%$-%3(%*"#0"*&(%1',9%03%4(1)*"%#(3$"*!'&(*9%

$-%$"%:0-"*"9%8"*(%&->3(%W,(%:0"%3(%"*'%#0',:0-"*'%

#($'%"3%':0",,($%1(1"35($29%A'**"*'$%S*5'09%&"2

#<'9%10"!"%$0$%*"&"$%+%#(3$->0"%:0"%80"&"%&'*%

#,'$"$ % "3 % ,' % E'#0,5'& % &" % D#(3=1-#'$. % S,>( % '$<%

#(1(%](88"*9%8"*(%"3%*(C(.%?'#*-$5@3%"$50!(%&"%;-2

,=$(;(9%&"%1"5(&=,(>(%"3%,'%E'#0,5'&%&"%D#(3=1-2

#'$%&"%,'%F3-!"*$-&'&%;'$#-$5'.%T(%:0"%3(%&"C'%&"%

$"*%)'$5'35"%$-3>0,'*.%

YZ !!!!!!D/AVFAU^S\S?.%V"!-$5'%A*<5-#'%&"%A-"3#-'$%?(#-',"$%%__%%%3`a9%b[cb9%88.%d[2ZZ

!"#$%&'()*+,#-)'+$#./+0*+*&*12*+345+60+607&%&5+#+8#95%+60+7#+7/1&$#+6&#7:$3$#;+

*<*$#+'0+70+5$<%%&/+40*'#%+=<0+>#?@#+<*#+7/1&$#+6&#7:$3$#+A4%570(#%&#B+'<40%&5%+#+7#+

7/1&$#+85%-#7+A?<%1<0'#BC

Page 6: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$#%&'%(#)$("*%+'$,-.'$#/$-%&#%&'$0*1*$/*)$'0'2

)-(-'%#)$+#$34&#+1*$#%$56789$(':'$;*$,#:')$-%+-2

(*+'<$=/$)*>?*9$/'$(':#%&*$#%$"%*$(*1&*$*$@*1(?*$

A'11B%9$C"#$#1*$ -:0')->/#$)*(*1$ /*$'0')-(-B%<$D*$

#1*$('%'(-+'$(':'$:-/-&*%&#$+#/$E3F$;$#/$G0")$H#-$

:'I?*$)")$0'+#1')')$,-/')<$J'+'$#/$:"%+'$C"#$)*2

>?*$"%$0'('$+#/$&#:*9$C"#$)*>?*$+#$/BK-(*9$%'$+"2

+*>*$C"#$L*(1-)&4%$#1*$#%&'%(#)$/*$0#1)'%*$:4)$

01#0*1*+*$#%$/BK-(*$#%$/*$F)0*M*$+#$*C"#//')$:'2

:#%&')9$'$#%&1#$/*)$:4)$01#0*1*+*)$)-$0#%)*:')$

&*:>-N%$#%$L4%(,#.2O*.*)$P0#1'$#/ $,#1:*%'$+#$

L4%(,#.$!#1/')-'$;*$#)&*>*$#Q-/-*+'$#%$L"-.*R$;$#%$

S?(&'1$L4%(,#.$+#$T*I*/*9$K1*%$*:-K'$+#$L*(1-)&4%$

;$"%$K1*%$(':#%&*1-)&*$+#$)"$/->1'$+#$-%&1'+"((-B%$

*$/*$/BK-(*<$3*1/')$H-#1*$/'$,*$#Q0/-(*+'$:*K%?U-(*2

:#%&#<$

J#%-#%+'$#%$("#%&*$*$/')$'&1')$(*%+-+*&')<<<$%'$

,*>?*$('/'1<$V'$C"-#1'$+#(-1$C"#$/')$'&1')$+')$(*%2

+-+*&')$%'$//#K*1*%$*$&#%#1$"%$>"#%$('%'(-:-#%&'$

+#$/BK-(*$*M')$+#)0"N)9$0#1'$#%$*C"#//')$:':#%2

&')$%'$&#%?*%$K1*%+#)$('%'(-:-#%&')$+#$/BK-(*<$L*2

(1-)&4%$)#$01#)#%&B$0#%)*%+'$#%$C"#$#)#$-%&#%&'$/#$

0#1:-&-1?*$)#K"-1$"%')$*M')$:4)$#%$/*$!*("/&*+9$*12

K":#%&*%+'$C"#$/'$,*>?*$-%&#%&*+'9$C"#$,*>?*$-%2

&#%&*+'$'>&#%#1$/*$0/*.*<$31#'$C"#$N/$:-):'$)#$/'$

(':#%&B$*$@*1(?*$A'11B%<$L#*$(':'$U"#1#9$0'('$

+#)0"N)9$#%$567W$#)$#Q0"/)*+'9$*/$-K"*/$C"#$'&1')$

01'U#)'1#)9$0'1$#/$1#(&'1$S*/+#(*)*)9$"%$K1*%$(-#%2

&?U-('$C"#$#1*$"%$U*)(-)&*$+#$&':'$;$/':'<$F)&'$%'$

#)$('%&1*+-(&'1-'9 $ -%)-)&'9$('%$C"#$U"#1*$"%$K1*%$

U*1:*(B/'K'< $ H# $ ,#(,' $ "%' $ +# $ )") $ +-)(?0"/')9$

F+"*1+$X'+1?K"#.$!*11N9$/"#K'$U"#$"%$K1*%$*:-K'$

+#$L*(1-)&4%<$Y,'1*$#)$"%$K1*%$*:-K'$:?'$;$"%'$

+#$/')$(-#%&?U-(')$(':01':#&-+')$-%&#1%*(-'%*/-)&*)$

C"# $;' $:4) $*+:-1'< $Z#:') $,#(,' $I*1-*) $ (')*)$

["%&')<

!"#$%&"#'()"*+,('-#'-"#."#$%&"#'-/0%-/(1-#

&"*(".'2)&%#3#)'-2-$(1*&4#5.)1*%&#&/(1*&6#"-1#

7&#%)$&2&6-#8&%(&1#-9%&1#6)#6(8.2$&'(:"#'()";

*+,('& #/.3 # ("*)%)1&"*)1< # 2& # =2*(/& # 6) # )22&1#

!"#$%"&'#$'#(')*+,&4

@1*(-*)9 $#/ $:N1-&'$#) $)";'< $F+"*1+ $#) $"%$K1*%$

(-#%&?U-('$U1*%('2>*1(#/'%N)9$%*(-+'$#%$#/$(*:0'$+#$

('%(#%&1*(-B%$+#$Y1K#/\)2)"12O#1<$L"$0*+1#$#1*$"%$

:N+-('$1#0">/-(*%'$:*+1-/#M'$C"#$//#KB$*$A*1(#/'2

%*$&1*)$/')$+-U?(-/#)$*I*&*1#)$+#$/*$]]$X#0^>/-(*$;$

*C"?$)#$#%*:'1B$+#$"%*$#%U#1:#1*9$/*$:*+1#$+#$

F+"*1+9$;$&"I-#1'%$C"#$#Q-/-*1)#$0'1C"#$/#)$->*$/*$

I-+*$#%$#//'<$_`*$I-+*a$F)$"%*$,-)&'1-*$:";$,#1:'2

)*$P;$&14K-(*R$C"#$*/K"-#%$+#>#1?*$-%I#)&-K*1$;$#)2

(1->-1$)'>1#$#//*<$F)$"%*$,-)&'1-*$+#$*:'19$+#$)'/-2

+*1-+*+9$+#$(':01':-)'9$ $C"#$*+#:4)$"%#$*$(-"2

+*+*%')$+#$*C"?$;$+#$*//?<$Y,'1*$C"#9$"%')$;$'&1')9$

'$/')$!"#$%$;$/')$!$&'$%9$%')$C"-#1#%$)#0*1*1$#)&^2

0-+*:#%&#$I*/#$ /*$0#%*$1#('+*1$#)')$:':#%&')<$

Z">-#1'% $:':#%&') $ #% $ /') $ C"# $ /*) $ K#%&#) $ %')$

C"#1?*:')$"%-19 $1#)0#&*%+'$+-I#1)-+*+#)9$ /#%K"*)$

;$("/&"1*)$01'0-*)9$0'1C"#$#)$:"(,'$ /'$C"#$%')$

"%#$;$/'$C"#$%')$+-U#1#%(-*$)'%$(')*)$)"0#1*>/#)$

C"#$0#1:-&#%$"%*$('%I-I#%(-*$#%$#C"-+*+9$#%$*0'2

;'$;$1#)0#&'$:"&"')<

>1*?9&/-1#)"#2&#)@0.21(:"#6)#A&'%(1*?"#)"#2&#

!"(8)%1(6&6#)"#BCDE4

L?9$:#$,#$-+'$'&1*$I#.$*$b>#+*$;$*$)")$*/1#+#+'2

1#)<$H-)(^/0*:#<

H#$#)*$N0'(*$,#$0'+-+'$,*>/*1$('%$*/K"%')$*/":2

%')$;$&'+'$#//')$:#$,*%$+-(,'$C"#$/*)$(/*)#)$#1*%$

:*K-)&1*/#)9 $ )-% $ (':0*1*(-B% $ 0')->/# $ ('% $ '&1*)<$

O"(,')$+#$#)')$#)&"+-*%&#)$&"I-#1'%$-%&#1N)$0'1$/*$

#0-)&#:'/'K?*$;$0'1$/*$U-/')'U?*$+#$/*$(-#%(-*$*)'2

(-*+*$*$ /*)$(-#%(-*)$#('%B:-(*)$0'1$#)*)$(/*)#)<$

3':'$+#(?*:')9$L*(1-)&4%$U"#$#Q0"/)*+'$#%$567W$

;$I'/I-B$'(,'$*M')$:4)$&*1+#$('%$&1*:0*<$Y/U'%)$

A*1(#/B$;$*/K"%')$*:-K')$:4)$-+#*1'%$"%*$#Q(#2

/#%&#$#)&1*&#K-*9$('%&1*&*1/#$('%$#/$%':>1#$+#$cL*2

(1-)&d$`-.B%e9$#)$+#(-19$(*&*/*%-.*1'%$"%$0'('$)")$

*0#//-+')<$E*1#(#$-%(1#?>/#$0#1'$U"%(-'%B<$@1*(-*)$*$

#//'9$+#$%"#I'9$#)&"I'$+*%+'$(/*)#)$+"1*%&#$#/$("12

)'$fg2fh$#%$/*$!*("/&*+<$`*$/#((-B%$-%*"K"1*/$+#/$

("1)'9$'$*/K'$0*1#(-+'9$(";'$K"-B%$)#$('%)#1I*9$/*$

-:0*1&-B$N/<$`*$(')*$+"1*$"%$*M'9$"%$("1)'9$%*+*$

:4)<$H#)0"N)$+#$/*$:"#1&#$+#$!1*%('9$+#/$K#%#1*/$

*U1-(*%-)&*9$#%$56f79$I"#/I#$*$/*$!*("/&*+9$+'%+#$

FE !!!!!!FV3Xi3]jYHYL<$X#I-)&*$31?&-(*$+#$3-#%(-*)$L'(-*/#)$$kk$$$%lh9$8m589$00<$gm2WW

Page 7: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%#&'() * +'#+" * !,'-.- * +. * /.$"+","01' * +. * ,'-*

2%.#!%'-*3"!%',.-*.#*45*!&(-"6*.7!.8$"*.,*!&(-"*9:;

9<6*.,*+.*,'*=>?/*+.*/@7%!"6*A'-$'*-&*B',,.!%C%.#;

$"*.#*'0"-$"*+.*94D*2"C"*-&*'C%0"6*!"C"*E'!"*

F.(#)#+.G*H&.I*:J*'K"-*C)-*$'(+.D

!"#$%&'()#*+%,-.#/)#'%#*'&0-*(%1*#/)#2)(.3

/.+.04*#/)#+*'#5&)-6&*'#7.6&*+)'#)-#)'(*#"+(&3

,*#)(*8*9#:;%<#/)'(*6*14*'#/)#<+#6.,.#81.$)3

'.1#/)#/&6=*#,*()1&*>#

L"*B&%*',&C#"*#"*C'$(%!&,'+"*+.*-&*'-%0#'$&('*+.*

/.$"+","01'*+.*,'-*2%.#!%'-*3"!%',.-*+&('#$.*$(.-*"*

!&'$("*!&(-"-D*M('*C&I*#"(C',D*NO'#*'*-&-*!,'-.-*

!"C8'K.("-*+.*P%-$"(%'6*+.*F%,"-"B1'6*+.*/.+%!%#'D*

P'!1'#*,"*C%-C"*Q&.*I"D*R.*8.+1'C"-*8.(C%-"*I*'*

S.!.-*#%*.-"D*?!&+1'C"-*',,16*'*S.(*Q&@*.78,%!'O'6*

I*.-"*Q&.*#"*#"-*+.T'O'*$"C'(*'8&#$.-*UI"*#"*,.*

A'!1'*!'-"*+.-+.*,&.0"VD

E"(*!&.-$%"#.-*,'O"(',.-6*I"*$('O'T'*.#$"#!.-*.#*

.,*H'#!"*+.,*.7*8(.-%+.#$*E&T",6*.#*H'#!'*2'$',';

#'6*#"*8"+1'*%(*'*-&-*!,'-.-*-%.C8(.D*3'!(%-$)#*#"*

8(.$.#+1'6*#"*#"-*+'O'*!,'-.-*C'0%-$(',.-*U'&#Q&.*

.('#*!,'-.-*+.*&#*0('#*C'.-$("6*!"C"*8"!"-V6*-%#"*

Q&.*C'#+'O'*,..(*&#'-*8)0%#'-*+.*&#*C'#&',*+.*

/.$"+","01'*+.*,'*@8"!'6*+.,*Q&.*+.O1'C"-*8"#.(*

.#*!"CW#*.#*,'*!,'-.*-%0&%.#$.*#&.-$('-*+&+'-*I*

!"C.#$'(%"-D*M-'-*+&+'-6*I*',0&#'-*8(.0&#$'-*Q&.*

@,*C%-C"*'K'+1'6*+'O'#*,&0'(*'*!,'-.-*C&I*!"C;

8,.$'-D*X.!&.(+"*+.*.,,'-*',0&#'-*.7!.,.#$.-*.78";

-%!%"#.-*-"O(.*,'*,Y0%!'*+%',Y0%!'6*"*-"O(.*.,*$."(.;

C'*+.*%#!"C8,.$%$&+*+.*Z[+.,D*

?1)6&'*,)-() # =*@4* # 1)6&@&/. #.8&-&.-)' #,%A#

$*B.1*@+)'#*#'%#)C8.'&6&D-#/)+#().1),*#/)#&-3

6.,8+)(&(%/#/)#EF/)+#)-#'%#!"#$%&'(()*"+,+-,+

-*.)(,+/+,-+,"0-)1)1+2%$3,-9

M7'!$"6*.7'!$"6*.#*.,*,%O("*Q&.*!%$'-6*$'CO%@#*-%*

#"*(.!&.(+"*C',*.#*!"#$%&'()(*(+,&)6*.,*,%O("*Q&.*

@,*$.#1'*0&'(+'+"*.#*&#*!'TY#*I*Q&.*-&*A%T'*\.('*

.+%$Y*!"#*C&I*O&.#*!(%$.(%"*.#*]^^4*!"#*8(Y,"0"*

+.*_.-W-*/"-$.(1#6*.#*.-.*,%O("*+.!1'6*A'I*&#'*.7;

8"-%!%Y#*C&I*O(%,,'#$.D*P'#*8'-'+"*I'*!'-%*4`*'K"-*

+.-+.*Q&.*-.*.+%$Y*.,*,%O("6*I*-%0&.*-%.#+"*C&I*%#;

$.(.-'#$.*.#*.-"*Q&.*.-$'C"-*!"C.#$'#+"D*E'&,'*

a,C"-]:*I*R&%-*\.0'*A'#*.-!(%$"*-"O(.*.,,"D*3.0&(';

C.#$.*A'O1'*.-$&+%'+"*.,*$."(.C'*+&('#$.*-&*.-;

$'#!%'*.#*?,.C'#%'D*?+.C)-6*A'O1'*C%('+"*!"#*+.;

$',,.*.,*.7!.,.#$.*,%O("*+.*+%S&,0'!%Y#*Q&.*A%!%.("#*

MD*>'0.,*I*_D*XD*>.bC'#]<*I*Q&.*'Q&1*8&O,%!Y*c.!;

#"-*.#*'Q&.,,'*!",.!!%Y#*A%-$Y(%!'*Q&.*!(."*Q&.*+%;

(%01' * c%.(#" * Z',S)# * U3'!(%-$)# * $'CO%@# * $('+&T"*

8'('*.-$'*!",.!!%Y#VD*M#*.,*'(!A%S"*+.*-&*+"!&C.#;

$'!%Y#*+.,*Q&.*'#$.-*A'O,)O'C"-*A'I*&#*(.-&C.#*

+.,*,%O("*+.*>'0.,*I*>.bC'#*!"#*',0&#'-*'#"$';

!%"#.-*-&I'-D*E"!'-*.#*.-$.*!'-"D

\",S%.#+"*'*-&-*!,'-.-D*3.*$('$'O'#*.#*.,,'-*#&;

C.("-"-*'&$"(.-D*d.-+.*,&.0"*E"88.(6*e&A#6*R'f';

$"-6*F.I.('O.#+6*c(&.-+.,,6*,"-*0('#+.-*+.*,'*@8";

!'D*c'CO%@#*$"!'O'*$.C'-*+.*,Y0%!'6*8(%#!%8',C.#;

$.*,Y0%!'*8("8"-%!%"#',*I*',0"*+.*,Y0%!'*!&'#$%B%!';

!%"#',D*?+.C)-*+.*.-'-*!,'-.-6*3'!(%-$)#*"(0'#%G';

O'*&#"-*-.C%#'(%"-*+"#+.*,"-*.-$&+%'#$.-*.-!"01';

C"-*U.-!"01'#*C)-*O%.#V*.#$(.*S'(%'-*"O('-*Q&.*@,*

#"-*"B(.!1'g*,' *-.$/,(*0)0#1&* +.*/'(%"*H&#0.6 *!&'

)"#$%&'2(')&'$+3(/,$#&%$"+'%$(+,14$%&* +.*E"88.(6 *!&'

-/,56%,65&'2(')&/'5(30)6%$0+(/'%$(+,14$%&/*+.*e&A#6*

.,*75&,&20'%0+,5&'()'*8,020*+.*F.I.('O.#+6*!"-'-*

+.*3#..+6*3$.0Ch,,.(6*.$!D*?,0&#'-*!"-'-*C)-6*#"*

(.!&.(+"*'A"('D*316*,'*9$)0/041&'2(')&'41/$%&*+.*H&#;

0. *8"( *.T.C8,"6 *" * ,"- *:(#6+20/ '.&5&2$#*&/* +.*

e&A#D*=#'*A"('*8"(*-.C'#'*UQ&.*-%.C8(.*.('*C)-*

+.*&#'*A"('V *+%-!&$1'C"-*!"#*C&!A"*+.$',,. *&#*

!'81$&,"*+.*,'*"O('*.,.0%+'D*M#*.-$'-*-.-%"#.-*3';

!(%-$)#*C"-$('O'*&#'*!'8'!%+'+*C&I*-&I'*+.*T&#;

$'(*C&!A'-*!"-'-6*C&!A'-*8.(-8.!$%S'-*',*C%-C"*

$%.C8"D*/"-$('O'*-.(*&#*B%,Y-"B"*'#',1$%!"*C&I*8";

$.#$.6*Q&.*$.#1'*&#'*.#"(C.*!'8'!%+'+*I*-.#-%O%,%;

+'+*8'('*-%$&'(*,"-*$.7$"-*A%-$Y(%!'C.#$.6*Q&.*.('*

!'8'G*+.*S.(*Q&@*A'O1'*+.$()-*+.*.-"-*$.7$"-6*-.;

K','(*-&-*%#B,&.#!%'-6*.,*,.0'+"*+.,*'&$"(*I*+.*,'*

]:* aR/a36 * E'&,'D * :``4D * iR' * (.!.8!%Y# * .# * M-8'K' * +.,*$."(.C'*+.*Z[+.,g*,'*,'O"(*+.*/'#&.,*3'!(%-$)#jD*E8D*:9J;<`k6*.#*;0+2('+0'<&=$,&'()'0)3$20>'-+'()'?@'&+$3(5/&5$0'2(')& '.6=)$%&%$"+ '2( ' AB+,5026%%$"+ '& ' )& ' )"#$%& ' C '&) ' &+D)$/$/'405*&)E ' 2( ' F&+6() ' :&%5$/,D+ ' !6G"+H '!""(+%#'+" * 8"( * 3D*RY8.G*?(#',6*?D*d"C%#0"*2&($"6**ED*+.*,'*B&.#$.*2",,.,,6*_D*/%(*Z'(!1'6*FD*c'&-$.D*H'(!.,"#'g*/"#$.-%#"-D]<* >?ZMR6 *MD *I *>Ml/?>>6 *_D *XD *]^J^D *M, * $."(.C'*+.*Z[+.,D*/'+(%+g*c.!#"-D

GH !!!!!!M>2X=2N_?d?3D*X.S%-$'*2(1$%!'*+.*2%.#!%'-*3"!%',.-**mm***#5k6*:`]:6*88D*<`;44

Page 8: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'(&)*+)*&,-*.!(&/!+&$)*/0#1"$2!+&*/&,!+&$#3

.-2*/0!+(&*/&,$+&0*+4+&)*,&$-0!#%&5!/&0!)!&)*0$,,*(&

+4/&6$7*#&/4/.8/&$+7!&$&)*+$##!,,!+&2$0*21047!+&

7-$/)!&*#$&/*7*+$#4!%&

9#$/ & 7,$+*+ &2-: & ;#!<*76!+$+ & /! & +!,! & ;$#$ & ,$&

.*/0*&=-*&*+0-)4$"$&97!/!2>$&+4/!&;$#$&;*#+!/$+&

=-*&<*/>$2!+&)*&!0#!+&12"40!+%&?,.-/!+&)*&*+!+&

7-#+!+ &+* &.#$"$#!/( &*/&$-)4!( &+@,! &*, &$-)4!% &A/&

.#$/&$24.!&2>!( & B!$/&C*/$76( &2D)47!( &-/ &.#$/&

74*/0>E47! & "$#7*,!/D+ & 4/0*#/$74!/$,4+0$( & 0#$/+7#4"4@&

-/&7-#+!(&*,&)*&FGHI3FGHJ(&:&:!&6*&0#$/+7#40!&!0#!(&

*,&)*,&HF3HK%&9+&-/$&,1+042$&=-*&/!&+*&7!/!L7$/%&

?:-)$/&$&*/0*/)*#&2*M!#&,$&E4,!+!E>$&)*&N$7#4+01/(&

+-&E$7*0$&7!2!&;#!E*+!#(&7!2!&2*0!)@,!.!(&7!2!&

E4,@+!E!&)*&,$&74*/74$%&

9/&*+!+&$O!+&6*2!+&)476!&=-*&*+0-<!&*/&PDQ47!(&

*/&,$&AR?P(&)!/)*&+*&7$+@&;!#&+*.-/)$&<*L&7!/&

PS&T/.*,*+&U4L@/&VW4-,4$&?)4/!,E4&E$,,*74@(&2-:&;#*3

2$0-#$2*/0*(&*/&FGHXY%

!"#$%&"'()"#*$#+"(,)%&-'#$'#./0)(1#*)1#234",#

"#(1'5$,$'()"%#637#)'&$,$%"'&$%8

9E*704<$2*/0*(&*/&PDQ47!(&)!/)*&0$2"4D/&+-&,*3

.$)!&/!&6$&+4)!&<$7>!(&)4!&$,.-/!+&7-#+!+&:&)470@&

<$#4$+&7!/E*#*/74$+%&9/0#*&*+!+&7-#+!+(&Z[$#,&P$#Q&

7!2!&+!74@,!.!&)*&,$&74*/74$\(&=-*&21+&0$#)*&+*&

#*7!.4@&7!2!&$#0>7-,!&*/ &!"#$%&'()*'$%+& VE-*&;-3

",47$)!&7!2!&!;8+7-,!&*/&PDQ47!Y(&*,&0#$"$M!&=-*&

?,"*#0&]!24/.!&4/7!#;!#@&0$2"4D/&*/&,#-%.&'()/#)

0"1+(+02')3+/#&$')4)-+$%#35+&6$#'(&-/&,4"#!&=-*(&

2-:&4/M-+0$2*/0*&*/&24&!;4/4@/(&6$&;$+$)!&"$+3

0$/0*&)*+$;*#74"4)!&*/0#*&,$&7!2-/4)$)&E4,!+@E47$%&

$̂2"4D/ & 42;$#04@ & -/ & 7-#+! & )* & ;!+.#$)! & +!"#*&

Z4/)-774@/&:&)4$,D7047$\&7-:!&*+=-*2$(&2-:&)*+$3

##!,,$)!(&+*&7!/+*#<$&7!2;,*0$2*/0*(&7!/&2-76$+&

E476$+&$/*Q$+&:& &7!2*/0$#4!+%&R!&*+&;#!;4$2*/0*&

-/&0*Q0!(&;*#!&M-/0$/)!&,$+&7!+$+&=-*&/!+&6$/&,,*3

.$)!&/!+&6$#>$2!+&-/$&4)*$&2-:&$;#!Q42$)$&)*&

,!&=-*&E-*&$=-*,&7-#+!%& $̂2"4D/&*+0$+&7!+$+&)*"*3

#>$/&+*#&*)40$)$+&*/&24&!;4/4@/%

9%&17#*$#"(3$,*18 #:16$'&";"% #"'&$%#<3$#"#

2"%#(2"%$%#"(3*="'#"236'1%#*$#1&,"%#5"(32&">

*$%8#?1,#()$,&1@#<3$#(161#A,15$%1,#*$#.$&1>

*1214="#*$#2"%#:)$'()"%#+1()"2$%#$'#3'"#B"(32>

&"*#*$#9(1'C6)("%@#D"7#<3$#)'*)(",#<3$#+">

(,)%&-'# )'5237C#$'#'1#A1(1%#$(1'16)%&"%#*$#

2"%#%$43'*"#6)&"*#*$2#%)421#EE8#F:C61#(,$$%#

<3$ # )'5237C # 2" # *1($'()" # *$ # +"(,)%&-' # $' # 2"#

9(1'16="#7#2"%#:)$'()"%#+1()"2$%#A,"(&)("*"%#

$'#9%A"G"H

N$7#4+01/&4/E,-:@&2-76!&)*+)*&,-*.!%&]*&;#!/0!(&

+*&2*&!7-##*&740$#&$&74*/0>E47!+&+!74$,*+&2-:&#*7!3

/!74)!+&$70-$,2*/0*(&=-*&E-*#!/&$,-2/!+&+-:!+&:&

,-*.! &$24.!+ & 0$2"4D/% &_!# &*M*2;,! &*, & +!74@,!.!&

?/0!/4!&`L=-4*#)!(&=-4*/&E-*&$24.!&:&7!2;$O*#!&

)*&N$7#4+01/&Va:&)*&_$7!&b*#/1/)*L&C-*:&;!#&+-3

;-*+0!cY&:&7!/!74@&"4*/&,$+&7,$+*+&:&+*24/$#4!+&=-*&

42;$#04@&*/&97!/@247$+%&d*&6$",$)!&$/0*+&)*&B!$/&

C*/$76(&=-*&*+&2D)47!&*+;*74$,4L$)!&*/&0*2$+&)*&

;!,>047$+&)*&+$,-)&;8",47$%& !̂/4&]!2D/*76(&-/!&)*&

,!+ & .#$/)*+ & *;4+0*2@,!.!+ & : & E4,@+!E!+ & *-#!;*!+(&

0$2"4D/&)*+)*&,-*.!%& &9+01&e!)#>.-*L&b$##D(&0$23

"4D/&2D)47!&:&E$#2$7@,!.!(&=-*&*+&-/&7$+!&$,.!&

)4+04/0!(&;!#=-*&*+&-/&;!7!&2$:!#&=-*&,$+&;*#+!3

/$+&=-*&6*&740$)!(&;*#!&,$&4/E,-*/74$&)*&N$7#4+01/&

0$2"4D/&E-*&42;!#0$/0*&*/&+-&7$+!&V:&$&,$&4/<*#+$&

4.-$,2*/0*Y & /! & 0$/0! & 7!2! & $,-2/! & +4/! & 7!2!&

$24.!(&7!2!&7!2;$O*#!%&9/#47& *̂,,!(&-/&.#$/&64+3

0!#4$)!#&)*&,$&97!/!2>$&:&)*&!0#$+&0*21047$+(&$,&

=-*&,$+&$;!#0$74!/*+&)*&N$7#4+01/&2$#7$#!/&+-+&4/3

0*#*+*+&:&+-+&!#4*/0$74!/*+%&_!)#>$2!+&+*.-4#&)$/3

)!&2-76!+&*M*2;,!+(&2-76!+&21+&V)!:&-/!&21+(&

;*#!&,!&)!:&*/0#*&;$#D/0*+4+(&/!&*+&+$/0!&)*&)*<!3

74@/f&?/)#*-&P$+35!,*,,(&*,&7!/+*,,*#&)*&97!/!24$&

)*,&.!"4*#/!&)*&P$+(&*,&)*&,!+&2*M!#*+&;#4<$04L$)!3

IJ !!!!!!9R5eA5`B?]?N%&e*<4+0$&5#>047$&)*&54*/74$+&N!74$,*+&&gg&&&/hJ(&KXFK(&;;%&IX3ii

!"#$%&$'()')$*&$+,-./)($#$)-0)1/)($+1)$2&'#*#-#34)$5&(6&0')$5)()$-+&3#$7)0&($0.&10.)$%#0.)-8$9)0(.%':1$0(&4)$;+&$7)<4)$;+&$-)1/)(%&$)$-)$5.%0.1)=$$>$;+&$-)$5()?.%$ $

&()$*&'&(2.1)1'&$&1$7)0&($<.&1$-)%$0#%)%8@

Page 9: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'()*+,%-."%'/.(,0%#.1023%4'%*,-/.",5*'$%#*,%

6.6'$%7.60%#"!%,0&')/"%",%"/%8()*&0%6"/%50,05*9

(*",&0%:;'5!*#&8,%<')/=%6"%+/%",%#.#%5/'#"#%6"%>"9

&060/0?@'9%7"!0%#"%<'%,0&'60%(.1%7050%",%&"!!*&09

!*0# %70/@&*50#3 %40# %('"#&!0# %,0%7."6",%50,&!0/'!%

/'#%&!'1"5&0!*'#%70/@&*5'#%6"%#.#%6*#5@7./0#3%A*%7."9

6",%,*%6")",3%B'5",%)*",3

!"#$%&#'(&)'"*+&'$*',"#&'-$'."#/0&*$**1'2345'

-$#+",")6"#'-$'*"'789*4$8,7"'-$':",)7#+;8'"'$#/

+&#',7$8+697,&#<

C%&06'#%"#&'#%7"!#0,'#$%D."%,0%#0,%"#&!*5&'(",&"%

-*/=#0-0# % E'.,D." % -*/0#0-', %("F0! %D." %)*",2 % #*,0%

D."%7!05"6",%6"/%8()*&0%6"%6*G"!#'#%5*",5*'#%70#*9

&*G'#$%/"#%')!"%<0!*H0,&"#%",%8()*&0#%D."%7!0)'9

)/"(",&" %,0%"#&')',%7!"#",&"# %",%#.% -0!('5*=,%

*,*5*'/3%4"#%"(7.F'%'%7",#'!%"//0#%(*#(0#$%50,%#.%

7!07*'%5')"H'$%#0)!"%"#0#%&"('#3%;'5!*#&8,%&'(9

)*+, % 7!0G05')' % .,' % //'('6' % '/ % !*?0!$ % ' % 7",#'!%

)*",$%50!!"5&'(",&"$%'%*,&",&'!%"#-0!H'!#"%",%#'9

)"!%6=,6"%"#&8%"/%7.,&0%5",&!'/%6"%.,'%6*#5.#*=,$%

5=(0 % '!?.(",&'! % 50, % 6"&'//"$ % 6"#6" % 6*-"!",&"#%

7"!#7"5&*G'#$ %1 % &!'&'! %6" %<'5"!/0 %)*",$ % /0 %("F0!%

D."%,0#%#"'%70#*)/"3%

I0!%J/&*(0$%;'5!*#&8,%5!"@'%D."%/0#%5*",&@-*50#%#09

5*'/"#%,0%6")@',%7'!'/*H'!#"%',&"%6")'&"#%("&0609

/=?*50#%(8#%0%(",0#%#0-*#&*5'60#3%A0%#"%&!'&'%6"%

.&*/*H'!%0%'/5',H'!%.,'%("&060/0?@'%7"!-"5&'%7'!'%

/."?0%<'5"!%5*",5*'%#05*'/3%;'5!*#&8,%5!"@'%D."%<'9

)@'%D."%/',H'!#"%'%/'%7*#5*,'$%'%,'6'!$%#.7*+!'(0#%

(.5<0%0%7050$%1%D."%/'%7!'K*#%:/0%6*?0%50,%.,%&+!9

(*,0%'/?0%6"#?'#&'609%"!'%6"&"!(*,',&"%",%<'5"!%

)*",% /'# %50#'#3 %I!0)')/"(",&" %#"'%5*"!&0 %D."% /'%

('&"(8&*5' % 0 % /' % -@#*5' % &",?', % .,' %("&060/0?@'%

(.1%)*",%7",#'6'%E1%<')!@'%D."%G"!/0%1%G"!%D.+%

",&",6"(0#%70!%L("&060/0?@'M2$%7"!0%"#0%,0%05.9

!!@'%E1%5!"0%D."%,0%05.!!"2%&',&0%",%0&!0#%5'(70#%

,0%&',%'/?0!*&(*H'60#%0%50,%('10!%50(7/"F*6'6%6"%

*,&"!50,"K*0,"#3%N,%'/?J,%(0(",&0$%;'5!*#&8,%-."%

)'#&',&"%5!@&*50%50,%/'#%-0!('/*H'5*0,"#%"K5"#*G'#%

D."%#"%<'5@',%",%"#0#%8()*&0#3%O."%,0%#"%?',')'%

(.5<0%('&"('&*H8,60/0% &0603 %NG*6",&"(",&"%,0%

#"%7."6"%<'5"!%-@#*5'%#*,%('&"(8&*5'#$%0% *,5/.#0%

50#'#%6"%D.@(*5'%#*,%"//'$%7"!0%<'1%0&!0#%8()*&0#%

60,6"%/'%('&"(8&*5'$%<'#&'%<'5"%,0%(.5<0$%,0%<'%

F.?'60 % ., % 7'7"/ % &', % 6"&"!(*,',&"3 % I*",#0$ % 70!%

"F"(7/0$%",%/'%)*0/0?@'3%;"%7."6"%<'5"!%5*",5*'$%#"%

<'%<"5<0%5*",5*'$%#*,%D."%/'%('&"(8&*5'%F."?."%.,%

7'7"/%6"5*#*G03%N,%"/%8()*&0%6"%/'#%P*",5*'#%;05*'9

/"#%"#%/0%(*#(03%

P0(0%#')"(0#%&060#$%'<0!'%<'1%(.5<'%"50,09

(@'%('&"(8&*5'%D."%7."6"% &","! %(.5<0% *,&"!+#%

50(0%F."?0%/=?*509('&"(8&*50$%7"!0%50(0%-0!('%

6"%'7!0K*('!,0#%'/ %(.,60%!"'/ %,0%7'!"5"% &","!%

?!',6"#%G*!&.6"#3%B'1%(.5<0%<.(0%&!'#%'/?.,'#%

#0-*#&*5'5*0,"#%('&"(8&*5'#3%A0%"#&01%6"#7!"5*',9

60%#.%7'7"/3%N#7"!0%<')"!("%"K7/*5'60%("6*','9

(",&"%)*",3

=-$%;#'-$'#4'",+7>7-"-',&%&'-&,$8+$?'48'8@/

,*$&'948-"%$8+"*'-$'*"#'"(&)+",7&8$#'-$':"/

,)7#+;8'#$'$8,4$8+)"'$8'#4'*"A&)',&%&'$-7+&)'

B'()&*&C47#+"1'0&%&'-$,6"%&#'"8+$#?':",)7#/

+;8 ' 94$ '$D(4*#"-& '-$ ' *" 'E87>$)#7-"- '(&) '$*'

9)"8F47#%&?'*&'F4$'*$'&A*7CG'"'C"8")#$'*"'>7-"'

,&%&'+)"-4,+&)'B'$-7+&)1'H#+$'78,&8>$87$8+$'

(")"'5*?'94$'#78'$%A")C&'%4B')7,&'(")"'84$#/

+)" '#&,7$-"-? 'F4$ '#$ 'A$8$97,7G '-$ ' +$8$) '48'

$-7+&)'+"8'#&A)$,4"*797,"-&1':",)7#+;8'$-7+G'B'

()&*&CG'&A)"#'-$'+&-&'+7(&?'-$#-$',*;#7,&#'-$*'

%")D7#%&?',&*$,,7&8$#'-$'."+$%;+7,"#?'*7A)&#'

-$'H,&8&%6"I'#G*&'J",$)'48"')$#$K"'%$)"/

%$8+$'"()&D7%"+7>"'8&#'&A*7C")6"'"'"A"8-&/

8")'84$#+)&' +$%"'-$'-7#,4#7G81 '0&%&'%$)"'

(78,$*"-"?'+&%")5'+4#'("*"A)"#'$8'$*')$,7$8+$'

J&%$8"L$'"'!",&'M$)8;8-$N'O4$B?'-&8-$'-$/

9787#+$'"':",)7#+;8',&%&'P,)6+7,&'*7+$)")7&?',)6/

+7,&'%4#7,"*?'"4+&)'+$"+)"*?'*GC7,&'-$#+","-6#7/

%&?'97*G#&9&'"%"8+$'-$'*"#',7$8,7"#?'$D,$*$8+$'

,&8&,$-&) ' -$ ' Q$7-$CC$)? ' :")+)$? ' R&$+J$ ' B'

Q$78$?'+)"-4,+&)'-$'O)$,J+'B'.")D?'B'+"%A758'

-$'S$85'T"+&8'B'U$V%"8?',&%$8+")7#+"'"C4/

-&'-$? '$8+)$'&+)&#? '#4 '"%"-"':7%&8$'W$7*?'

!$-)&':"*78"#?'."88?'S"9"$*':;8,J$N'M$)*&#7&?'

X&"8'O)&##"?'0"%4#'B'S"7%&8?'$,&*&C7#+"',&8'

"%(*7&#',&8&,7%7$8+&#'-$'$,&*&C6"?'+)"-4,+&)'

B',&8&,$-&)'-$'*"'&A)"'-$'3478$?'A4$8',&8&/

YZ !!!!!!NAPQRPSTCUC;3%Q"G*#&'%P!@&*5'%6"%P*",5*'#%;05*'/"#%%VV%%%,WX$%YZ[Y$%773%\Z9]]

Page 10: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&#"&'(&$)%(&#"&*('+'"$&,&-.//"''&,0&"1&2+10&

.1&(!3+4+/3(&(13+1.!'"(%0&!$5$&/.&(5+6$&7780&

9."&1$&#"/!$1$!:(&'$/&;.13$/&"/"1!+('"/&#"&'(&

2:/+!( & #"' & <3$5$=> & ?1 & "/3" & +15"1/$ & @()"%0&

A!.<'"/&/$1&'$/&5"3$#B'$6$/&$&2+'B/$2$/&#"&'(&

!+"1!+(&9."&5</&+12'.,"1&"1&C(!%+/3<1D

!"#$%&#'()&#*+&"#$%&#,"#'()&#-&./0.'"#&.#10*+(/2

34.#-&+"#-"'50#60*&+,"#'(*6"#-&./0.'"#&.#10*+(/2

34.#7#&.#80*"#9&+.4.'&:#;%&7<#,"/#*+&0'"+&/#7#&'(2

3"+&/#'&#0$%&,,0#=0+0>(,,"/0#*",&**(?.#$%&#,,0=02

+".#@A(-?3&/(/BC

D"#*+&"#$%&#10*+(/34.#*"."*50#E(&.#0#,"/#F+0.'&/#

'&#,0#G-"*0C#H#I%6.#,&#*"."*50#7#,&#&/3%'(?#=%7#

E(&.<#607#+&/J=&.&/#/%7"/#*".#0."30*(".&/#7#*"2

=&.30+("/#=%7#0F%'"/C#H#8"--&+#,"#,&7?#7#3+0E0)?#

(.*,%/"#=4/#$%&#0#I%6.C#K&#9&7&+0E&.'#*"."*(?#

0,F%.0/ # *"/0/C #L, #!"#$#%&'(&)$"# '*+ ',-$&%&# -"+#

&)&=-,"C#!0M03"/#*+&"#$%&#,&#(.3&+&/0E0#=4/<#(.2

*,%/"#-"+#="3(>"/#E("F+4N(*"/<#7#60E50#*"/0/#'&#G,#

$%&# ,&#-0+&*50.#=%7#E+(,,0.3&/C#8"+#&)&=-,"<#/%/#

(.3&+>&.*(".&/#&.#&,#*".F+&/"#'&#,0#*(&.*(0#,".'(2

.&./&#'&#OPQRC

S"."*50#30=E(G.#&,#&/3+%*3%+0,(/="<#=&#+&N(&+"#0,#

&-(/3&=",?F(*"< # ,0 # "E+0 # '& # 1.&&' # 7 # 13&F=T,,&+C#

U0=E(G.#*"=&.3?#0,F%.0/#"E+0/#'&#V,(/&/#W"%,(2

.&/<#$%(&.#*+&"#+&*"+'0+#$%&#,,&F?#0#/&+#0,%=."#'&#

G,#"#*%0.3"#=&."/#,&#*"."*50<#-"+#%.0#&.3+&>(/30#

$%&#,&#+&0,(*G#60*&#=%*6"/#0X"/C#A0E,0="/#'&#0%2

3"+&/#*%70#(.N,%&.*(0#0#L/-0X0#,,&F?#60*(0#,"/#0X"/#

YZ#7#[ZC #1&#-"'+50.#/&F%(+#0X0'(&.'"#."=E+&/C#

\3+"#=4/<#'&/'&#,%&F"<#&/#S0+.0-<#*%70#"E+0#102

*+(/34.#*"."*50#=%7#E(&.#7#0'=(+?#=%*6"C#80+0#G,<#

S0+.0-#."#&+0#%.#-"/(3(>(/30#$%&#6%E(&+0#$%&#%E(2

*0+#0,#=0+F&.#7#-0/0+#'&#G,C#U".(#K"=G.&*6#60E,0#

'&#&,,"#&.#%.0#&.3+&>(/30#$%&#,&#6(*(="/#-0+0#,"/#

'"*%=&.30,&/#'(+(F('"/#-"+#]0>(&+#^%.*"/0C#

!%&F"#'&/'&#,%&F"#&/34#_%(.&<#%.#-&./0'"+#-0+0#

10*+(/34.#=%7<#-&+"#$%&#=%7#(=-"+30.3&C#`D"#3&.2

F"#%.0#*0+30#'&#_%(.&a#S+&"#$%&#,"#$%&#10*+(/34.#

0'=(+0#'&#_%(.&#&/#&,#03+&>&+/&#*".#3&=0/#=%7#

-+"N%.'"/#0%.$%&#0-0+&.3&=&.3&#-%'(&+0.#-0+&2

*&+#3+(>(0,&/<#'&#&/*0/"#(.3&+G/<#0,#(F%0,#$%&#,0#N"+2

=0#'&#/%/#'&/0++",,"/<#/%#&/3(,"#N(,"/?N(*"C#b,#*"."2

*(?#=%7#E(&.#/%#"E+0<#-0+3&#'&#&,,0#*,0+"#c_%(.&#

N%&#=%*6"#=4/#,".F&>"d<#7#-0,-?#E(&.#,0#,?F(*0#7#

,0#N(,"/"N50#'&#,0#,?F(*0#$%&#&/34#(=-,5*(30#&.#&,,0C#

U+0'%)"#*(.*"#"E+0/#/%70/C#e&*%&+'"#%.0#*0+30#$%&#

,&#&/*+(E(?#0#^0>(&+#8+0'&+0<#&,#$%&#,%&F"#N%&#-&+("2

'(/30#7#&)&*%3(>"#'&#L,#805/<#$%&#N%&#%.#0=(F"#'&#G,#

60/30 #&, # N(.0, #'& # /%#>('0C # !0# *0+30 #'&E& #/&+ #'&#

OPYZ#"#'&#OPYO<#."#-%&'"#-+&*(/0+C#10*+(/34.# ,&#

&f-,(*0#$%&#&/30E0#3+0'%*(&.'"#%.0#-"+$%&+50#-"+2

$%&#/&#3&.50#$%&#F0.0+#,0#>('0#'&#0,F%.0#N"+=0<#

&+0#%.#*"=-+"=(/"#*".#^%0.#g+()0,E"Oh<#&,#&'(3"+#

2%.#*"=-+"=(/"<#-"+#*(&+3"<#$%&#3%>"#=%*6"#Gf(3"#

*"=&+*(0,#7#$%&#G,#3+0'%)"#*".#-/&%'?.(="#cW4f(2

="#L/3+&,,0d2<#-&+"#$%&<#&.#*0=E("<#3+0'%*(+#0#_%(2

.&#&+0#"3+0#*"/0<#."#3&.50#.0'0#$%&#>&+C#i"#&+0#

E,02E,02E,0C#D#&/"#$%&#&,#(.F,G/#'&#_%(.&#."#&/#&,&2

=&.30,C#!"/#)%&F"/#,?F(*"/#'&#-0,0E+0/#,&#*"=-,(2

*0.#,0#>('0#0#%."C#

U0=E(G.#&/30+50#&,#F+0.#i&%+036<#*".#$%(&.#0'&2

=4/#607#=%*6"/#-0+0,&,(/="/j#&,#*"=-+"=(/"#-"2

,53(*"#'&#%."#7#'&#"3+"<#/%#F+0.#0="+#-"+#,0#*(&.2

*(0<#/%#F+0.#*0-0*('0'#N(,"/?N(*0<#/%#+&*"."*(=(&.2

3"#'&#,0#N(,"/"N50#0.0,53(*0#7#.&"-"/(3(>(/30<#7#E0/2

30.3&/#*"/0/#=4/C#H$%5#607#%.0#=(.0#0#3+0E0)0+C#

L.+(*#U&,,"#,"#60#/&X0,0'"#&.#=4/#'&#%.0#"*0/(?.C#

D"#0-&.0/#6&#6&*6"#.0'0#&.#&/30#,5.&0C#K&/F+0*(02

'0=&.3& #-0+0 #=( #>&+FT&.:0< #0-&.0/ # *".":*" # ,0#

"E+0#'&,#F+0.#N(,?/"N"#>(&.G/C#L/34#30=E(G.#!G>(2

13+0%//C#8(&./"#06"+0#&.#/%#3+0'%**(?.#'&#,0#E("2

F+0N50#'&#g&+?.(="<#&.#/%/#0."30*(".&/C

Oh# 1& # +&N(&+& # 0 # ,0 # 3+0'%**(?. #'& #.+ '/#"0) '%&,#%&< # '&#L/36&+#k(,0+C#

EF !!!!!!LiSeVSl^HKH1C#e&>(/30#S+53(*0#'&#S(&.*(0/#1"*(0,&/##mm###.nh<#oZOo<#--C#pZ2RR

!"#$%&'()*(*+,#)-$.'%(&*()$(/%01*.-0&$&(*%(23456(#%$(&*()$-(,*.-'%$-(&*()$-(7#*( (.*8090:(;<-($,'='(>#*(&*(?$.0'(@#%A*6(7#*()*('>.*80:(&$.(8)$-*-(*%(B)*;$%0$C(D$8.0-E<%(&0F'(7#*(%'(,'.7#*(%'(7#*.G$(*+0)0$.-*6(-0%'(7#*(7#*.G$(*-E$.($7#G6(

)#8H$%&'(8'%E.$(*)(>$-80-;'6(*%()$-(I)$-(&*)(JD/"(K

Page 11: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&#'$("#$)*+$*$,#&$&##-./*-*,!

"#$%&'()%'*)$+,-*'.)/$&012$+0.)%'/3+0/0*&$12'.)

2*452&'.!)"+)+261')7$+518)+$)30*$!)90)&2&-+$18)!"#$%&

'%$()*+"!):')3-6+2%$18)"+);20<')='3'!)

01#)*,$/.#23'$/&*4*5*+-'$#+$#,/#$3&'6#%/'7)

9>().>()0.)-*)720<')31'?0%&'!)@0)<-*&$5').-.)%'.$.()

A0)310.0*&$5')?)A0)$*'&$5')-*)3'%'!

B0&'/')0+)3-*&')$*&012'1!)C)$)+'.)%2&$5'.)$*&012'1D

/0*&0()A$?)E-0).-/$1)$)F$12')G-*,0()/-?)7$+'1$D

5')3'1)4+!)"+)/2./')G-*,0)$,1$50%2H)3I6+2%$/0*D

&0()0*)-*$)61070)*'&$)50)310.0*&$%2H*()+$)&1$5-%D

%2H*)E-0)9$%12.&8*)A2J')50).-)0*.$?'( ),-&*).%/0*1

2-3*()&3*%)045*3-!

G-*,0 ) .0 )3'1&H )/$,*>K2%$/0*&0 ) %'* )9$%12.&8*!)

L-$*5')+0)0#3-+.$1'*)50)+$)M*2701.25$5)0*)NOPQ()

-*$)50)+$.)301.'*$.)50)+$.)E-0)31'6$6+0/0*&0)10D

%262H)/8.)++$/$5$.)50)$3'?')?)/8.)%$1&$.)K-0)50)

4+!)R-05')$K21/$1)E-0)G-*,0()+')%'/0*&H)4+)/2./')

0*)-*$)0*&1072.&$)E-0)+0)A2J')L$1+0.)F-*&$*01)0*)

STTU()+0)'K10%2H)5$1)%+$.0.)0*)-*$)-*2701.25$5)50)

V+0/$*2$!)9$%12.&8*)52<')E-0)*')3'1E-0)*')E-01>$)

0#2+2$1.0( ) .2*' ) E-0 ) E-01>$ ) 0.&$1 ) $E->( ) +-%A$*5')

%'*&1$)0+)K$.%2./'()0*)+$.)K2+$.)0*)$6.'+-&').-301D

3'6+$5$.)50+)R9ML!)

".)-*)%$.')/-?).2*,-+$1!)W-0)-*)K2+H.'K')?)-*)2*D

&0+0%&-$+)50)$+&-1$()E-0)3'51>$)A$601).25')%$&0518D

&2%')50)+H,2%$()10%26$)-*$)'K01&$)3$1$)&1$6$<$1)0*)

-*$),1$*)-*2701.25$5)$+0/$*$()E-0)3$1$)$+,-*'.)

.01>$)+$)'%$.2H*)50).-)725$()?)52,$)E-0)*')3'1E-0)

$K21/$)&0*01)-*)%'/31'/2.')3'+>&2%')$E->()0*)0+)2*D

&012'1()*')0.)K10%-0*&0!)"*)$6.'+-&'!)B0%'150/'.)

E-0)01$)/20/61')50+)"<0%-&27')D'<'()*').H+')50+)

L'/2&4 ) L0*&1$+D ) .2*' ) 50+ ) L'/2&4 ) "<0%-&27' ) 50+)

R9ML!)X')%'*'J%')/-%A'.)%$.'.)%'/')0+).-?'()*2)

0*)".3$Y$)*2)0*)0+)10.&')50)"-1'3$!)

89$(":$.+;1"#+%.*,$#,3*<'1*,$3'-&=*2',$-#,>

/*%*&$#+$?*%&.,/@+$#+$#,/#$%*23'A

92)A$6+$/'.)50)".3$Y$().2)%'/0*&$/'.)0+)3$*'D

1$/$)0.3$Y'+()A$6>$)&$/624*)$-&'10.)E-0)+0)2*&0D

10.$6$*)0.30%2$+/0*&0()%'/')Z0.I.)F'.&01>*)[E-0)

K-0 ) $/2,' ).-?'\( )Z$7201 )F-,-01J$( )98*%A0JDF$D

J$.( )%'*)E-20*).0)%$1&0H)7$12$.)70%0.()') 2*%+-.')

F$*-0+)F052*$!)".&0)I+&2/')01$)-*)A'/610)E-0).0)

5052%$6$)0*&'*%0.)$)+$)+H,2%$)52$+H,2%$()?)50)E-20*)

%10')E-0)9$%12.&8*)7$+'1H).-)2*&014.)?)%'/30&0*%2$)

0*)8/62&'.)50)+$)+H,2%$)?)+$)032.&0/'+',>$)*')/-?)

620* ) 72.&'. ) 3'1 ) +$ ) 'K2%2$+25$5 )/0&'5'+H,2%$( )/8.)

620* ) A0&01'5'#'.( ) %'/' ) +$ ) +H,2%$ ) 52$+H,2%$ ) ' ) 0+)

%'*.&1-%&272./')/$&0/8&2%'!)C')/2./')K-2)$+-/*')

50)F052*$)5-1$*&0)5'.)%-1.'.!

B+$#1$%*23'$-#$1*$2#/'-'1'C=*$-#$1*,$D.#+%.*,$

?'%.*1#,E $ %'+).#+# $-#/#+#&+', $#+ $,", $#,/">

-.',$,'4&#$-',$*"/'&#,F$G#'&C#,%">H'#C#+$6$

I'"1-.+C7$B1$3&.2#&'$;"#$;*2','$3'&$*31.%*&$1*$

,#C"+-*$1#6$-#$1*$/#&2'-.+@2.%*$'$1#6$-#$1*$

B+/&'3=*$*$1*$B%'+'2=*7$B1$,#C"+-'$;"#$#,/">

-.*-'$3'&$?*%&.,/@+E$#+/&#$'/&*,$'4&*,E$3'&$,"$

!"#$%&'()"*7$?*%&.,/@+$*3&#%.*$)*&.',$3"+/',$

-#$).,/*$-#$I'"1-.+C$#+$&#1*%.J+$*$1*$2#/'-'>

1'C=*$-#$1*,$D.#+%.*,$?'%.*1#,E$%'2'$#,$,"$3'>

,.%.J+$*%#&%*$-#$1*$3&#-.%%.J+E$.23',.41#$-#>

4.-'$*$;*%/'&#,$2#/'-'1JC.%',$6$2*/#&.*1#,KL7$

M#&'$(".N@$1'$2@,$.23'&/*+/#$-#$*24',$*"/'>

&#,$3*&*$?*%&.,/@+$#,$,"$.23'&/*+%.*$3*&*$&#>

%'+%.1.*&$1*$B%'+'2=*$6$1*$B%'1'C=*KOE$ 8+'$/#$

3*&#%#A

NQ)]0.50)0+)3-*&')50)72.&$)/0&'5'+H,2%'()0*)+'.).2.&0/$.)K>.2%'. ) %'/' ) +$ ) /0%8*2%$ ) %0+0.&0( ) +$ ) 31052%&262+25$5 ) 0.)3'.26+0)3'1E-0)+$)07'+-%2H*)&01/2*H)A$%0)&20/3'()301')*')&20*0)3'1)E-4).01)$.>)0*) +$.)L20*%2$)9'%2$+0.( )5'*50)+$.)10,-+$125$50.)*')&20*0*)3'1)E-4)5$1.0!):$)31'?0%%2H*).H+')0.)3'.26+0)0*)^.2.&0/$.)50)3$18/0&1'.)%'*.&$*&0._()$+,')E-0)*').0)5$()')*').0)5$)50)/$*01$)&'&$+)0*)+'.).2.&0/$.)62'+H,2%'.)').'%2$+0.!)]0.50)0+)3-*&')50)72.&$)/$&012$+()0+)%'*'%2/20*&')0.)0*).>)/2./')-*)K$%&'1)50)07'+-%2H*()?)0+)%'*'%2/20*&' ) K-&-1' ) 0. ) 2/31050%26+0! ) 92* ) 0/6$1,'()G'-+52*,)&$/624*)3+$*&0$)E-0)+$.)^%20*%2$.)6+$*5$._)[%'/')+$)@2.&'12$\).'*)/8.).0,-1$.)E-0)+$.)^5-1$._!NP) @'*5$)310'%-3$%2H*)50)9$%12.&8*()%'/')/-0.&1$)3'1)'&1')+$5').-)%'*K010*%2$)^`R'1)E-4)K$+&$*)0%'*'/2.&$.)0*)0+)/'72/20*&')0%'+',2.&$a_!

PQ !!!!!!"XLBMLbZV]V9!)B072.&$)L1>&2%$)50)L20*%2$.)9'%2$+0.))cc)))*dU()STNS()33!)eTDQQ

!"#$%&'()%(*$+,-./0%(-,,#12)(&)($34#%$(5',1$()3(/)1$(&)3()+'3'4-.1'6(7$83$(&)(.'+-'9.-+$6(#%(/:,1-%'(+,)$&'(2',(:3(

1-.1';

Page 12: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&"'"(#)"#$%&"'"*#+%#",-./'012#$-.340'-560.-5

7160'%#8"#9%'&074:2#80-#/2#;0&-#0)$-&4%24"#%#$%&40&#

8"#.%#02,%7012#8"#<&%;%(#"2#/2#)-)"24-#)/=#80635

'0. #$%&%#>.( #8".#?/"#,/".,"#'-2#2/",-7#:20)-7#=#

'-2#2/",-7#&"'/&7-7*#@/".,"#$"27%28-#"2#)/'A-7#

4")%7#$-.340'-7#=#60.-7160'-7(#=#%A3#0&&/)$"#8"#%.;/5

2%#6-&)%#".#4")%#8".#"'-.-;07)-*#B%C.%#8"#7-'0-635

70'%(#/2#4>&)02-#'&"%8-#$-&#>.#)07)-*#

!"#$%&'()*#+,#-.*/(*01.(/23#2/452+*#6*&#728

/&(.$9)#,.#'4:#()$,&,.2)$,;#:#.,#2+,"2)$2#2#

6&*<",'2.#=4,#'9.#$2&+,#.,&12)#'4:#('6*&8

$2)$,.;#6,&*#=4,#,)#,.,#'*',)$*#)*#.,#/*)8

$,'6"2<2)>#?*'*#@2.#.,52"2+*#,)#*$&*.#,.8

/&($*.;#,"#$%&'()*#.,#,)'2&/2#,)#"2#6&*64,.$2#

=4,#&,2"(AB#,)#CDEF#2#G&(H2"<*#62&2#.2/2&#$&,.#

)4,I2.#/*",//(*),.;#4)2#+,#"2.#/42",.#.,#+,8

)*'()2&12#-J2$4&2",A2#:#.*/(,+2+3>#K"2)$,28

<2#=4,#,.$2#/*",//(B)#.,#/*'64.(,&2#+,#FLL#

*<&2.;#+,#"2.#=4,#FL#.,&12)#+,#/(,)/(2.#0*&8

'2",.;#ML#+,#/(,)/(2.#)2$4&2",.;#NL#+,#/(,)8

/(2.#.*/(2",.;#CL#+,#0("*.*012;#FL#+,#@(.$*&(2#:#

CL#+,#-.*/(*01.(/23>#72/&(.$9)#,O6"(/2<2#,.$,#

/*)/,6$*#+,#"2#.(P4(,)$,#'2),&2Q#-,"#/*)/,68

$*#+,#.*/(*01.(/2#,.#6&*6(*#+,"#+(&,/$*&#+,#"2#

/*",//(B)>#J*#.,#@2#4$("(A2+*#)4)/2>#7(P)(0(/2#

"*.#$,'2.#,)#=4,#"2#()$,&I,)/(B)#+,#"2#.*/(,8

+2+#R6&()/(62"',)$,#+,#"2#.*/(,+2+#()+4.$&(2"#

/26($2"(.$2S# ()$,&0(,&,#/*)#"2#)2$4&2",A2#R4&8

<2)(.'*;#/*)$2'()2/(B)#,$/>S3CE>#

D6"'40,%)"24"*#D2#"7"#)-)"24-(#"24&"#.-7#%/4-5

&"7#?/"#.""#7"#"2'/"24&%2#.-7#8-7#?/"#A%7#'04%8-#

%24"7*#D2#".#'%7-#8"#E"-&;"7'/5F-";"2(#2-#40"2"#

202;G2#%&43'/.-#8"80'%8-#%#"7%#-C&%(#%/2?/"#.-#'04%#

"2#,%&0%7 #'-26"&"2'0%7( #= #8"78"# ./";-# .-#'-2-'"#

)/=#C0"2(#=#8"#>.#4-)%#.%#08"%#C:70'%H#?/"#.%#"'-5

2-)3%#40"2"#/2#7-74>2#=#"7"#7-74>2#G.40)-#"7#.%#635

70'%#=#.%#C0-.-;3%*#D7%#08"%#8"#%)$.0%&#.%#D'-2-)3%(#

?/"#2-#7"#8"7%&&-.."#"2#.%#"74G$08%#'-2708"&%'012#

8"#)/28-#6370'-#02%;-4%C."(#,0"2"#8"#E"-&;"7'/*#

IJ# +K<DL # MFNM+( # 9%.,%8-&* # O"2 # $&"27%P* # QD.#"'-'-)/207)- # 8" # !%2/". # 9%'&074:2R* # D2 #!"#$%&'( ) *)+,(-(.%&'(( # "804%8- # $-& # 9*# +1$"S # M&2%.( # D* # 9:2'A"S#T;."70%7(#=#U*#9%&&012#M28%./S*#!%8&08H#+%#V,"W%#F-W%*

D7#$-70C."#?/"#%.;/2%7#08"%7#"$074")-.1;0'%7#4%)5

C0>2#."#$%&"'0"7"2#024"&"7%24"7(#'-)-#%.;/2%7#&"5

6"&"2'0%7#%#'-2'"$4-7#80%.>'40'-7#4%.#'-)-#.-7#"25

6-'%#"2#-'%70-2"7#O%/2?/"#4%)C0>2#$/"8%#A%C"&#

%.;/2%#80,"&;"2'0%P*#90#4/,0"&%#?/"#&"7/)0&#.%#025

6./"2'0% #8" #E"-&;"7'/ #"2#9%'&074:2( # .- #A%&3% #805

'0"28-#?/"#."#A%'"#&"$.%24"%&7"#'1)-#%$&"A"28"&#

.%#'0"2'0%#"'-21)0'%*#

+"#8"80'1#%.;/2-7#$%7-7#"2#"7'&04-7#8"#.-7#%X-7#

-'A"24%*#Y-$0-#%.;/2-7#"W")$.-7#"2#.-7#?/"#%$%&"5

'"2#%)C-7*#

QD. #$%&#",-./'0125"24&-$3%#"7#?/0S:#". # W/";-#8"#

'-2'"$4-7#):7#6/28%)"24%.#8".#7074")%#"'-802:5

)0'-#8"#Z-/.802;*#D24&"#.-7#"'-2-)074%7#'-24")5

$-&:2"-7 # A% # 708- # $&-C%C.")"24" # N* # E"-&;"7'/5

F-";"2#".#?/"#):7#027074"24")"24"#A%#807'/408-#.%#

0)$-&4%2'0%#8"#.%#7";/28%#."=#8"#.%#4"&)-802:)0'%#

$%&%#.%#&"6/28%'012#8"#.%#'0"2'0%#"'-21)0'%***RI[

D2#>74"#4%)C0>2#"74:2#.-7#8-7H

Q\2%#'-)$%&%'012#'-2#".#=%#%./808-#E"-&;"7'/5

F-";"2#$/"8"#7"&#0274&/'40,%#"2#"74"#$/24-*#+%#&"5

,07012#$-&#Z-/.802;#8"#.%#6/2'012#8"#.%#$&-8/''012#

"7#):7#&%80'%.#?/"#.%#8"#E"-&;"7'/(#$"&-#"2#'%)5

C0-(#E"-&;"7'/5F-";"2#&"'4060'%#.%#6/2'012#8"#$&-5

8/''012#'.:70'%#$-&#".#$&-'"80)0"24-#8"#%X%80&#%#

.%7#,%&0%C."7#4&%80'0-2%."7#O4&%C%W-(#40"&&%(#'%$04%.(#

"24"2808%7 #'-)-# 6./W-7#8"#7"&,0'0-7 #$&-8/'40,-7P#

-4&%7#2/",%7#?/"#70&,"2#$%&%#4"2"&#"2#'/"24%#$&-5

C.")%7#%A-&%#$"&'0C08-7#OC0"2"7#)%4"&0%."7(#$&-5

8/'4-7#024"&)"80-7(#$&-8/'4-7#8"#)%24"20)0"24-(#

"24"2808%7 #'-)-# 6./W- #8"#C0"2"7 #$&-8/'40,-7P( #=#

%X%80"28-(#"2#".#.%8-#0S?/0"&8-#8"#.%#"'/%'012(#%.#

$&-8/'4-#".#8"7"'A-#-#$-./'012*#Z-/.802;#2-#%X%5

8"() &/&0%0/*+ ).%7#,0"W%7#,%&0%C."7(#?/"#."#$%&"'"2#

'-2;.-)"&%8-7#A"4"&-;>2"-7(#$-&#.-#?/"#'-2708"&%#

6%'4-&"7 # ".")"24%."7 # 8" # .%7 # 4&"7H # '-2-'0)0"24-(#

"2"&;3%#=#)%4"&0%."7#O.%#Q4&0208%8#]D!R#%24"7#,075

4%P***RI^

I[# 9MYFT9_`N(#!%2/".*#I^[a*#Q+%#"'-802:)0'%#8"#]*#D*#Z-/.802;R* # <* # abJ( # "2 #1"2+-+& ) 3+ ) 4%-(&(45"6 ) 1"74-+0(& ) *)!"0+#%"-+&)889#8"#!*#9%'&074:2*#Z%&'".-2%H#T'%&0%*I^):2);%0*#O$*#aacP*

TC !!!!!!DNYF\YTUMdM9*#F",074%#Y&340'%#8"#Y0"2'0%7#9-'0%."7##ee###2fa(#ghIg(#$$*#bh5ii

Page 13: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'#()*%$"#+%,$,(-.,*%.'%$-*/*)("#.%01)./*2%

"*30$%$'%41$%1/%50./%-*/*-$,*0%,$%'.%*30.%,$%6.7

-0("#+/2%1/%,("-891'*%"1:*2%;"-.0%<.09(/#$0*2%$"-0(7

3(= % 1/ % '(30* %).0.>(''*"* %41$ %913'(-= %?*/#$"(/*"%

@.-$%1/*"%.A*"BCD

EF#0*%.1#*0%41$%@.%-*/"$51(,*%)1-@.%0$"*/./-(.%

$/ % $"#$ % -*/#$G#* % $" % HI % J$*05$"-17K*$5$/I % 61%

.9*0#.-(=/2 %)1:%$'.3*0.,.%#L-/(-.)$/#$2 % (/-'1:$%

#.)3(L/%1/.%90*91$"#.%,$%0$>("(=/%,$%'.%M1/-(=/%

,$%90*,1--(=/I%N.0.%J$*05$"-17K*$5$/%'*%41$%$"%

M1/-(=/%,$%'*"%M.-#*0$"%90*,1-#(>*"%/*%$"%"*'*%$'%

90*,1-#*2%"(/*%#.)3(L/%$'%,$"$-@*%*%9*'1-(=/I%O%.%

'*"% M.-#*0$"%-'+"(-*"% #($00.2 %-.9(#.' %:% #0.3.P*%@.:%

41$ %.A.,(0 % "$5&/%L' % '*" % 0$-10"*" %/.#10.'$" % Q9*0%

$P$)9'*2%$'%.51.%:%'.%$/$058.R2%'*"%3($/$"%(/#$0)$7

,(*"%*%).#$0(.'$"%,$%90*,1--(=/%Q9*0%$P$)9'*2%'."%

).#$0(."%90()."R%:%'*"%90*,1-#*"%,$%)./#$/()($/7

#*I%S.%M1/-(=/2%90$"-(/,($/,*%,$%-*$M(-($/#$"%#$)7

9*0.'$"%:%*#0*"%0$M(/.)($/#*"%41$%(/#0*,1-$%$'%)("7

)*%.1#*0%1%*#0*"%.1#*0$"2%#($/$%$'%."9$-#*%"(51($/7

#$D%N%T%U%V%!"%QW2%%<2%%SX%%K2%%Y2%%?R2%,*/,$%N%"(5/(M(7

-. % 90*,1-#*2 %U % 9*'1-(=/2 % W2 % < % : % S2 % -*)* %./#$"%

Z6S[D%#($00.%QWR2%-.9(#.'%Q<R%:%#0.3.P*%QSR\2%K%0$-107

"*"%/.#10.'$"2%Y%3($/$"% (/#$0)$,(*"2%?%90*,1-#*"%

,$%)./#$/()($/#*]B^I

!/%$'%-."*%,$%_*1',(/52%"8%@.:%-*)*%,$-8."%1/.%

0$"$A. % 41$ % 0$-*5$ % -*"." %)1: % (/#$0$"./#$"2 % ."8%

-*)*%-08#(-."2 %41$%.9.0$-(=%$/ %#$%&'"()*%+,!)('2%

1/.%0$>("#.%-1:.%$,(-(=/%-."#$''./.%,(0(58.%1/%50./%

-($/#8M(-* % 0$-($/#$)$/#$ % M.''$-(,*2 % `.1)$ % `*".2 % :%

BC%<[KNYHW!KF2%FI%BCCaI% %-."/)'0('%'1,."&*"2*'34*5($67'*4*%2%_.0-$'*/.D%?*/#$"(/*"IB^% 6[<KY6WbH2 %?./1$'I % ^cdBI % E6*-($,.,2 % /.#10.'$e. % :%-($/-(." % "*-(.'$"I % f/ % $"41$). % ,$ % ,("-1"(=/I]2 % $/%8).9:(+)(.2 % .A* % gYY2 % /h % ^B2 % f/(>$0"(,., % [1#=/*). % ,$%N1$3'.2 % 9I % idI % !' % .0#8-1'* % M1$ %913'(-.,* % $/ %;.<*9*5 " &*"!)9'5'!,.% Q=< " >)+?R % 3.P* % $' % #8#1'* % E6*30$ % '*" % 90*3'$)."%90$"$/#$)$/#$%9$0-(3(,*"%$/%'.%0$'.-(=/%$/#0$%'.%"*-($,.,%:%'.%/.#10.'$e.%:%"1"%-*/"$-1$/-(."%$/%'.%M('*"*M8.%,$%'."%-($/-(."%"*-(.'$"I%f/%$"41$).%,$%,("-1"(=/]I

41$%6.-0("#+/%(/-*09*0=%.%;.<*9*5"&*"!)9'5'!,.@@I%6$%

)$%*-100$%.@*0.%"$A.'.0%,*"%*3"$0>.-(*/$"D%1/.2%

"*30$%$'%1"*%,$%.'51/."%)$#+M*0."%,$%_*1',(/5%41$%

'$ % 9.0$-$ %41$ %/* % .:1,./2 % 41$ % "*/ %$G.5$0.,."2%

90$-(9(#.,."2%9*-*%(/#$0$"./#$"I%S.%"$51/,.%$"%41$%

@.: % 1/ % 9$'(50* % $>(,$/#$ % $/ % #0.,1-(070$,1-(0 % '."%

<($/-(."%6*-(.'$"%.%<($/-(."%H.#10.'$"%:%/$5.0%'.%

.1#*/*)8.%,$%'."%90()$0."I%S.%#$/,$/-(.%,$%_*1'7

,(/5%.%0$,1-(0%$/%$G-$"*2%.%9$/".0%.%'*"%"$0$"%@17

)./*"%-*)*%1/%-*/P1/#*%,$%$/#(,.,$"%/*%#./%"$7

)$P./#$"I%_1$/*2%-*)*%/*%@$)*"%-(#.,*2%%,LP.)$%

0$-*0,.0%.'5&/%9."*%,$%6.-0("#+/%"*30$%_*1',(/5I%

!"#$2%$'%90()$0*2%#($/$%1/.%91/#.%(0=/(-.%41$%.%)8%

)$%,(>($0#$%)1-@*D

EW($/$%41$%"$0%:.%)1:%9*-*%'*%41$%41$,$%,$%'.%

-.1#$'.%/$*9*"(#(>("#.%$/%$'%)1/,*%-($/#8M(-*%-1./7

,*%1/%$-*/*)("#.%.M.).,*%-*)*%j$//$#@%!I%_*1'7

,(/52 %41$%.,$)+"%$" %90$"(,$/#$ %,$% '.%[)$0(-./%

[""*-(.#(*/%M*0%#@$%[,>./-$)$/#%*M%6-($/-$%:%'*%@.%

"(,*%,$%'.%[)$0(-./%!-*/*)(-"%[""*-(.#(*/2%,$%'.%

Y/#$0/.#(*/.'%6#1,($"%[""*-(.#(*/2%%,$%'.%N$.-$%K$7

"$.0-@%6*-($#:2%,$%'.%6*-($#:%M*0%J$/$0.'%6:"#$)"%

K$"$.0-@%:%,$%'.%[""*-(.#(*/%M*0%#@$%6#1,:%J0./#"%

!-*/*):2%90$"$/#.%"1%*30.2%,$",$%"1%$G-$9-(*/.'%

0$"9$#.3('(,., % -($/#8M(-.2 % -*/ % M0."$" % -*)* % '. % "(7

51($/#$D%E!"#$%'(30*%$"%1/%(/#$/#*%,$%$"3*e.0%1/%

$"41$).%,$'%1/(>$0"*%$/#$0*2%:%9.0#(-1'.0)$/#$%,$%

'.%#$/1$%9.0#$%,$'%)1/,*%41$%-*/"#(#1:$%$'%)$,(*%

#$)9*0.'%:%$"9.-(.'%,$%'.%$"9$-($%@1)./.]%Q9+5I%

kl^RI%F%#.)3(L/2%>("#*%,$",$%'.%*#0.%91/#.2%41$%$"%

'.%)+"%.'%.'-./-$%,$%1/%-($/#8M(-*%,$%'.%"*-($,.,D%

Ef/*%,$%'*"%*3P$#(>*"%,$%'.%*30.%QIIIR%$"%-*/"(,$0.0%

'.%@("#*0(.%,$%'*"%"("#$)."%"*-(.'$"%41$%@.%-0$.,*%

'. %$"9$-($ %@1)./.%$/%$' %).0-*%)+"%.)9'(* %,$'%

1/(>$0"*2%#.'%-*)*%L"#$%"$%$G#($/,$%$/%$'%$"9.-(*%:%

$/%$'%#($)9*]I%f/.%.)3(-(=/%,$%$"$%#(9*%#($/#.%,$%

>$e%$/%-1./,*%.%'*"%50./,$"%$-*/*)("#."2%5$/$0.'7

)$/#$%-1./,*%:.%"$%.-$0-./%.%-($0#."%.'#10."%7,$%

"1%*30.%:%,$%"1%$,.,7%41$%'$"%(/>(#./%.%'.%-*/#$)7

9'.-(=/%:%.%'.%$"9$-1'.-(=/%"*30$%"1%90*9(.%*30.2%

BB% 6[<KY6WbH2%?./1$'I%^cdlI%ES.%$-*,(/+)(-.%,$%jI%!I%_*1',(/5]I%N9%%lkB7liB2%$/%;.<*9*5"&*"!)9'5'!,.?";.%!9*+'5"A"#.+*3).9*5"BBC%,$%?I%6.-0("#+/I%_.0-$'*/.D%Y-.0(.I

!" !!!!!!!H<Kf<Y`[U[6I%K$>("#.%<08#(-.%,$%<($/-(."%6*-(.'$"%%mm%%%/hl2%BC^B2%99I%kC7ii

!"#$%&'($%)(%*+)%,-(.#/$0'(%,)(&1-2&-'#)(%,)%3$4'1$&-'#)(%5%'61$%&'($%

0+5%,-(.#6$%)(%*+)%1),+7&$0'(%)4%0+#,'%$%,)(&1-2&-'#)(8

Page 14: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&%'&%!()*"&*%&!+&*,!-,.',/)&0&!"#$%&')&1,!("$,)&

*%&2!()3&4-1+5.%(%$&%!&+/&%6%5.'"&*%&%!)&)5#,7

-,8/9&0&%'&.$".,"&:"+'*,/;&-+%/()&<+%&=+%&')&'%-(+$)&

*%'&!"#$%&'#()*(+)*#,&>?$)()*"&!"#$%&%'&*,/%$"@&*%&

A%0/%!&'"&<+%&'%&!+;,$,8&<+%&)-)!"&')&1,!("$,)&(%/7

;)&!%/(,*"3BCD

E'&$%5)(%&*%&4)-$,!(F/&%!&)G/&5%6"$H

IJ"&%!&<+%&%!(2&5+0&-')$"&%'&!%/(,*"&*%&%!"&*%&

<+%&)-)!"&')&1,!("$,)&(%/;)&!%/(,*"9 &.%$"&!%&%/7

-+%/($)&*,-1"&)!K&%/&')&.F;3&CDL&*% &-.)/,*$0&.'(

>E-"*,/F5,-)@1&*"-+5%/()/*"&')&,/!.,$)-,8/&%!.%7

-+')(,M)&*%'&)+("$&0&!+&-"/!-,%/-,)&*%&<+%&1)0&+/)&

($)*,-,8/&%/($%&'"!&%-"/"5,!()!&<+%&-+'(,M)&)5#,7

-,"/%!&)!K333BCN

E'&!%;+/*"&M+%'M%&*%&/+%M"&!"#$%&%'&(%5)&*%&')&

!%;+/*)&'%03&O%&')/P)&M)$,)!&='"$%!3&Q!()&."$&%6%57

.'"H

IO)&M,!,8/&*%&%!()&.$"#'%5F(,-)&."$&:"+'*,/;&%!&

,/!($+-(,M)5%/(% & -)+()3 & ?%8$,-)5%/(% & )*5,(% & ')&

.%$(,/%/-,)&*%&')!&-"/!,*%$)-,"/%!&*%&%/($".K)&%/&

%'&-)5."&*%&')!&R,%/-,)!&4"-,)'%!&7%&,/-'+!"&%/!)/7

-1)&)';"&%'&)'-)/-%&*%&%!)!&-"/!,*%$)-,"/%!9&)'&'')7

5)$&')&)(%/-,8/&!"#$%&%'&1%-1"&*%&<+%&')&*,!.%$7

!,8/&*%&5)(%$,)!&75%/)!9&0)-,5,%/("!7&."$&')&,/7

*+!($,)&%!&.$"*+--,8/&*%&I%/($".K)&5)(%$,)'B79&.%$"&

!%&$%!,!(%&)'&.)(%(,!5"&-"/&<+%&)&5%/+*"&!%&%S7

.$%!) & )<+%'') & .%$(,/%/-,)9 & 0 & ()5#,2/ & %' & 1)$)T,$,&

-,%/(K=,-"&<+%&%'&*%!-+#$,5,%/("&($)+5F(,-"&*%&')&

/"-,8/&*%&%/($".K)&.)$%-%&!+;%$,$&)&)';+/"!&%-"7

/"5,!()!&."-"&.$%M%/,*"!3&:"+'*,/;&-"/!,*%$)&<+%&

%'&-"/-%.("&*%&%/($".K)&%!&+/&-"/-%.("&()/&*%!7

)="$(+/)*)5%/(%&)-+U)*"&-"5"&%'&*%&='";,!("H&!"/&

-"/-%.("!&/%;)(,M"!3&V!K &-"5"&%'& ='";,!("&$%!+'(8&

!%$&)'&=,/)'&"SK;%/"&/%;)(,M"9&')&%/($".K)&%!&."(%/7

-,)'&/%;)(,M"333BCW

4,;+%&5F!&()$*%&4)-$,!(F/&-"/&+/&.)!"&5+0&/"7

()#'%H

CD(234(5&%49&..3&NDC7NDD3CN(234(5&%39&.3&NDD3CW(234(5&%39&.3&NDX3

IE/ & %!() & -"/-%.-,8/ &*%' & .)$ & %M"'+-,8/7%/($".K)&

-"/='+0%/&($%!&'K/%)!&*%&.%/!)5,%/("&<+%&/"&!,%57

.$%&%!&=F-,'&)$5"/,P)$H&')&,5.',-)-,8/&1,!(8$,-"7!"7

-,)'&*%&')!&/"-,"/%!&*%&')&(%$5"*,/F5,-)9&')&(%"$K)&

!,/(2(,-)&*%&')&%M"'+-,8/9&#)!)*)&%/&')!&/"-,"/%!&

*%&5+()-,8/&0&!%'%--,8/9&0&%'&%M"'+-,"/,!5"&5K!(,7

-"&*%&?%,'1)$*&*%&R1)$*,/9&<+%&'%&$%!+'()&#)!()/(%&

!,5.F(,-"&)'&-+F<+%$"&:"+'*,/;BCY3&

4)-$,!(F/&1)#'8&()5#,2/&%/&%'&)$(K-+'"&*%&LZWX&*%&

?%,'1)$*&*%&R1)$*,/3&["&5,!5"&'"&'%K&5+-1"&*%&6"7

M%/&-+)/*"&)/*)#)&5+09&.%$"&<+%&5+0&*%!.,!()7

*"3&O"&*%&-+F<+%$"&%!&+/)&.$+%#)&*%&<+%&)&4)-$,!7

(F/&/"&!%&'%&%!-).)#)/&5+-1"!&*%()''%!3&\$"!,;+%&

-"/&+/&.)!"&5);/K=,-"9&*%&-$K(,-)&=,'"!8=,-)&]%/&%'&

#+%/&!%/(,*"&*%'&-"/-%.("^&);+*K!,5)H

IE'&.$%!,*%/(%&*%&')&V5%$,-)/&V!!"-,)(,"/&="$&(1%&

V*M)/-%5%/(&"=&4-,%/-%&/"&.+%*%&*%6)$&*%&5%/7

-,"/)$&')&%!-)("'";K)&-,%/(K=,-)&"$("*"S)&<+%&%!&')&

,5.',-)-,8/&*%&')&!%;+/*)&'%0&*%&')&(%$5"*,/F5,-)&

.)$)&'"!&!%$%!&M,M"!H&1)#')9&."$&%6%5.'"9&*%'&I%<+,7

',#$,"&(%$5"*,/F5,-"&G'(,5"9&;%5,*"&."!($%$"&<+%&

%!&%'&=,/)'&*%'&+/,M%$!"9&-+)/*"&("*)!&')!&-"!)!&%!7

(2/&)&')&5,!5)&(%5.%$)(+$)9&+/,="$5%5%/(%&*,=+/7

*,*)!9&0&/"&.+%*)&0)&"-+$$,$&/)*)&5F!&%/&')&;$)/&

!".)&(,#,)&0&',;%$)B&].3&DW^3&\%$"&0)&')&5)/%$)&*%&

*%-,$&%!"&!+;%$,$F&)'&'%-("$&<+%&:"+'*,/;&/"&*%6)&

*%&(%/%$&!+!&$%!%$M)!&5,%/($)!&%6%-+()&')&"#',;)*)&

$%M%$%/-,)&)&')&(%$5"*,/F5,-)3&E/&.$,5%$&'+;)$9&%!&

-')$"&<+%&/"&%!(F&-"/M%/-,*"&*%&')&.%$(,/%/-,)&*%&

')&-"/!,*%$)-,8/&*%& ')&!%;+/*)& '%09 &*%&+/&5"*"&

;%/%$)'9 & %/&+/ &-"/(%S(" &1,!(8$,-"&1+5)/"H & !, &%'&

+/,M%$!"&.$"-%*%&1)-,)&+/&%!()*"&=,/)'&*%&%/($"7

.K)9 & I%! &-)!, & !%;+$" &<+% &/" &%!()$%5"! &)''K & .)$)&

M%$'"9&0&<+%9&*%&%!()$9&/"&/"!&;+!()$K)&/)*)B&].3&

DY^3[9&%/&!%;+/*"&'+;)$9&/,&!,<+,%$)&.)$%-%&%!()$&

5+0&-"/M%/-,*"&*%&')&,5."$()/-,)&%5.K$,-)&*%&')&

!%;+/*)&'%09&!,/"&<+%9&($)!&(%/%$')&%/&-+%/()&."$&

')&=+%$P)&!,!(%5F(,-)&*%&')&(%"$K)&(%$5"*,/F5,-)9&

(,%/*%&)&-%$$)$&')&-+%!(,8/&-"/&+/&&6*)"$07'(<+%&

!+%/)&) &&6*)"$8&07' ()&')&_+&:",!7`)05"/*H&aJ"&

!)#%5"!&!,&%/&"($"!&.')/%()!&*%&"($)!&.)$(%!&*%'&

CY(234(5&%39&.3&NDZ3

!" !!!!!!EJR`bRcdV_V43&`%M,!()&R$K(,-)&*%&R,%/-,)!&4"-,)'%!&&ee&&&/fN9&CgLC9&..3&Dg7WW

Page 15: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'( )(*!&&% )!"+ ) ,&+"'#*#-" ).+*#+ )%',&!*,!&+')

/0' ) '#/12%'3 ) "# ) '#! %'( ) +*+4+&0 ) 1(& ) (*!&&#& ) %")

"!%',&()12+"%,+3)5)"()1(6%/(')%7*2!#&)%'+)1('#4#2#8

6+69):1;)<=>?;)@()A!%)+*,B+)*(",&+)%'+)1('#4#2#6+6)

%')C2+)D&+")6#"0/#*+)6%)2+)%$(2!*#-"93)%',()%'3)2+)

/!,+*#-")A!%).+*%)/0')*(/12%E+')2+')#"',&!**#(8

"%')*(",%"#6+')%")%2)D%"(/+3)2+)%',&!*,!&+)6%2)*(8

"(*#/#%",(3)53)1(&)*("'#D!#%",%3)%')*&%+*#-")6%)1(8

,%"*#+23)6%)%",&(1F+)"%D+,#$+):<=G3)10''#/?;)H%),(8

6(')/(6('3)I(!26#"D)"()'#D!%)'#")&%'%&$+')1(&)%'+)

$F+3 ) A!% ) 2% ) 22%$+&F+ ) +2 )/F',#*( ) 1!",( ) (/%D+ ) 6%)

J%#2.+&69KL;)

J#%"%)I(!26#"D)'#")6!6+3)*("*2!5%)M+*&#',0"3)N(&8

/!2+*#("%')A!%)6%E+")%")*2+&()A!%)%")'!)(1#"#-")

C"()%')1%&,#"%",%)!"+) #",&(6!**#-")'#',%/0,#*+)%)

#"*+!,+)6%)2+)"(*#-")6%)%",&(1F+)%")2(')1&(42%/+')

A!%),&+,+3)4#(2-D#*(')()'(*#+2%';;;9KO3 )1%&(3)'%P+2+)

#D!+2/%",%3)2()A!%)I(!26#"D)C1&%'%",+)*(/()$#'#-")

6%N#"#,#$+)%')!")*!+6&()&%*("(*#6+/%",%)#"'%D!&()

%")%2)A!%)%$(2!*#-")5)%",&(1F+)#",%",+")*(/1("%&)

'!)+1(&F+3)'!)*(",&+6#**#-")6#&F+/('3)'#)%2)2Q7#*()6%)

C2+)6#+2Q*,#*+9)"() 2% ) N!%&+),+")+",#10,#*()+)I(!28

6#"D9KR;)@%)%&+)/!5)+",#10,#*()*(/()%')'+4#6(;)S")

'!')1+1%2%'3)M+*&#',0")%'*&#4#-)(4'%&$+*#("%')'(8

4&%)(,&+')(4&+')6%2)D&+")*#%",FN#*()5)N#2-'(N()!'+8

/%&#*+"(;

"# ! $%&'(# !&) !*+& !,-$'%)(./ ! %/('#0+1# ! (&2-)!

2+3 ! -$(+-4&) ! &/ ! 4- ! $+4(+'- ! &)5-6#4- ! 0& ! 4-!

75#$-8 !9#'!5#/&'!#('#!&1&254#: !#('#!$-25#!

0&4!)-;&'!*+&!,-$'%)(./!$#/)%0&'-!%/(&'&)-/(&!

5-'-!4-!<&(#0#4#=>-!0&!4-)!?%&/$%-)!,#$%-4&)!

&) ! 4- ! )#$%#;%#4#=>-8 ! @/(& ! 4- ! 5#472%$- !&/('&!

<-'A%/!B-''%)!C2-(&'%-4%)(-!$+4(+'-4D!3!E8 !F8!

G%4)#/ ! C)#$%#;%H4#=#DIJ: ! ,-$'%)(./ !$#/)%0&'-!

KL!"#$!%&';3)11;)>GR8>>=;KO!"#$!%&';3)1;)>>=;KR!"#$!%&';3)1;)>>=;G=) )T(')&%N%&#/(')+2)6%4+,%):/(6%&+6()1(&)U"")V+&&(22?)%",&% ) W+&$F" ) XUYYZM ) 5 ) S6[+&6 ) \; ) ]Z@M\T; ) <RLO;)

&''H/&-)!-4=+/-)!0&!4-)!%/('#2%)%#/&)!0&! 4-!

;%#4#=>-!&/!&4!.2;%(#!0&!4-)!?%&/$%-)!,#$%-4&)8!

,%/!&2;-'=#:!&/!)+!-'(>$+4#!K,#$%&0-0:!/-(+L

'-4&M-!3!?%&/$%-)!,#$%-4&)NIO! -5#3-!4-!)#$%#L

;%#4#=>-!0&!G%4)#/:!$'%(%$-/0#!-4=+/#)!&P$&L

)#)!0&!7)(-8!E4!$-)#!&)!*+&!,-$'%)(./!)&!2+&L

A& ! 0&)0& !&4 ! &)(+0%# ! 3 ! $#/#$%2%&/(# !0& ! 4-)!

$%&/$%-)!5#)%(%A-):!/+/$-!$-3H!&/!+/-!$#/$&5L

$%H/!'#2./(%$-!0&!4-!Q%4#)#Q>-!0&!4-!/-(+'-4&L

M-:!0&!$#/0&/-!#!5'&(&/)%H/!0&!)+5&'-$%H/!0&!

4-!$%&/$%-8!R-!0&)0&!)+!(&)%)!0#$(#'-4 !)#;'&!

B&%0&==&':!54-/(&-!+/-!=+&''-!-;%&'(-!$#/('-!

&4!%''-$%#/-4%)2#!C+/#!0&!4#)!2+$S#)!5+/(#)!

&/!$#2T/!$#/!"+U.$):!$#2#!0&)$'%;%)(&!2-L

=%)('-42&/(&!&/!+/#!0&!(+)!T4(%2#)!('-;-1#)V!

!"#$%&'()*+',*D8 !9#'!$#/('-: !,-$'%)(./!&)!+/!

&)(+0%#)#!0&!4-!$%&/$%-:!-)>!$#2#!0&!4-!Q%4#)#L

Q>-!0&!4-!$%&/$%-!0&4!)%=4#!WW:!)&!('-(&!0&4!/&#L

5#)%(%A%)2#:!9#55&':!X+%/&:!&($8!,%/!&2;-'=#:!

,-$'%)(./!/#!&)!(-25#$#!+/!5#)%(%A%)(-:!3!(%&L

/&!A-'%#)!5-)-1&)!$'>(%$#)!$#/!&)(&!2#A%2%&/L

(#8!YE/!(+!#5%/%H/!&/!*+7!$#/)%)(&!&)(-!#'%=%L

/-4!4>/&-!&/!4-!*+&!)&!2+&A&!,-$'%)(./Z

U",%')6%)&%'1("6%&3)6QE+/%)6%*#&)A!%),!)*(/%"8

,+&#()%')/+D"FN#*(;)T()$(5)+)%',+&)+)2+)+2,!&+;

M+*&#',0"3)1&#/%&(3)*("(*%)%2),%/+)/!5)4#%"3)5+)

%")U2%/+"#+)'%).+4F+)+1&(7#/+6()+)%'(')+!,(&%')

A!% )1(6%/(' )%"/+&*+& )+ )%'+) *(&&#%",% ) 8'#" )'%&)

/!5)1&%*#'('8)6%2)"%(1('#,#$#'/(3)%/1#&#'/()2-D#8

*(3)%,*;)S")+A!%2)+&,F*!2()A!%).#^()U24%&,)H(/#"D()

'(4&%) 2+)4#42#(,%*+) E!$%"#2 )6%)M+*&#',0")+1+&%*%")

+2D!"(' )6% )%',(' )+!,(&%'; ) Z"*2!'()%" )%2 )+&,F*!2()

A!%)%'*&#4#-)1+&+)()*+) '(4&%)\&,%D+)5)X%#6%DD%&3)

+2)N#"+2)+1+&%*%")&%N%&%"*#+')+)Y%#*.%"4+.)5)+)Y!'8

'%22;)U",%').%/(').+42+6()6%)%22(;)U)Y!''%22)2%)+68

/#&-).!/+"+)5)1(2F,#*+/%",%3)2%)1+&%*%)!"+)1%&8

'("+)6%)%"(&/%)*("'#',%"*#+)/0')+220)6%)'!')*&F,#8

*+')5)'!')6#N%&%"*#+')6%)1%&'1%*,#$+)53)6%'6%)2!%8

CX%&%6#,5)$%&'!')*!2,!&%_)+)6%4+,%9 ),-.&+'*/ !`(2;)<a):b?3)11; )b=8bG; )J+/4#Q" )1!42#*+6( )%" )%2 )"c<K )6%) 2+ ) &%$#',+)0&+1'2)3!4)1'-;G<) MUVYZMJdT3 )W+"!%2; ) <ROK; ) CM(*#%6+63 ) "+,!&+2%^+ ) 5)*#%"*#+' ) '(*#+2%'; ) e" ) %'A!%/+ ) 6% ) 6#'*!'#-"9 )5&)6+.'&.)/!+P()`ZZ3)"c)<K3)11;)>R8bK;

[[ !!!!!!STVYeVZfUHUM;)Y%$#',+)V&F,#*+)6%)V#%"*#+')M(*#+2%'))gg)))"c>3)K=<K3)11;)G=8aa

!"#$%&'()*)+&$,-.$"/&)'&$&$0&)12.+3.)4$5*%)+6(7'$'&$.)*$-'$3*)8+6(*$*%*/93+%&4$.)*$-'$%&3-'+6(*4$-'$).:&#-%+&'*)+&4$-'$;#<6&=&$=-.)(.3.'(.$%&3>)&3.?/&@

Page 16: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$ %&$'()&*+($,-$ ./%01"."$2,3$4)/%%(-5&# $( $6,/&-$

6,&)+($)&*,'&)()$&-$(%!,-"$7&$1,1$',-5"18$9,$()5+:

*,%"$1"4)&$;%#$1"4)&$<,11&%%$3$&%$1"*/(%/12"#$)&*"!/:

7"$&-$!"#$%&'($)&*&+($),-+"$&)($3$1/!,&$1/&-7"$

2(!-+./*"8

=-$1&!,-7"$%,!()#$)&*"-"*+($%($/2'")5(-*/($./%"10:

./*($7&$%"1$(,5")&1$7&$&1($5)(7/*/0-8$=%$&>&2'%"$7&$

?()-('$&1$*%()"8$@(24/;-$*"-"*+($2,3$4/&-$%($"4)($

7&$A")/5B$9*C%/*D#$*,3($2,&)5&$($2(-"1$7&$,-$&1:

5,7/(-5&$-(B/$%&$*"-2"E+(8

!" #$%&'#()*+%+,-&# ".$+/0#&,(,+'&10#('# 23'+0#

1("#45#*0%#3'#(67&"3)'0#'&8+9#)+('-%&,#,3:;&#

"&, #(,/&"(%&,#1(# "& # <&/3"-&1#*&%&#1&% #/"&,(=#

>&/%+,-?'#"0#/+-.#('#&"$@'#&%-;/3"0=

F$-"1$ %" $&G'%/*(4($&-$*%(1&$7&$2&5"7"%"!+( $7&$

.")2( $2,3 $ &2"5/E(8 $ 9(*)/15H- $ '&-1(4( $ 6,& $ &%$

-&"'"1/5/E/12" $ %0!/*" $ C(4+( $ C&*C" $ ('")5(*/"-&1$

/2'")5(-5&1$($%($./%"1".+($7&%$1/!%"$II#$&-5)&$&%%(1$

,-($(')"G/2(*/0-$)/!,)"1($(%$H24/5"$7&$%($*/&-*/($

3$($*(2'"1$')0G/2"18$A,*C"1$7&$&%%"1$&)(-$*/&-5+:

./*"1$3$&1*)/4+(-$*"-$)/!")8$

J&)"$-"$1&$',&7&$7&*/)#$&-$(41"%,5"#$6,&$9(*)/1:

5H-$.,&)($,-$./%01"."$'"1/5/E/15(8$J")$2,%5/5,7$7&$)(:

B"-&18$K-(#$%($')/-*/'(%L$9(*)/15H-$-"$.,&$,-$./%01":

."$(*(7;2/*"$3$1,$*"-*&'5"$7&$%($./%"1".+($3$7&%$./:

%"1".()$&)($"5)"8$K-($*"1($&1$*"-"*&)$($,-"1$(,5":

)&1$3$(')&-7&)$5"7"$%"$6,&$C(3($6,&$(')&-7&)$7&$

1,1$)&.%&G/"-&1$3$7&$1,1$('")5(*/"-&1#$3$"5)($*"1($

&1$*"/-*/7/)$*"-$1,1$'%(-5&(2/&-5"1$3$*"-$1,1$./-(:

%/7(7&18 $M%!,-(1 $ ()/15(1 $ '"%/;5/*(1 $ 7& $ &1& $2"E/:

2/&-5"$./%"10./*"$($9(*)/15H-$%&$'"-+(-$7&$%"1$-&):

E/"18$K-($*"1($&1$(72/)()$-,7"1$7&$%($"4)($7&$J":

''&)$3$"5)($*"1($&1$('%(,7/)$1,$*"2')"2/1"$'"%+5/:

*"$*"-$A/11$@C(5*C&)8$K-($*"1($&1$6,&$7/15/-!(2"1$

7&1*)/'*/"-&1 $ 7& $ E(%")(*/"-&1# $ 3 $ "5)( $ *"1( $2,3$

7/15/-5($&1$6,&$)&7,B*(2"1$&%$2,-7"$($7&1*)/'*/":

-&1$3$-&!,&2"1$"$-"$5&-!(2"1$2,3$&-$*,&-5($%($

/2'")5(-*/($7&$/)$2H1$(%%H$7&$5"7"$&1"8$N5)($*"1($

&1$6,&$&-$&%$H24/5"$7&$%($./%"1".+($2()G/15(#$&1"$

6,&$1&O(%"$-"$1&$C(4+($C&*C"$4/&-#$-"$1&$C(4+($

')(*5/*(7"$*"-$&12&)"8

J&)"$&1$6,&$7&$C&*C"$9(*)/15H-$-"$&)($,-$2()G/1:

5($(*(7;2/*"#$&)($,-$*"2,-/15(#$,-$)&E"%,*/"-(:

)/"#$,-$./%01"."$.,&)5&2&-5&$*"2')"2&5/7"8$P"$2&$

6,/&)"$2&5&)$*"-$-(7/&#$'&)"$2/)(Q8$M7")-"#$'")$

&>&2'%"#$&)($,-$!)(-$2()G/15($"#$2&>")$7/*C"#$,-$

!)(-$2()G0%"!"R$'&)"$'"%+5/*(2&-5&$;%$&)($%"$6,&$

&)(#$"$S")DC&/2&)8$=%$*(1"$7&$A()*,1&$&1$,-($*"1($

7/15/-5(#$*)&"$6,&$5/&-&$"5)($1/-!,%()/7(78$M7")-"$3$

S")DC&/2&) $ 5,E/&)"- $ "5)" $ 5/'" $ 7& $ *"2')"2/1"1$

'&)"$7&$H24/5"1$2,3$7/15/-5"18$

A(#B(/B0#,3#(C0"3/+.'#*0";-+/&#<3(#*%?/-+/&7

)('-(#0*3(,-&#&#"&#1(#>&/%+,-?'=$

?%()"8$M%!,/&-$',&7&$*"-"*&)$2,3$4/&-$%($"4)($7&$

A()G#$'&)"$'"%+5/*(2&-5&$1&)$-(7($1"*/(%/15(8$9(:

*)/15H-#$&-$*(24/"#$-"L$&1$,-$1&)$C,2(-"$6,&$5/&:

-&$,-($"'*/0-$'"%+5/*($'")$&%$*"2,-/12"$-(7($5(%:

2T7/*(#$-"$&1$6,&$&15;$*/&!"#$5"7"$%"$*"-5)()/"8$U($

5"2($*,(-7"$&15H$&-$M%&2(-/(#$&1$&-5"-*&1$*,(-:

7"$1&$(')"G/2($($&1($5)(7/*/0-8$=1$*"2"$V)(21*/#$

6,&$(7&2H1$7&$./%0%"!"$"$./%01"."$&1$,-$)&E"%,*/":

-()/"#$3$'")$&1"$(*(40$*"2"$(*(40#$3$($%($&7(7$($

%($6,&$(*(408$

D&#/0)*&%&/+.'#(,#)3E#&/(%-&1&9#('#)+#0*+7

'+.'=

=15($(')"G/2(*/0-$($V)(21*/$&1$ /2'")5(-5+1/2($

&-$%($E/7($3$&-$%($"4)($7&$9(*)/15H-8$9,$%/4)"$1"4)&$

V)(21*/$./&0$1%2&*&%/&3,%+4"#$&%$6,&$&7/50$M%4&)5$

W"2/-!"#$6,&70$/-5&)),2'/7"#$9(*)/15H-$-"$',7"$

*"-5/-,()%"$'")6,&$&15(4($5(-$2&5/7"$&-$%($E/7(#$

&-$&% $7)(2(#$&-$ %($ 5)(!&7/( $7&$V)(21*/ $6,&$-"$

',7"$*"-$;%#$-"$.,&$*('(B$7&$1&!,/)$2H1$*"-$(6,&:

%%"8$P"$&1$,-($*"1($5)/E/(%8$J(*"$X&)-H-7&B$Y,&3$C($

&1*)/5"$*"1(1$/2')&1/"-(-5&1$1"4)&$&15"8

9(*)/15H-$&1$,-$*"2,-/15(#$&1$(%!,/&-$6,&$&15H$

'")$%"1$4/&-&1$*"2,-&1#$6,&$&15H$&-$*"-5)($7&%$*(:

FG !!!!!!=P?<K?Z[MWM98$<&E/15($?)+5/*($7&$?/&-*/(1$9"*/(%&1$$\\$$$-]^#$_`a_#$''8$b`:cc

!"#$%&'()*+,-'.%/01+.*+2*+3,3.*(,+.*+42.+*,+32$5,'+'.+6#-#*+$2.*(#+6.+.77,1+

42.+7#+%.7#$&0*+.*(%.+$#8&(#7&'3,+9+*#(2%#7.:#+$,*62$.+#7+.$,'2&$&6&,;

Page 17: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%"&'()*+*,-.*&.*/$*0-.1#$*/.*&-*!$!.%*/.&#2-03

#(2*/.*4-'$1"/$/)*/.%*!$!.%*,-.*5-.6$*.%*"'!.2"(*

1(2#.$'.2"0$1()*/.*%$*/.&#2-00"71*/.*!$8&.&*+**!(3

9%$0"(1.&::: *;-.6()*$/.'<&) *(9&.2=$)*.1*-1*'(3

'.1#(*.1*,-.*1(*'-04(&*&.*/$9$1*0-.1#$*/.*.%%()*

,-.*%$*2.%$0"71*.1#2.*0$!"#$%"&'(*+*1$#-2$%.>$*1(*

.&*$?$9%.)*.1*$9&(%-#()*+*,-.*0(1/-0.*$%*.0(&-"0"3

/"(:::*

@-$1/(*A%*'$1"?".&#$*.&$*!2(+.00"71*!(%8#"0$*0(3

'-1"&#$*2.0-.2/$*,-.*#$'9"A1*B$2C*/.08$*,-.*A%*

1(*.2$*'$2C"&#$:*D&$*92('$*'.#(/(%76"0$*#".1.*&-*

"'!(2#$10"$:*E$02"&#<1*&.*%$*/"(:*@(1*2$>71*/.&/.*

%-.6(:*F(*#$'!(0(*&(+*&$02"&#$1"$1(*1" *9-.+"&#$)*

$-1,-.*$*=.0.&*!$2.>0$*'<&*9".1*%(*0(1#2$2"(:*E(1*

%"'"#$0"(1.&*'8$&:

!"#$"%&'"()%"#*%$"+&*,*+-./%$"%0,-/+-0-)#%$"%

1*+,-#23/%"#%4'5%-40),2*/2"6%7,")%8'"%"#%-49

0),2*/2"%+&*,-:-+*,%"&%'#)%$"%"#*%+)/)+-$*%:,*9

#"%$"%;*,<%0),%0*,2"%$"%1*+,-#23/6%=",4>2"4"%

-&'#2,*,&*%+)/%0*&*?,*#%$"%@,*/+-#+)%@",/3/9

$"A%B'"5C%+)4)%&)%,"+),$*?*%"/%'/*%$"%#'#%

D&2-4*# % +)/:","/+-*#C % "/ % "& %4*,+) % $" % '/*#%

E),/*$*# % #)?," %4*,<-#4) % 5 % "+)&)(>* % $" % &*%

@'/$*+-./ % $" % F/G"#2-(*+-)/"# % ;*,<-#2*#%

H@F;IC%5%8'"%G*4)#%*%0'?&-+*,%0,.<-4*4"/2"6%

=*+)%$-+"J%KL#>C%+'*/$)%"/%"&%4*,<-#4)%8'"%

M&%+)/)+-.%"/%&)#%*N)#%OP%:*&2*?*%+-"/+-*%5%#)9

?,*?*%0*#-./%)%G",?*&-#4)%)%0*&*?,",>*%)%,"9

2.,-+*C %5%"#2)5%0"/#*/$)%:'/$*4"/2*&4"/2"%

"/ %"& % OQ %5 %"/ % &) %8'" %G-/) % -/4"$-*2*4"/2"%

$"#0'M# % $"& % OQC % ;*/)&) % 1*+,-#23/ % 0'#) % "&%

*+"/2)%"/%&*%-40),2*/+-*%$"%&*%&.(-+*C%&*%*,('9

4"/2*+-./%,*+-)/*&C%&*%"0-#2"4)&)(>*%5%&*%4"9

2)$)&)(>*6%R%"/%+*4?-)C%+'*/$)%"/%"&%4*,<-#9

4)%8'"%+)/)+-.%"/%&)#%SP%5%$"#0'M#%$"%&)#%SP%

#)?,*?*%+-"/2-:-+-#4)%5%:*&2*?*%0*#-./C%5%*T)9

,*%"#2)5%0"/#*/$)%"/%&)#%L&2T'##",C%&)#%7)&&"9

22-%5%"/%#'#%$-#+>0'&)#%HUI%"/2)/+"#%;*/)&)%

1*+,-#23/%0'#)%"&%*+"/2)%"/%&*%-40),2*/+-*%$"%

&*%0,3+2-+*%,"G)&'+-)/*,-*%5%"/%&*%$-4"/#-./%

M2-+)90)&>2-+*6%R%0),%"#)C%$"#$"%&)#%*N)#%SPC%*%

1*+,-#23/%&"%('#2*?*%43#%&&*4*,#"%*%#>%4-#4)%

+)4'/-#2*%8'"%4*,<-#2*6%H666I%R%"40"A.%*%,"9

+),$*,%,"0"2-$*4"/2"%*8'"&&*%:,*#"%$"&%G-"E)%

;*,<%$-+-"/$)%*8'"&&)%$"%K0),%&)%8'"%4>%,"#9

0"+2*C%5)%/)%#)5%4*,<-#2*VC%8'"%+*#-%2)$)%"&%

4'/$)%-/2",0,"2*?*%"/%:),4*%$"%?,)4*C%+&*,)%

H666I%0",)%8'"%"&%0,)0-)%1*+,-#23/%#"%2)4*?*%

4'5%"/%#",-)%HUI6%W)%8'"%8'",>*%:'/$*4"/9

2*&4"/2"%"/%"#2"%+*#)%",*%0)/",%"/%0,-4",%

0&*/) % &* % 0*#-./ % M2-+)90)&>2-+*C % &* % $-4"/#-./%

M2-+)90)&>2-+*C%&*%$-4"/#-./%$"%&*%2,*/#:),4*9

+-./%,"G)&'+-)/*,-*6VXY%

B.5(2*.C!%"0$/()*"'!(&"9%.:*G%*$!2(C"'$21(&*$*%$*

(92$*/.*E$02"&#<1*=.'(&*,-.*.&02"9.*/.*-1$*?(2'$*

.&!.0"$%) * =.'(& *,-. *1( */.&0-92. *'./"#.22<1.(&*

0('(*4"0".2(1*G%#4-&&.2)*-*(#2(&*$-#(2.&*,-.*0(1(3

08$1 *'-+ *'$% * %$ * #2$/"0"71 * $1$%8#"0$) * .'!"2"&#$ * (*

1.(!(&"#"="&#$)*=.'(&*,-.*&.*$!2(C"'$*$*$-#(2.&*

"1-&-$%.&*0('(*H(-%/"16)*0('(*I.(26.&0-)*0('(*

'-04(&*(#2(&)*1(*?-.2(1*%(&*J1"0(&)*$-#(2.&*!(0(*

?2.0-.1#.&*.1*%$*#2$/"0"71:*K(/(*.&(*4$0.*,-.*.&.*

'$2C"&'()*,-.*1(*&.*!-./.*0%$&"?"0$2*0('(*'$23

C"&'(*!(&"#"="&#$)*&"1(*#$%*=.>*0('(*'$2C"&'(*!2.3

0"&()*$26-'.1#$/(*L.5.'!%(*/.&#$0$/(M*NO$2%*B$2C*

0('(*&(0"7%(6(*/.* %$*0".10"$PQQR) * &. *0(22.&!(1/.*

0(1*$%6(*'-+*"'!(2#$1#.*.1* %$*#2$/"0"71)*,-.*.&*

-1"2*%$&*?-.2>$&*/.%*0(1(0"'".1#(*0(1*%$&*?-.2>$&*

/.*%$*'(="%">$0"71)*0(1*%$*0%$&.*(92.2$*(*.%*'-1/(*

/.%*#2$9$5(:*S1#.1#$2*,-.*4$+$*$%6(*/.*2.#2($%"'.13

#$0"71*'-#-$:*D&$*"/.$*$*E$02"&#<1*%.*!$2.08$*'-+*

"'!(2#$1#.*!$2$*#2$1&?(2'$2*.%*'-1/()*%$*"/.$*/.*

,-.*.&*0(1=.1".1#.*0(1(0.2*%(*'<C"'(*,-.*!(/$3

QT* UDVWXWYDZ * H[DF) * U: * L.1 * !2.1&$R: * D1 *!"#$%&'( ) *)+,(-(.%&'() * ./"#$/( * !(2 * E:* ;7!.> * G21$%) * D: * E<104.>*S6%.&"$&)*+*\:*E$22"71*G1/$%->:*B$/2"/M*;$*]=.5$*V(5$:QQ*EG@VSEKXW)*B$1-.%:*T^^_:*NO$2%*B$2C*0('(*&(0"7%(6(*/. * %$ * 0".10"$P) * `!: * T_a3Tbc * .1 */+,01#"& ) 2+ ) 3%-(&(34")'(2+#5" ) * ) ,(50+'6(#75+"8 )/. * B: * E$02"&#<19 )B$/2"/M*K2(##$:

ZO !!!!!!DW@V[@S\GYGE:*V.="&#$*@28#"0$*/.*@".10"$&*E(0"$%.&**dd***1ef)*T^aT)*!!:*Q^3cc

!"#$#%&'(#)'*+$,-.$.+$)/()-012$#+#0/3)12$2.$4.+/#$%.$5#)('246+7$-+1$%.$012$81)12$&#(9'24#2$,-.$2#0:#;#+7$.24#;#$#+)0#%#$.+$2-$('<1($)1+).84-#07$2-$)1+1)'&'.+41$%.$0#$4(#%')'*+$#+#0/3)#$.$'+)0-21$2-$8(18'#$.2)('4-(#7$2-$)#24.00#+1$(')1$=$

8(.)'21>?

Page 18: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&$'($)&*"$+,&$-"$./#0/$1"-$1"-"1&*("2$3/4$

+,&$)"-&*$!,13/#$!5#$1"#/#$&-$&($1/#"2$3/4$+,&$

)"-&* $ 67-/(7%/%&#2 $".8&079"#2 $)*":*/!/2$&#6,&*;"2$

(,13/2$"*:/-7;/17<-$4$3/#0/$#7$!&$/),*/#$/(:"$%&$

#,&*0&$4$/0*&97!7&-0"=$>,/-%"$,-"$!7*/$/$?/1*7#@

05-$1"!"$67(<#"6"$!/*A7#0/$1"!)*"!&07%"$3/4$,-$

)"1"$%&$0"%"$&#"=$

BC$+,'$/,0"*&#$(&$7-0&*&#/-$&-$&#0&$/#)&10"D$E&$

7-0&*&#/$F*/!#172$#7-$%,%/=$?".*&$E&-7-2$7-0&*97&@

-&$1,/-%"$3/4$+,&$7-0&*9&-7*2$4$1,/-%"$07&-&$+,&$

1*7071/*(&$-"$#&$1"*0/$-7$,-$)&("2$%717&-%"$+,&$E&-7-$

&*/$,-$:*/-$)"(G071"$4$,-$:*/-$*&9"(,17"-/*7"$)&*"$

+,&$67("#<671/!&-0&$/$9&1&#$&*/$,-$)"1"$.*,0"2$)"*$

%&17*(" $ *5)7%"= $ C $ (" $ %&1G/ $ #7- $ -7-:H- $ )*".(&!/2$

1,/-%"$&#"$)"%G/$#&*$,-$&#15-%/("$&-0*&$!/*A7#@

0/#@(&-7-7#0/#$!5#$"$!&-"#$"*0"%"A"#=$I/.(/!"#$

%&$/(:,7&-$+,&$/#,!G/$&($(&-7-7#!"$&-$!,13"#$/#@

)&10"#2$4$+,&$/($!7#!"$07&!)"$0"!/$,-$1(5#71"$7-@

0"1/.(&2$1"!"$("$&*/$E&-7-$&-$/+,&($!"!&-0"2$4$("$

0*/0/$1"-$("#$"8"#$/.7&*0"#=

!"# $%&%'( $)*+ $,-./# $!" # $%"&'&$() #*+ #,+-%-$ 0$

,+-%- # . # "( # $%"&'&$/(1 $ '234- $ 5&36"7'%4- $ ,#$

0()1#.#2()1%'2&($84$,-7'."2'$&#$9&"7"4$-,:

;,<4$'#.,$7",<.4-$'-5,7.4-$%,$6'-$74#7,57"4:

#,-$,5"-.,246=>"7'-$%,$?,#"#1 $ 64 $@&,$#4$,-$

"#7425'."36,$74#$74#-"%,<'<6,$&#$><'#$<,;4:

6&7"4#'<"4$74#$><'#$494$546+."74($!"#$"<$2/-$6,:

94-1$0$0'$@&,$,-$&#$.,2'$%,$24%'1$!'7<"-./#$

74#-"%,<'3' $ 6' $ 54-"7"=# $ %, $ ?,#"# $ '#., $ 6'$

7&,-."=#$#'7"4#'6"-.'$7424$A#4$0'$6'$2,94<1$

-"#41$6"-'2,#.,1$6'$3&,#'B($

J6&1079/!&-0&=$K&$L"#/$E,A&!.,*:2$/$+,7&-$&#@

0,%7< $!&-"#2 $ 0*&# $ 1,/*0"# $%& $ ("# $!7#!"= $?".*&$

M/*A$("$!7#!"N$)"*$&8&!)("$&-$OJ($0*/./8"$17&-0G67@

1"$%&$M/*A$4$#,$-"17<-$%&$17&-17/PQR$&#$,-$0&A0"$%&$

!&0"%"(":G/$!/*A7#0/$%&$,-/$:*/-$67-,*/2$%&$,-/$

:*/-$*7+,&;/=$S-,#,/($%&$0"%/#$0"%/#=$J#"$&-$J#)/@

T/2$&-$/+,&($&-0"-1&#2$&*/$!,4$*/*"=$J#$,-$0&A0"$

+,&$#&$),&%&$9&*$1"!"$,-$0&A0"$/1/%'!71"2$)&*"$

%&0*5#$%&$&#"$3/4$,-/$)"#717<-$)"(G071/$!,4$!/*@

QR$?U>LS?VWX2$M/-,&(=$ $OJ($0*/./8"$17&-0G671"$%&$M/*A$4$#,$-"17<-$%&$17&-17/P=$Y)=$QZ[@Q[\2$&-$!"#$%&%'"#$()'*+

1/%/$+,&$#7&!)*&$&#$1"-9&-7&-0&$0&-&*$&-$1,&-0/$

1,/-%"$#&$(&&$/$?/1*7#05-$]/,-+,&2$%&#%&$(,&:"2$

/%!70"$+,&$#&$(&$),&%&$(&&*$#7-$0&-&*$&-$1,&-0/$

&#"$+,&$&#0"4$#&T/(/-%"^=

?&T/("$0/!.7'-$+,&$(/$/%!7*/17<-$+,&$&-$1G*1,("#$

/-/(G071"#$#&$0&-G/$%&$?/1*7#05-2$,-"$%&$("#$)"1"#$

!/*A7#0/#$+,&$#/(9/./-$]("$#'$.7&-$)"*+,&$4"$1"@

-"1G/$./#0/-0&$.7&-$4$)"*$%&-0*"$&#"#$1G*1,("#2$0&@

-G/$!,13"#$/!7:"#$/-/(G071"#^2$&#0/./$/-1(/%/$&-$

("$+,&$3&$7-0&-0/%"$#&T/(/*N$#,$*7:"*$1"-1&)0,/(2$

#,$1"-"17!7&-0"$%&$(/$0*/%717<-$/-/(G071/$&$7-1(,#"2$

#7$!&$/),*/#2$%&$#,$)*")7/$&#1*70,*/2$%&$#,$1/#0&@

((/-"$*71"$4$)*&17#"=$Y/1"2$#7&-0"$7-#7#07*$%&$-,&9"2$

/,)/%"$/$("#$3"!.*"#$%&$,-$:7:/-0&2$0/!.7'-$((&@

:<$3/#0/$%"-%&$((&:<=$M,4$(&8"#=

U%&!5#2$!&$:,#0/*G/$/T/%7*$"0*/$1,&#07<-$#".*&$

&($?/1*7#05-$!&0"%<(":"=$>*&"$+,&$#,$:*/-$1/)/17@

%/%$)/*/$(/$1"-1*&17<-$4$%79,(:/17<-$(&$97&-&$%&$#,$

/)*"A7!/17<- $ / $ 0&!/# $ !&0"%"(<:71"#= $ K7:/!"#$

+,&$#&*G/$/(:"$/#G$1"!"$,-$_*0&:/$%&$7;+,7&*%/#=$

?&$),&%&$9&* $&-$/(:,-"# $&8&!)("#2 $1"!"$/+,&($

%7117"-/*7"$%&$67("#"6G/$1,4/$0*/%,117<-$1""*%7-<2$4$

&-$(/$+,&$/)"*0<$0*&#$9"1&#N$F*/!#172$"0*/$%&%71/@

%/$/$(/$/(7&-/17<-$4$"0*/$/$E,`51#=$J#)&17/(!&-0&$

(/#$%"# $)*7!&*/# $ #"-$!/:-G671/#2 $/ $)&#/* $%& $#,$

.*&9&%/%=$X"$&#$/(:"$+,&$7**,!)/$0*/#$#,$&#0/-17/$

&- $ Ma-#0&*2 $ )"*+,& $ #7 $ 9&!"# $ #,# $ /)"*0/17"-&#$

)/*/$/+,&((/$&-171(")&%7/$0&!5071/$1""*%7-/%/$)"*$

J#0&./-$Y7-7((/$%&$(/#$I&*/#2$#&$!,&#0*/$&#/$1/)/@

17%/%$&A)(71/-%"$-"17"-&#$1"!"$"(7:/*+,G/2$)&*#"@

-/(7#!"2$)&*#"-/2$&01=

U$&#0"$%&.&*G/!"#$/T/%7*(&$"0*/$6/1&0/$7!)"*0/-@

0&2$(/$%&$1"-6&*&-17/-0&=$?/1*7#05-$#&$)*"%7:/./$&-$

CD !!!!!!JX>Lb>ScUKU?=$L&97#0/$>*G071/$%&$>7&-17/#$?"17/(&#$$dd$$$-eR2$f\Zf2$))=$Q\@gg

!"#$%&'()*+',+-%./&0#1#+,*+2#+3#$,(#+/,+$.*3,%,*$&#*(,4+,'(56&,%#+.+*.+,*+2#+

7*&6,%'&/#/4+,*+)81&(.'+5*&6,%'&(#%&.'+.+*.9+:*+$,*(%.'+'.$&#2,'4+,*+$,*(%.'+/,+#23#1,;<#$&=*+/,+#/52(.'4+,*+'&*/&$#(.'+.1%,%.'4+,*+',/,'+/,+-#%;/.'+-.2>;$.'+

/,+&<?5&,%/#999@

Page 19: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&$'!#$(%!"#)*+!,$%-%.-%!.%/$%0.+*!,"+1$1(%!.%

234+#-"%).+*!,"+#$,+-"%-%.-5%6.%'!.#,-"%"-'+$/!"(%

!.%'!.#,-"%1!%$/&$4!#+7$'+8.%1!%$1)/#-"(%!.%"+.1+9

'$#-"%-4,!,-"(%!.%"!1!"%1!%:$,#+1-"%:-/;#+'-"%1!%+79

<)+!,1$555%+3:$,#!%'-.&!,!.'+$"%1!%3)'=-"%#+:-"(%>%

*$,+$"%1!%!//$"%"-4,!%?!#-1-/-@;$(%"-4,!%'-.'!:#-"%

'-3-%!"#,)'#),$%>%3)'=$"%')!"#+-.!"%32"5%A/@)9

.-"%.-%.-"%:!,1;$3-"%.+%).$5%6"#$%!"%).$%1!%")"%

@,$.1!"%$:-,#$'+-.!"5 %B-%=!% #!.+1-%:-'$" %!C:!9

,+!.'+$"%+.#!/!'#)$/!"%"!3!D$.#!"%$%E"#$%<)!%+.#!.9

#-%!C:/+'$,5%0.$%'-.&!,!.'+$%1!%F$',+"#2.%!,$%'-3-%

).%3-*+3+!.#-%1!%).%'-.'+!,#-%:$,$%*+-/;.%-%'/$,+9

.!#!%1!%?-7$,#5%6C$@!,-%).%:-'-%:!,-%.-%3)'=-5

B%#$34+E.%"!%:)!1!%-4"!,*$,%!"$%&+4,$%3!#-1-/89

@+'$%!.%")"%+.#!,*!.'+-.!"%:-/;#+'$"(%!.%/$"%<)!%"!%

$'!,'$ %$ % #!3$"%1!%).$ % &-,3$%3)>%-,+@+.$/5 %G-,%

!D!3:/-%!"#->%:!."$.1-%!.%$/@-%<)!%!.%!/%HIJK%.-%

#+!.! % !C$'#$3!.#! % $<)!//$" % '$,$'#!,;"#+'$"( % <)!%

&)!%!/%1+2/-@-%!.#,!%',+"#+$.-"%"-'+$/+"#$"(%1!%4$"!(%

'-3:,-3!#+1-"(%>%3$,C+"#$"%'-.%$,+"#$%:-/;#+'$(%.-%

:$,/$.'=+.!"( % .- % !"#,+'#$3!.#! % $'$1E3+'-"5 % F$9

',+"#2.%!.&-'8%!/%#!3$%'-3-%1!4!%!.&-'$,"!L%#!.!9

3-"%@,$.1!"%1+&!,!.'+$" % &+/-"8&+'$"( %.)!"#,$ %'-"9

3-*+"+8.%!"%1+"#+.#$(%).-%:)!1!%"!,%3$#!,+$/+"#$%>%

!/%-#,-%"!,%+1!$/+"#$%M=$4,;$%<)!%:,!'+"$,%!"-"%#E,9

3+.-"%1!"1!%/)!@-N(%).-%',!!%!.%/$%#,$"'!.1!.'+$%

>%!/%-#,-%.-O%:!,-%!"-%"!%:)!1!%:-.!,%!.%).%"!9

@).1-%-%).%#!,'!,%/)@$,(%!%+,%$%/-%<)!%.-"%).!(%<)!%

!"%:!."$, %!.%!/ %3).1-%1!/ % #,$4$D-( %!.%!/ % ")&,+9

3+!.#- % =)3$.-( % <)! % :-1!3-" % '-3:$,#+, % D).#-"%

:-,%3+//-.!"%1!%'$)"$"(%>%/-"%3$,C+"#$"9'-3).+"9

#$"%:-1!3-"%$:,!.1!,%3)'=-%1!%/$%'-=!,!.'+$%>%

1!% /$%'-."+"#!.'+$%:-/+E#+'$ %1!%3)'=-"%',+"#+$.-"%

1!%4$"!5%?)'=-(%!.#-.'!"%>%$=-,$5%6"#->%:!."$.9

1-%!.%3)'=$"%:!,"-.$"(%!%+.1+'-%).$%1!%!//$"%:-,9

<)! %F$',+"#2. % !,$ %3)> %$3+@- %1! % E/( % > % #$34+E.%

$=-,$%!"%3)>%$3+@-%3;-(%<)!%!"%P$)3!%Q-#!>5%6"$%

&-,3$%1!%!.&-'$,%'+!,#-"%#!3$"%1!%).%3-1-%#$.%

-,+@+.$/%!"%).%!&!'#-%3)>%1!,+*$1-%1!/%!"#)1+-%1!%

")"%$:-,#$'+-.!"%$%/$%&+/-"-&;$%>%/$%3!#-1-/-@;$%1!%

/$%'+!.'+$5%

B$%!"#2( %<)E%:/-3-5%Q)!.-(%!":!,$( %$R$1-%1-"%

.-34,!"%1!%',+"#+$.-"%<)!%>-%$13+,-%>%<)+!,-L%S"9

'$,%T-,,!.#!(%).%+.&-,32#+'-%3$,$*+//-"-(%).%'+!.#;9

&+'-%@,$.1!(%!.-,3!(%>%!/ %=!,3$.-%1!%).$%@,$.%

$3+@$%3;$( %1!%?$,;$%?!.E.1!75%U-%,!')!,1-%")%

.-34,!5 %?+ %3!3-,+$( %3)> % +.D)"#$3!.#!( % .- % =$%

$')R$1-%")%.-34,!5

!"#"$%&'()"*#+,)-&./#*0#,)&*+,'#1"/#2$3"/4

*"#5")6/7#,#80&(/#9")(/,:(;#<,=+&1&<,/'"#(/#

$,#<=(*(/+,1&;/#'(#*0# $&-=" #!"#$%#&'($)*')*+ )

,&"%#-(.)/(01'#$%&$)*')+&)#2+*$#&3#>,#=($,1&;/#

(/+=(#1=&*+&,/&*)"#?#),=@&*)"#(*#0/#"-:(+"#

'(#(/"=)(#&/+(=.*7#(*+"?#'(#,10(='"A#B0(==6,#

*&/#()-,=C"#%"$%(=#,$#D)-&+"#(<&*+()"$;C&1"A#

!"#<"'()"*#9,-$,=#'(#E,1=&*+D/#*&/#9,-$,=#'(#

*0 #/"1&;/ #'( #),=@&*)"7 # 1")" #/" #<"'()"*#

9,-$,=#'(#$,#)(+"'"$"C6,#'(#$,#1&(/1&,#'(#E,4

1=&*+D/#*&/#9,-$,=#'(#*0#1"/1(<1&;/#'(#$,#=($,4

1&;/ #(/+=( #),=@&*)" # ? # 1&(/1&,A #F/" #'( # $"*#

<0/+"*#)D*#&/+(=(*,/+(*#?#=(1"=','"*#(*+D/#

(/#*0#1=6+&1,#,$#),=@&*)"#1&(/+&3&1&*+,#'(#2$4

+90**(=A#G(#0/#)"'"#)0?#)0?#,<="@&),+&%"7#

<"'=6,)"*#*&/+(+&H,=#80(7 #<,=,#E,1=&*+D/7 #($#

),=@&*)"#/"#<0('(#*(=#(/+(/'&'"#1")"#0/,#

1&(/1&,7 # *&/" # 1")" #0/, # +=,'&1&;/ # '($ #)"%&4

)&(/+"#"-=(="#80(#,*<&=,#,#()<$(,=#$,#1&(/1&,#

<,=,#$"C=,=#*0*#"-:(+&%"*A#IJ/#+0#"<&/&;/7#80(#

&)<$&1,1&"/(* # +&(/(#(*+, #1"/1(<1&;/ #<,=,#($#

),=@&*)"K

6"#$%')!"#+8.%#+!.!%3)'=-"%.)1-"5%F$',+"#2.%#!9

.;$%).$%-:+.+8.%:-"+#+*$%1!/ %!"#$%&'$(%1!%A/#=)"9

"!,%9!.%!"#-%'-+.'+1;$%'-.%G$'-%V!,.2.1!7%Q)!>9%>%

!.%'$34+-%.-%/!%:$,!';$%.$1$%+.#!,!"$.#!%!/ %!'$'%

)**$%+)%,'-./')5%W!%:$,!';$%).%#!C#-%3)>%-"'),-(%+.9

'/)"-%//!@8%$%=$'!,%4,-3$"%"-4,!%!"!%#!C#-5%X$4/8%

1!%"-.$34)/+"3-%M/$ %*!,1$1%!"%<)!%!,$ %-"'),-(%

3)>%-"'),-5%B-%:!."E%<)!%!,$%#-.#-%1!%/$%.$,+7%

')$.1-%+.#!.#E%/!!,/-%1!%D-*!.L%.-%!.#!.1;$%.$1$5%

Q$/+4$,%!,$%-#,$%'-"$N5%W$%'-.'!:'+8.%@!.!,$/%1!%

A/#=)""!,%$%E/%/!%:$,!';$%:-'-%$,@)3!.#$1$(%:-'-%

1-')3!.#$1$L%).$%'-.'!:'+8.% &+/-"8&+'$%"!@Y.% /$%

')$/%?$,C%&)!%=!@!/+$.-%=$"#$%).%1!#!,3+.$1-%3-9

3!.#-(%=$>%).$%/;.!$%1!%1!3$,'$'+8.%>%"!%$4,!%).%

.)!*-%3).1-%!.%!/%<)!%X!@!/%.-%D)!@$%.+.@Y.%:$9

:!/%!%+,,)3:!(%0$*'/."%*(%1.2.)"(%-#,$%&+/-"-&;$5%F$9

LM !!!!!!6UZ[0Z\PA]AF5%[!*+"#$%Z,;#+'$%1!%Z+!.'+$"%F-'+$/!"%%^^%%%._`(%HIJH(%::5%KI9aa

Page 20: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&' ()*!+,-'%. (-' (/0"#*$ (0"%1!+2*$ (*%"0 (3*$#4

!#.'5 ( *%"0 ( 03"*6#,0!#.' ( 02 ( %-,05 ( -$3-!#02,-'%-(

!+0')*(-,3-7.(0(%"08090"(#'%-'$0,-'%-(20(%"0)+!4

!#.'()-(20$(*8"0$()-(:0"65(0(,-)#0)*$()-(2*$($-4

%-'%0;(<2(!"-10(=+-(20("-20!#.'(>-?-24:0"6($-(3"*4

)+9*()-(*%"*(,*)*5(=+-(2*$(!*,30$-$(-"0'(*%"*$(@(

$+()+"0!#.'()#$%#'%05(@(!"-10(=+-(02?+'*$(0$3-!%*$(

)-(20(#'A2+-'!#0()-(>-?-2(B0810'($#)*(3*$#%#/*$(-'(

-2(%"0809*()-2(:0"6(,0)+"*;(C*(,-()-%-')"D(-'(

-632#!0"(-$%*5(3-"*(B0@()#A-"-'!#0$(#,3*"%0'%-$(-'4

%"-(20(/#$#.'()-(+'*(@(20(/#$#.'()-(*%"*;(

E'(-2(0"%1!+2*(=+-(F0!"#$%&'(-208*".(30"0(20(-'!#4

!2*3-)#0(G08*"($-H0205(!#%*()-('+-/*5(2*($#-'%*I(J20(

-63"-$#.'(!"#$%$!&'()'*+"%,'(-$(!*'A+$#*'0"#0(@(3"*4

8082-,-'%-(-"".'-0($#($-("-A#-"-(0(2*$()*$(!2&$#!*$(

#'#!#02-$()-2(,0"6#$,*I(K0"2(:0"6(@(L"#-)"#!B(E'4

?-2$M(-"".'-0(02(,-'*$(-'(20(,-)#)0(-'(=+-(3*)10(

$-"2* ( 20 (-63"-$#.' (!"#$%$!&' (-.$/$%","0"%,'; ( NOP (E2(

0+%*"()-(-$%-(0"%1!+2*(B0('-?0)*(=+-(3+-)0(B04

820"$-()-(A#2*$*A10(,0"6#$%0(-'(-2($-'%#)*($#$%-,&%#4

!*(%"0)#!#*'02()-(A#2*$*A105($*$%-'#-')*(=+-(-2(,0"4

6#$,*()-8-(-'%-')-"$-(!*,*(*%"*(%#3*()-(B0!-"(

#'%-2-!%+02I(!*,*(20(!*'!#-'!#0(!"1%#!0()-2(-$A+-"7*(

3*"(!"-0"(+'('+-/*(,+')*(B+,0'*;QRS(<$%0(-$5(*84

/#0,-'%-5(+'0(3-"$3-!%#/0(3*21%#!05(@(-$($+(A*",0(

)-(-'%-')-"(-2 (,0"6#$,*4!*,+'#$,*5(!+@*('+)*(

!-'%"02 ( -"0 ( "-02#70"5 ( 08*'0"5 ( 20$ ( 03*"%0!#*'-$ ( )-(

%*)*(2*(=+-(A+-"0('-!-$0"#*(!+2%+"025(%-."#!05(!#-'%14

A#!05(A#2*$.A#!0,-'%-(30"0(20(!"-0!#.'()-(+'(,+')*(

B+,0'*(=+-(A+-"0(!0307()-($+3-"0"(20(-"0()-2(!04

3#%025 ( 20(-"0()-( 20(-632*%0!#.'5( 20( #'9+$%#!#0(@( 20$(

?+-""0$()-(2*$()-$4!"-0)*"-$()-(20(%#-""0;(

TB1(-'%"*'!0(20(3"-?+'%0(=+-(B0!-$(02(A#'02()-(%+(

!*,-'%0"#*; (U0,8#D' ($- (3+-)-'(B0!-" (!*$0$ ($#'(

$08-"(,+!B*()-2(,+')*5(B0@(?-'%-(=+-($08-(B0$4

%0().')-(22-?0($+($08-"5(@(%#-'-(!*'*!#,#-'%*$(=+-(

2-(B0'()0)*(20(3"&!%#!0()-(20(/#)05(20(3"&!%#!0(208*4

"025(-2(%"0809*("-,+'-"0)*(*(/*2+'%0"#*5(@(0(30"%#"(

)-(0B1(B0!-(,+!B1$#,*(3*"(!*'$%"+#"(*%"*(,+')*;(

RS(FTVWXFUYC5(:0'+-2;(Z[\];(JV*""#-'%-$(3"#'!#302-$()-2(3-'$0,#-'%* ( A#2*$.A#!*Q; ( ;̂ ( R[S ( -' (1'/.#.% ( 2. ( !"#$%$!&'3(1'-!#.,$% ( 4 ( 5',.*"'#.% ( 667( )- ( :; ( F0!"#$%&'; ( _0"!-2*'0I(X!0"#0;

:+!B*;(^-"*(-$(!#-"%*(=+-(-'(%D",#'*$(?-'-"02-$5(

!+0'%*(,-9*"(!*'*7!0,*$(2*(=+-(-$%&(30$0')*5(2*(

=+-(B0(30$0)*5(,-9*"(3*)-,*$(-'A*!0"('+-$%"0$(

#'%-"/-'!#*'-$(3*21%#!0$;(^0!*($*210(!#%0"(0(:0=+#04

/-2*(-'(-$%-(3+'%*I(!*'*!-"(-2(#'A#-"'*(30"0(02-90"4

'*$()-(D2;(^+-$(-$*;(

>0@(=+-("-!*'*!-"(=+-(,&$(022&()-(-$0(!*'!-34

!#.'(3*21%#!05(F0!"#$%&'(0,080(20(!#-'!#05(-$3-!#024

,-'%- ( 20 ( 2.?#!05 ( 20$ (,0%-,&%#!0$5 (3-"* ('*($.2*5(

=+-(%-'10(!*'*!#,#-'%*$()-(-$*$(&,8#%*$(@(?*!-(

3*"(!*'*!-";(^-"*(,&$(022&()-(-$0(A0!-%05(-$%&(-2(

320'%-0,#-'%*(3*2#D%#!*I(30"0(?-'-"0"(*"?0'#70!#.'(

!*'(-A#!0!#0($*!#025(30"0(?-'-"0"(,*/#,#-'%*$(=+-(

)#?0'(!*$0$("07*'082-$5(!+0'%*(,&$(!*'*!#,#-'%*(

)-(!0+$0(,-9*";(E'(20(`2%#,0(A0$-()-($+(!*"%0(/#)05(

-'( 2*$(`2%#,*$(ZS(0H*$( #""+,3#-"*'( 2*$( 220,0)*$(

'+-/*$ (,*/#,#-'%*$ ( $*!#02-$5 ( =+- (B*@ (@0 ('* ( 2*(

$*'(3+-$(%#-'-'(+'0(20"?0(B#$%*"#0;(V+0')*(D2(-,4

3-7.(0(-$%+)#0"(%-,0$(=+-(!0$#('0)#-(2-10(-'('+-$4

%"*(301$5(!*,*(-2(%-,0()-2(-!*2*?#$,*5(D2($-()*!+4

,-'%. ( 3"*A+')0,-'%-; ( E$%*@ ( 3-'$0')* ( %-,0$(

!*,*(-2()-80%-($*8"-(20(-'-"?10('+!2-0"(-'(-2(&,4

8#%*()-2(^VE5()*')-($-?+"0,-'%-(20(/*7(,&$(0"?+4

,-'%0)0(=+-(B+8*(-'(0=+-2(,*,-'%*(A+-(20($+@0;(

F0!"#$%&'('+'!0($-()-9.()-$2+,8"0"(3*"(-2(!#-'%#4

A#!#$,*(-$%"-!B*5(3*"(20(%-!'*2*?10($#'(,&$5(3*"(20(

,*)-"'#)0)()-$2+,8"0'%-('#(!*$0$()-(-$-(%#3*5(@(

,+!B*()-($+(*9*(-'(-$%0$(!*$0$(%-'10(=+-(/-"(!*'(

-$%+)#0"5(!*'(!*'*!-"5(@(-$*($-(+'10(!*'(=+-(-'(D2(

B08105 ( #'$#$%*5 (+'(3"*@-!%* (-$-'!#025 ()- (/#)05 ()-(

!*'$%"+!!#.'()-(+'(,+')*()#$%#'%*5(+'(,+')*()-(

8#-'-$(!*,+'-$(@(9+$%#!#05(+'(,+')*(!*,+'#$%0;(

V*'( 20(30208"0(J!*,+'#$,*Q(,-(=+#-"*("-A-"#" (0(

%*)*(-2(2#8"*(820'!*()-2(!*,+'#$,*5(=+-(-'(-2($#?2*(

aa (B0 (-$%0)* ( 22-'* ()- (3&?#'0$ ( #,3*"%0'%1$#,0$;(

U0,3*!*('-?0"D(=+-(B0(B08#)*(3&?#'0$('-?"0$5('*(

B0!-(A02%0(#')#!0"20$(3*"=+-(-$%&'(-'(,-'%-()-(%*4

)*$5(3-"*("-)+!#"(-2(!*,+'#$,*(0(J-$%02#'#$,*(%*4

!" !!!!!!ECVWbVXcTdTF;(W-/#$%0(V"1%#!0()-(V#-'!#0$(F*!#02-$((ee((('f]5(ghZg5(33;(Rh4SS

!"#$%&'()*+*,(-&./(0&1%23#&$45#)&#&6#7/4#8(2%9&!"#$%&'$()*)('+$',$-*.'+*)$

/"+"$",'0"+*)1$2'$3,:

Page 21: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$!"%$&'(&("#)*+"(,!$-*,!"(.$/$#"%(,.(*+"(0"%0"%$1

2"2(3&#4!$5"6(5*#!*%"#6(7$.!8%$5"999(:&(!$,+,(+&/0%,(

,.!"($+;*.!$5$"9(<+&(/$%"(#"(7$.!&%$"(2,(,.!,(3"4.(=(

>,( #"("/3#4.$/"(#$.!"(2,(3,%.&+".6(2,(/$#$!"+!,.6(

2,(0".,(&(+&(2,(0".,6(-*,(7$5$,%&+(!"+!".(5&.".(

3&%-*, ( ,+ ( ?.3"@" ( .*3,%A%"/&. ( ,# ( B".5$./& ( ,(

$%%*/3$,%"(&!%"(.&5$,2"2(/A.(;*.!"(=(/A.(7*/"+"(

=(/A.(2,/&5%A!$5"(C-*,6(2,.2,(#*,)&6(,.!"/&.(#,1

;&.(2,(5&+.,)*$%D6 (3&+,%(*+"(,!$-*,!"("+!$2,/&1

5%A!$5"(.&0%,(,.&6(/,(3"%,5,(*+"($+B"/$"9(?#(/*+1

2&(%,"#(3,%&("#(%,>E.9(

F&#>$,+2&("#(!,/"6(G"5%$.!A+(!,+4"(,."(5"3"5$2"2(

2,(*+$%(,."(>&5"5$8+(5$,+!4B$5"(;*+!&("(,.,(3%&=,5!&(

2,(-*,(3"%"(5&+.!%*$%(*+(/*+2&(+*,>&(2,0,/&.(

5&+&5,% (/,;&% ( #". ( 5&.".6 ( = ( ".4 ( 3&2%,/&. (7"5,%(

/,;&%,. ( 3%&3*,.!".9 ( H ( !"/0$E+ ( ,I3,%$/,+!"%#".(

5&+(!&2&(,#(5*$2"2&(2,#(/*+2&6(+&(#&(&#>$2,/&.9(

J"=(-*,(3%&0"%6(7"=(-*,($+!,+!"%(+*,>".(,I3,%$,+1

5$".6("*+-*,("(>,5,.(3*,2"+("5"%%,"%("#)K+(B%"5"1

.&6(=(>,%(-*E(3"."6(=(.$(#"(5&."(+&(B*+5$&+"(7"5,%(

%,5!$B$5"5$&+,.9(L,%&(3"%"(-*,(,.&.( $+!,+!&.(.,"+(

B%*5!4B,%&.(7"=(-*,(3%&0"%#&.(5&/,!$,+2&(,%%&%,.(

$+5#*.&9(:&(/,(-*,2&(/*=(."!$.B,57&(2,(,.!&(-*,(

,.!&=(2$5$,+2&6(3,%&(,.3,%&(-*,(.,(/,(,+!$,+2"(

0$,+9

!"# $ %&'&(%)"* $ !(#+,)(+( $ -./(#)-# $ (0 $ "12()"$

34)&30$5($.&(%)#3$4"./(#%34-6.*$7%)3+"%$839

103.5"$5($46+"$%($'#(%(.)3$(0$4"."4-+-(.)":$

03$('-%)(+"0";,3$<$03$+()"5"0";,3$5($03$4-(.9

4-3$3$=34#-%)>.$(.$4&3.)"$4"+&.-%)3:$(%$5(4-#$

(.$4&3.)"$30-35"%$5($&.$'#"<(4)"$?)-4"9'"0,)-9

4"*$!(#"$=34#-%)>.$)3+1-?.$5(%)343$4"+"$(%9

)&5-"%"$5($03$."4-6.$5($4-(.4-3$(.$@3#A:$5(%9

5($&.$'&.)"$5($/-%)3$(%)#-4)3+(.)($ -.)(0(49

)&30*$B"$(.$/3."$5-#-;-6$03$4"0(44-6.$C@7$5($

D#-2301":$E&($(5-)6$FG$/"0H+(.(%$5($"1#3%$5($

@3#A$<$7.;(0%$I03$-.)(.4-6.$(#3$'&10-43#$JKL:$

(.)#($(00"%$03%$)#35&44-".(%$5($=34#-%)>.$5($70$

M3'-)30:$0-1#"$F$<$G:$<$(0$N.)-9OP8#-.;*$N+13%$

)#35&44-".(% $ %". $ 4".%-5(#353% $ 5( $ 03% $+>%$

Q-(0(%$30$"#-;-.30$(.$30(+>.*$7%)($'#"Q&.5"$(%9

)&5-"$5($03$"1#3$5($@3#A$'(#+-)($3$=34#-%)>.$

4".40&-# $(.$%&$3#),4&0"$R70 $)#3132"$4-(.),Q-4"$

5($@3#A$<$%&$."4-6.$5($4-(.4-3STJ$E&($'"5(9

+"%$5-%)-.;&-#$)#(%$."4-".(%$5($4-(.4-3$'#(9

%(.)(%$(.$03$"1#3$5($@3#AU$03$5-%)-.4-6.$(.)#($

03$."4-6.$3.;0"%32".3$5($!"#$%"$:$03$;(#+>.-9

43$5($&#!!$%!"'()*+<$03$5($,-#*#,*$VM6+"$-.Q0&9

<($(%)3$5-%)-.4-6.$(.$03$4".4('4-6.$5($03$4-(.9

4-3$5(0$+3#A-%+"W

M746(.$(/,(3,%/$!,.(#"(0%&/"6(!"/0$E+(7"=(*+"(

3"%"2&;"9(<+("*!&%(-*,(2$5,(-*,(,.(5&/*+$.!"("+1

!,.(-*,(/"%I$.!"6(-*,(3#"+!,"(,#(/"%I$./&(5&/&(

#"(5%,"5$8+(2,(*+"(5*#!*%"6(-*,(+&(.,(2,B$+,(5&/&(

*+(/"%I$.!"("5"2E/$5&6(3,%&(#*,)&(/$%"2&(,.!%$51

!"/,+!,(5&/&(/"%I8#&)&(12,;"+2&("#(#"2&(-*,(/$1

#$!"%"(&(+&6 ("#)&(-*,( $+.$.!&(,.(2,5$.$>&(3"%"(.*(

>$2" ( = (*+ ( 3*+!& ( B*+2"/,+!"# ( 3"%" ( ,+!,+2,% ( .*(

3%&=,5!&1(#"(>,%2"2(,.(-*,(2"(,+(,#(5#">&9(NH(2,(

-*E(/"+,%"O

?+(5*"+!& ("# ("%!45*#& (-*,(5&/,+!".6 (=& (+&( %,1

5*,%2&("7&%"(/*57&.(&!%&.("%!45*#&.(2,( #"(!%"2$1

5$8+(-*,(/*,.!%,+(,."(2$.!$+5$8+(,+(#".(+&5$&+,.(

2,(5$,+5$"(,+(P"%I9(L"5&(Q,%+A+2,R(S*,=(!"/0$E+(

7"(2,."%%&##"2&(,+(&!%&.("%!45*#&.(,."(/$%"2"(2,(

G"5%$.!A+6(-*$,+(5&/&(!&2&(,#(/*+2&(."0,(B*,(*+(

/",.!%&6(*+("/$)&(=(*+(5"/"%"2"(2,(L"5&9(T&(7,(

2$57&(>,$+!,(>,5,.9(L,%28+9(?# (!"#$%&'()%('*+',-.%

2,(L"5&(0,0,(2,(>"%$".(B*,+!,.U(2,(V&%.576(2,(W*1

0,#(=(2,.2,(#*,)&(2,(G"5%$.!A+9(

?.!"/&.("+!,(!%,.(+&5$&+,.(2,(5$,+5$"9(T"(2,(/#(0

1(26 (,.( #" ( B*+5$8+(2,( #" (5$,+5$" (2,(5%$!$5"%6 (/$%"%(

28+2,(7"=(3";"(&(7*/&(=(28+2,(+&9(T&(7"5,/&.(

!&2&.(,+(5*"#-*$,%(".3,5!&(2,(+*,.!%&(!%"0";&6(.,"(

!,8%$5&(&(+&9 (?., (".3,5!& (2,(5%4!$5"6 (2, ( %,5&),%(

"3&%!"5$&+,.(=(!%"2$5$&+,.(5&+(!"5!&6(,.(*+(!%"0";&(

0A.$5&("+!,.(2,($+$5$"%(5*"#-*$,%(&!%&(3".&("2,#"+1

!,9(?.(*+(!E%/$+&6(,#(2,(5%4!$5"6(-*,("3"%,5,(,+(

/*57&.(!,I!&.(2,(P"%I6(=(-*,(.$)*,(!,+$,+2&(3%,1

.,+5$"(,+(5*"#-*$,%(!%"0";&(2,#(A/0$!&(2,(#".(X$,+1

5$".(G&5$"#,.9(Y"/0$E+(,+(&!%&.(A/0$!&.(5$,+!4B$5&.9

Z[( GMXW\GY]:6 (P96 ( ^?# ( !%"0";& ( 5$,+!4B$5& (2, (P"%I (= ( .*(+&5$8+(2,(5$,+5$"'9(L39(Z_`1Z[a(,+(!"#$%3%*"#$('*+4Z`(Q?W:]:b?c(S<?H6(Q%"+5$.5&9(_aad9( (!"#$%&'()%('*+',9(S"%5,#&+"U(?#(>$,;&(!&3&9

XY !!!!!!?:XW<X\eMbMG9(W,>$.!"(X%4!$5"(2,(X$,+5$".(G&5$"#,.((ff(((+gh6(ij_i6(339(Zj1kk

Page 22: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&#'()*+) &!"#$%"$,&-)&.%/01.&2#&/0#./0)&)/"3

4)2)&#.&#-&5670(%&2#&-)'&80#./0)'&9)("*)-#',&:&;"#&

#.&#'#&6%6#.(%&#.&#-&5670(%&2#&-)'&80#./0)'&<%3

/0)-#'&)=.&(0#.#&>%/)&?"#*@)A&B#/%*2#6%'&;"#&".%&

2#& -%' &>*06#*%'&/0#.(+?0/%'&'%/0)-#'& ?"#&#- &>*%>0%&

C)*DA&E.&#')&.%/01.&2#&/0#./0)&."#'(*)'&#'>#/"-)3

/0%.#'&2#7#.&'#* &/%.(*)'()2)' &2#&)-$".)& ?%*6),&

6#20).(#&-)&#D>#*0#./0)&%&-)&#D>#*06#.()/01.&%&-%&

;"#&>%2)6%'A&9%&;"0#*%&)7%.)*&.0.$=.&(0>%&2#&0.3

2"/(0F0'6%,&>%*&#-&;"#&-)&/0#./0)&'"*G)&20*#/()6#.3

(#&2#&60*)*&)-&6".2%,&:&H)/#*&/%.'(*"//0%.#'&65'&

%&6#.%'&)-$%*0(60@)7-#'A &9%,&.%&#'&#'%A &I#*%&'+&

;"# & >%.$% & J.?)'0' & #. & ;"# & ."#'(*)' & /%.G#("*)',&

(#%*+)'&#&H0>1(#'0'&(0#.#.&;"#&#'()*&/%.(*)'()2)'&

2#&)-$".)&6).#*)A&<J&;"#&#.&/)6>%'&2#&-)&/0#./0)&

6":&'%?0'(0/)2%'&#'%&.%&#' & ().&'#./0--%, &)".;"#&

>%*&%(*%&-)2%&H#6%'&'02%&/)>)/#'&2#&/*#)*&0.F#.3

(%',&)*(0-"$0%',&;"#&.%'&>#*60(#.&H)/#*&#D>#*06#.3

(%'&'%7*#&)'>#/(%'&().&20?+/0-#'&/%6%&#-&%*0$#.&2#&

-)&6)(#*0),&-%&/")-&.%&#'&/")-;"0#*&(%.(#*+)A&9%&#'&

H)7-)*&2#&K")*20%-)&:&2#&'"&?0/H)G#&>%*&#-&L):#*.&

M>%*&/0#*(%,&#-&>*#'02#.(#&2#-&L):#*.&>0#.')&;"#&-%'&

#'>)4%-#',&(%2%'&6#.%'&K")*20%-)&>*%7)7-#6#.(#,&

'%6%'&".%'&H%-$)@).#'& 0./%**#$07-#'NA&I#.'#6%'&

#.&#-&7%'1.&2#&O0$$'&>%*&#G#6>-%A&I%*&/0#*(%,&O03

$$'&#'&".&/0#.(+?0/%&*%G%&;"#&H)7*+)&;"#&(#.#*&#.&

/"#.()&:&)260*)*A&8%.%/#&6":&70#.&."#'(*)&$"#3

**),&."#'(*)&*#'0'(#./0)&2#&PQRS3PQRQ,&:&#-&>)>#-&

2#&-%'&7*0$)20'()'A

I%*&=-(06%&#'()*+)&-)&.%/01.&2#&&#''$%'"()*+,&.%3

/01.&2#&/0#./0)&320$56%'-%&6)-3&)-#6).)&M#-&)2G#3

(0F%&>%.#&".&>%/%&2#&-%'&.#*F0%'N,&;"#&'#*+)&".)&

/%./#>/01. & 65' & (%()-0@)2%*)A & <)/*0'(5. & -# & ')/1&

(%2%&#- & G"$%&)&#')&.%/01.&>%*;"#& -)&*#-)/0%.)7)&

/%.&'"&.%/01.&2#&20)-J/(0/)A&T0$)6%'&;"#&2#&)-$"3

.)&?%*6)&-)&/0#./0)&#.&#-&'#.(02%&;"#&.%'%(*%'&"')3

6%'&)H%*)&#'&#'("20)*&$#.#*)-02)2#'&%&#'>#/0#'A&

9%&H)/#6%'&/0#./0)&2#&UV%'J&<)**01.W&M>%*&#-&6%3

6#.(%N&'0.%&2#&-%'&'#*#'&H"6).%',&0$")-&;"#&H)/#3

6%'&/0#./0)&2#&-)&#/%.%6+)&$#.#*)-&:&.%&2#&-)&'03

(")/01.&#/%.160/)&2#&C%.@1.&2#-&*+%&80./)A&I#*%&)&

F#/#',&:&#'%&%/"**#&'%7*#&(%2%&#.&5670(%'&/%6%&-)&

>%-+(0/),&-%&;"#&.#/#'0()6%'&#'&')7#*&2#&/%./*#/0%3

.#',&2#&'0.$"-)*02)2#'A&

I%*&#G#6>-%,&#'&".&%7G#(0F%&6":&0.(#*#').(#&/%3

.%/#*&-)&L)*/#-%.)&;"#&'#&#'(5&/%.'(*":#.2%,&/-)3

*)6#.(#&.#%-07#*)-,&#.&-%'&0.0/0%'&2#&#'(#&'0$-%&XXYA&

I)*)&>%2#*&/%6>*#.2#*&#')&'0.$"-)*02)2&%&#')&(%3

()-02)2&/%./*#(),&'#&2#7#.&G".()*&6"/H+'06%'&/%3

.%/060#.(%'&20'(0.(%',&#.&-%'&;"#&#.(*)*5.&/"#'(0%3

.#'&?+'0/)'&M;"#&L)*/#-%.)&#'(5&G".(%&)-&6)*,&-0603

()2)&>%*&6%.()4)'N,&'"&H0'(%*0),&'"&*#-)/01.&/%.&#-&

*#'(%&2#&8)()-"4),&'"&#.(*%.;"#&#.&E'>)4),&#(/A&

E.&#'()&02#)&2#&/%6>*#.2#*&#'()'&'0.$"-)*02)2#',&

2#&/*#)*&".&/%.%/060#.(%&2#&-%&/%./*#(%,&<)/*0'(5.&

?"#&/)>)@&2#&F#*-%&70#.,&)'+&/%6%&-)&*#-)/01.&;"#&

H)7+)&#.(*#&#')'&(*#'&.%/0%.#'&2#&/0#./0)Z&).(#'&2#&

#6>#@)*&/")-;"0#*&0.F#'(0$)/01.&/*0(0/)*&-%&;"#&'#&

H)&H#/H%&'%7*#&#'(%,&H)/#*&/0#./0)&/%.&#-&0.'(*"3

6#.(%&2#&/%.(*%- &2#& -) &#D>#*0#./0),&:&#.(*#-)@)*&

#'#&(0>%&2#&/%.%/060#.(%'&>)*)&(#.#*&".)&F0'01.,&

;"#&.%&#'&#'(*0/()6#.(#&/0#.(+?0/),&'0.%&;"#,&/%6%&

<)/*0'(5. & '#4)-)7), & #' &6%6#.(% & 2# & U/*#)/01.WA&

[)6>%/%&#'&#'(*0/()6#.(#&/%6%&#-&-0(#*)(%,&#-&)*3

(0'()&%&#-&>%#()&;"#&/%.'(*":#&".&6".2%&20'(0.(%,&

;"#&0.(#.()&'#)&/%.'0'(#.(#,&'0.%&;"#&#.&#'#&=-(03

6%&6%6#.(%, & /").2% & #- & /0#.(+?0/%, & ?0-1'%?% & % & #-&

>#.')2%*&0.(#$*).&20'(0.(%'&(0>%'&2#&/%.%/060#.(%'&

.)("*)-#', & '%/0)-#', &# & 0./-"'% & )>%*()/0%.#' &2# & -)&

>*)D0'&%&2#&/0#*(%&')7#*&>%>"-)*,&/").2%&(%2%&#'%&

'#&0.(#$*)&>)*)&>%2#*&(#.#*&".)&F0'01.&/%6>-#()&2#&

".)&/0#*()&'0.$"-)*02)2,&)--+&H):&)-$%&2#&/*#)/01.,&

'#&(*)()&2#&?%*6)*&".)&06)$#.A&

\%&/*#%&;"#&2#&)-$".)&?%*6)&-)'&)>%*()/0%.#'&;"#&

J-&H0@%&/").2%&H)/+)&/*+(0/)&-0(#*)*0)&#.&-%'&/)'%'&2#&

O#0.#&:&K%#(H#&07).&>%*&)H+,&#.&#')&02#)&2#&0.(#.3

()*&60*)*&-)&%7*)&2#&".)&)*(0'()&%&".&>%#()&M#.&#-&

/)'%&2#&K%#(H#&".&>%#()&:&/0#.(+?0/%N,&2#&".)&?%*3

!" !!!!!!E98B]8YV^T^<A&B#F0'()&8*+(0/)&2#&80#./0)'&<%/0)-#'&&__&&&.`a,&bcPb,&>>A&Rc3dd

!"#$%&'(#)*+#,#$%-./%0.1)#%.%2'0'$%'/%+.%('/(.03*/%-4&./.%)'%).5%+'003#/'$%.%+#$%03'/670#$%$3/%('/'5%$3'&85'%,5./)'$%0#/#03&3'/(#$%)'%+.%&.('53.9%05'./)#%&'(.:&'(.:+'/,4.;'$%&4<%$#7$=0.)#$>

Page 23: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%$"&'(")%*"+#$%,"-)%#)'./*/-$/0#-1,&/%0#2#0'/-3

)%#,"4"(#)/#45&'*&%0+#)"-)%#5-"#!'*")"#,*/"$'6"7#

8%"95'!#:/!4/*/#;"#,%!/-$")%#,%-#)/$"&&/#/0$%#

95/#2%#)'<%#!52#*=4')%#";%*"7#>%-'#?%!@-/,;#&%#

/A4&',"#!52#B'/-#/-#&"0#/-$*/6'0$"0#95/#&/#;','!%0#

4"*"#&%0#)%,5!/-$"&/0#)'*'<')%0#4%*#C"6'/*#85-,%3

0"7

D-#/&#,"0%#)/#E"*A+#/0$"#)'0$'-,'F-#4/*!'$/#!'*"*#

,%-#!=0#4*%.5-)')")#05#%B*"#/-#/0%0#$*/0#-5)%0G#

/0/#"04/,$%#,*H$',%+#/0/#"04/,$%#)/#$*"B"I%#4*%4'"3

!/-$/#,'/-$H.',%#2#/0"#,"4",')")#4"*"#/-&"("*#,%3

-%,'!'/-$%0#/#'-$/-$"*#,%-0$*5'*#5-"#!'*")"#0%B*/#

/0" # 0'-<5&"*')")7 # D& # $/!" # )" # 4"*" #!5,;% #!=0+#

4/*%#&%#)/I%#"95H7#J%#!/#/A$'/-)%7

!"#$%&'(#() *"# *+#( *," * -() *,.)/01+-() *'2)*

3+"%.,()*,"*45/%.)$2#6*5,"'2)*,"*+#(*,"*$+)*

5'.7()*'2)*51%"/.5,()8*9%5#/.)/(*9"%#2#,":*

;+"<=*>?*/(#(/")*"-*1"#)5'."#$(*,"*9"%#2#@

,":*;+"<*"#*1%(A+#,.,5,6*5,"'2)*,"*B5C"%*

")$5,( *+#.,(*5 *&- *1(% *+#5 *5'.)$5,* -5%75 *<*

1%(A+#,5=*D#*$+*(1.#.E#6*F"#*3+&*)"#$.,(*/(#@

$.#?5*"-*1"#)5'."#$(*,"*45/%.)$2#*"#*'5$"%.5*

,"*'"$(,(-(705*,"*-5*/."#/.5G

K-$/0 #)/ #-")"+ #95'0'/*" #)/,'* #"&<% #0%B*/ #L",%+#

,52%#4/-0"!'/-$%#,%-%(,%#!/-%0#)/#&%#95/#)/B'/3

*"7#M5"-)%#&/#,%-%,H#$/-H"#5-%0#NO#"P%07#Q/#,%-%,H#

/-#&"#)'0$"-,'"+#2#!/#.5'#"4*%A'!"-)%#4%*#!%$'6%0#

4%&H$',%07#R/,5/*)%#/-#STUU+#,5"-)%#-%0#!"-'./03

$"!%0#/-#/&#SV#)/#E"2%7#MMWW#;"BH"#)/,')')%#-%#

!"-'./0$"*0/ # 2 # ,%-,/-$*"*0/ #/- #5- #,"!4'-<+ #/-#

5-"#I%*-")"3.'/0$"+#95/#;"BH"#X-%#0@#0'#0'<5/Y#/-#

M"0$/&&)/./&0+ #"& # &")%#)/#Z"*,/&%-"7 #M'/*$" #</-$/#

,*H$',"#)/#MMWW+#2%#/-$*/#/&&%0+#-%#&%#6'%#-")"#,&"3

*%7#J%0#95/*H"!%0#!"-'./0$"*#/-#&"#,'5)")7#D&#;/3

,;%#)/#95/#6'@*"!%0#"#L",%#/-#/0"#!"-'./0$",'F-#

/-# &"#95/#-%0#"$'("*%-#4%*# $%)"0#4"*$/0+#95/# &/#

6'@*"!%0#"#@&#/-#&"0#,"&&/0#)/#Z"*,/&%-"+#.5/#$%)%#

5-#/0$H!5&%7#

Q5/<%#&/#$56/#,%!%#4*%./0%*#,5"-)%#/0$5)'@#0%3

,'%&%<H"7#R/,5/*)%#95/#.5'#,%-#5-#"!'<%#)/#.'&%0%3

.H"#95/#&/#,%-%,H"#B"0$"-$/#"#05#)/04",;%#)/#D,%3

-F!',"0+#)%-)/#/0$56'!%0#;"B&"-)%#)/#&%#95/#/03

$"B" # 05,/)'/-)% # /- #K.<"-'0$=- # $*"0 # &" # '-6"0'F-7#

E=0 # $"*)/+ # /- # &%0 # 4*'!/*%0 # "P%0 # )/ # &" # */6'0$"#

!"#$%&'( )*'$%++ # ,5"-)%#0/ # */"&'("B"-#"0"!B&/"0#

"-5"&/0#)/#&%0#050,*'4$%*/0+#/-#&"0#95/#L",%#0%&H"#

'-$/*6/-'*#!52#)%,5!/-$")"!/-$/+#2%#-%#!/#4/*3

)H"#-'#5-"7#[#&5/<%+#,5"-)%#)/I@#)/#/0$5)'"*#;'0$%3

*'"#)/#&"#,'/-,'"#2#/!4/,@#!=0#/-#0/*'%#,%-#&"#%B*"#

)/ # :",*'0$=-+ # !=0 # ",")@!',"!/-$/ # 0' # 95'/*/0+#

L",%#.5/#!'#<5H"7#[%#;"BH"#0')%#&/,$%*#)/#&"#%B*"#)/#

:",*'0$=-#)/0)/#;",H"#!5,;%0#"P%0+#,%!%#$"-$%0#

%$*%0+#4/*%#.5/#0'/$/#"P%0#)/045@0#)/#05#."&&/,'3

!'/-$%#,5"-)%#/!4/,@#"#*/"&'("*#5-#/0$5)'%#!=0#

)/$"&&")%+#!=0#!/$F)',%+#4"*"#&%#95/#&&"!@#"#L",%7#

\5/#;",/#NS#"P%0+# &%#*/,5/*)%#!52#B'/-#4%*95/#

.5/#/&#"P%#95/#!5*'F#!'#4")*/7#

L",%#4"*"#!H#;"#0')%#5-#!"/0$*%+#2#5-#<*"-#"!'3

<%#X2#5-#<*"-#,%!4"P/*%3,"!"*")"Y#!/#;"#'-$/-3

$")%#/-0/P"*#!=0#)/#&%#95/#0/<5*"!/-$/#;/#0')%#

,"4"( # )/ # ,"4$"*7 # L%&H$',"!/-$/ # -% # ;/ # ,%-%,')%#

-5-,"#"#-")'/#,%-#/& #%I%#,*H$',%3,&H-',%#)/#L",%7#

]5/#;"2"#."&&/,')%#"#&%0#^T#"P%0+#$"-#4*%-$%+#-%#

!/#&%#","B%#)/#,*//*7#Q%#,%!/-$"B"#,%-#!'#,%!3

4"P/*"#;",/#4%,%7#J%#4%)/!%0#,*/@*-%0&%7#K#6/3

,/0 # 0'/-$% # &" # $/-$",'F- #)/ # &&"!"*&/ # 4%* # $/&@.%-%#

4"*"#4*/<5-$"*&/#_L",%+#)/#/0$%#95@#%4'-"0 7̀#

D-#/0$/#!%!/-$%#05#;'I%+ #D&%2+ #!/#;"#4/)')%+#

-%0#;"#4/)')%+#"#8%*)'#E'*+#"#8%*</#R'/,;!"--+#95/#

*/6'0/!%0+#95/#/0$5)'/!%0#&"#%B*"#95/#;"#)/I")%7#

D0$%2#";%*"#$*"B"I"-)%#/-#/&&%+#!'*"-)%#,%0"0+#4"3

4/&/0+# &'B*%0+#!"$/*'"&/0#95/#L",%#!/+#-%0#/-6'F#

/-#05#!%!/-$%777#

!(#(/."#,(*$+*1%(-0A./5 * -5C(%*"#* -5*,.H+-75@

/.E# * ," *I5#+"- * 45/%.)$2#6 * ")$(< * )"7+%( * ,"*

3+"*B5%2)*+#*7%5#*$%5C5J(*/(#*K5/(=*L5C-5#@

,(*,"*)+*1"#)5'."#$(6*)+*1%.#/.15-*(C%5*,"*

MN !!!!!!DJMRaMb8K?K:7#R/6'0$"#M*H$',"#)/#M'/-,'"0#:%,'"&/0##cc###-Vd+#NOSN+#447#eO3ff

!"#$%#$&'(&)*+',$-,.&'(%)(/%#0&-,%#$+(1,%#231+4()+(56%())&-&7&#(%#(8%-/+0(1)90,1+0(:(%#()&(-&$%-981&4(%)(&#9),0,0(:(

)&(0;#$%0,04(#+(0,%-/'%(%0(/+0,7)%<

Page 24: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%$&$'()*%"*&)*+,"-+,)*".*/0)*,&1.,2-*%"&*

!3#$%$4!"5*

!"#$%"&$'($)**+$,+-.$-.(/0(1+$*+%$2.%0-0.()%$3)$!+4

-50%/6(#$2)5.$/+7809($-.(/0)()$:5+(3)%$+2.5/+-0.4

()%$25.20+%&$'*$70%7.$/"/;*.$)%$7;<$0(30-+/0=.#$+%"$

-.7.$)*$%;8/"/;*.$>,.5$;($5+-0.(+*0%7.$80)($/)72)4

5+3.?&$@+<$/)7+%#$-.7.$)*$3)*$2+2)*$3)$*+$7)/6A.4

5+$)($*+$-0)(-0+#$B;)$!+-50%/6($(.$3)%+55.**C#$<$%.4

85)$)*$B;)$,+-.$D0E.$:5+(3)%$+2.5/+-0.()%&$F+74

809($+2.5/+$;(+$=0%0C($7;<$)B;0*085+3+$3)$G)<)5+4

8)(3#$;($+;/.5$+*$B;)$<.$/)(:.$7;<$2.-.$-+50H.&$

I+$A.57+$)($B;)$,+-.$*))$+$-0)(/"A0-.%$<$7)/.3C*.4

:.%$)%$7;<$0(/)5)%+(/)#$)%/6$**)(+$3)$03)+%&$

,)5.$(.$%C*.$)($)%)$*085.#$/+7809($D+<$+2.5/+-0.4

()%$072.5/+(/)%$)($/)J/.%$<$+5/"-;*.%$B;)$2;8*0-C$

)($+B;)**.%$7.7)(/.%#$B;)$/+7809($=+*)($*+$2)(+&$

!.($7;<$8;)(.%&$K/5+$-.%+$B;)$*)$25).-;2C$A;)$)*$

/)7+$3)$*+$/)5-)5+$-;*/;5+#$3)*$B;)$/)("+$;($*085.$

256-/0-+7)(/)$*0%/.$2+5+$)30/+5#$B;)$)%/+7.%$704

5+(3.$-C7.$)30/+5&$@+8*+7.%$2;)%$3)$;($2)(%+3.5$

2.*09350-.&$F+7809($)($)%.$,+-.$<$!+-50%/6($/)("+($

7;-D.%$2;(/.%$)($-.71(&

,+-.$/.-C$7;-D+%$/)-*+%&$,.35"+7.%$-0/+5$+*:;(+%$

3)$)**+%#$-.7.$%;$:5+($*085.$3)$D0%/.50+$>I+$:5+($

2)5/;58+-0C(?& $ K $ %; $ =)5/0)(/) $ 3) $ -5"/0-. $ *0/)5+50.$

B;)$7)$:;%/+5"+$3)%/+-+5&

0"6"-%$ * #7)8)9$. * %" * :)+$ * ;"7-<-%"= * >1"6*

.$87"*!"#$%$&$'()*%"*&)*+,"-+,)?*@1"%"*%)7*&)*

,!@7".,2-*%"*A1"*."*#7).&1+"*1-)*@$.,+,2-*&,B

')%)*%"*)&'C-*!$%$*)*&)*A1"*."D)&).#"*)77,8)*

%"*E)+7,.#<-?*"-*+1)-#$*)*&)*-"+".,%)%*%"*F)B

+"7*+,"-+,)?*-$*.2&$*%"*#"$7,=)7*.$87"*.1*!3B

LM$ G'NOPOQ'R $ ST'U# $ G5+(-0%-.& $ VWWV& $!" # $%&'$() # *+%#,-./*/&$S+5-)*.(+X$Y5"/0-+&

#$%$5*G$*.3*.,*."7()*+$77"+#$*F)8&)7*)A1(*%"*

1-*+,"7#$*".+"@#,+,.!$*"-*+1)-#$*)&*!3#$%$5*

H&*,-,+,$*%"*#$%&'()&*+%,-'%./01,1?*:)+$*7"@7$B

%19$*1-*'"-,)&*+F,.#"*"@,.#"!$&2',+$*%"*I,-$B

J,"J*A1"*%,+"*).(K*/.,*F)6*A1"*%"#"7!,-)7*"&*

."L$*%"*1-*+$-"9$?*"&*+,"-#(M,+$*+)=)*"&*+$-"9$*

6*&$*"L)!,-)N*"&*!"#$%2&$'$*&$*!,7)*@$7*"-+,B

!)?*.,*".*8&)-+$*%"#"7!,-)*A1"*".*+$-"9$?*6*

.,*8&)-+)?*+$-"9)45

'%)$-D0%/)$<.$-5).$B;)$5)%;7)$+$*+$2)5A)--0C($*+$

03)+$3)$,+-.&$I+$85.7+$)%$7;<$0(/)5)%+(/)#$+;(4

B;)$-.7.$/.3+%$*+%$85.7+%$)%$)J+:)5+3+&$I.$B;)$

B;0)5)$3)-05 $,+-.$<.$-5).$)%$B;)$;(.$/0)()$B;)$

7.Z+5%)$*+%$7+(.%$<$+$=)-)%$*.%$20)%&$O.$%)$2;)3)$

D+8*+5$3)$+*:.$%0($-.(.-070)(/.$3)$-+;%+& $U$ *.%$

7)/.3C*.:.%$D+($-+"3.$+$=)-)%$)($*+$/)(/+-0C($D;4

7+(+$3)$3+5$ *)--0.()%$+$*.%$-0)(/"A0-.%$%0($/)()5$

%0)725) $ :5+(3)% $ -.(.-070)(/.% $ 3) $ *+ $ 7+/)50+#$

-5)+(3.$7)/+47)/+4*)(:;+Z)%$7;<$%.A0%/0-+3.%&$'*$

:5+($@)72)*$)5+$7;<$-.(%-0)(/)$3)$*+%$*070/+-0.4

()%$3)$*.$-.(%):;03.&$[$=)-)%$%)$0(/)(/+8+($+2.54

/+-0.()% $ )20%/)7.*C:0-+% $3)%3) $ *+% $(;8)% $ =+-0+4

3+%&$O.$30:.$%0)725)#$2)5.$.-;550C&$Q0:67.%*.$)($

/9570(.%$-*6%0-.%#$-.($)*$3)-05$3)$!+-50%/6(X$D+8*+5$

3)*$%)5$%0($/)()5$03)+$3)$(0(:1($)(/)$)($2+5/0-;*+5$

.$3)$(+3+$B;)$/)(:+$B;)$=)5$-.($ *+$7+/)50+$)%$

7;<$+550)%:+3.&$

,+-.$)($3)A0(0/0=+$=0)()$+$3)-05$B;)$*+$=0%0C($3)$

0(/)(/+5 $"%0/1$.,$2"1$ )* $2)(%+70)(/.$-0)(/"A0-.#$ *.$

B;)$**+7+8+($)($/0)72.%$-*6%0-.%$<$)($*+$7+/)764

/0-+#$)*$+(6*0%0%$<$*+$%"(/)%0%#$(.$%0)725)$)%$2.%08*)&$

Y;+(3. $ ;(. $ 5)%;)*=) $ ;( $ 25.8*)7+ $ 7+/)76/0-.$

2;)3)$8;%-+5$;($79/.3.$2+5+$5)%.*=)5*.#$)%/.$5)4

-.55)$/.3.$)*$+5-.$3)*$-.(.-070)(/.$D;7+(.$D+%/+$

)*$%0:*.$\\]&$U$2.3)7.%$/)()5$79/.3.%$2+5+$5)%.*4

=)5 $ -;)%/0.()% $ -;+(3. $ *+ $ -;)%/0C( $B;) $ /5+/+7.%$

)%/6$7;<$3)*070/+3+#$7;<$+-./+3+&$Y;+(3.$)%/6$

7;<$A.57+*0E+3.#$-;+(3.$)%/6$+B;"$<$+-+8+$+B;"&&&$

2.5$)Z)72*.$)*$79/.3.$2+5+$5)%.*=)5$)-;+-0.()%$3)$

%):;(3.$.$B;0(/.$:5+3.&$U$*;):.$2.3)7.%$/+7809($

-5)+5$79/.3.%$)($;($%)(/03.$7;<$:)()5+*#$-.7.$

79/.3.%$D0%/.50.:56A0-.%#$<$/+7809($%)$2;)3)$%)5$

5+E.(+8*) $ )($)%/) $ %)(/03. $B;)$%)H+*+7.%& $,)5.#$

OP !!!!!!'OYNTY]^[Q[!&$N)=0%/+$Y5"/0-+$3)$Y0)(-0+%$!.-0+*)%$$__$$$(`a#$bcVb#$22&$Lc4dd

!"#$%&'()*+$#&,-'&'*&./0%1%&2'3'&4#5+%6&6+73+8$#1%69&'3&-3&6'321%&#*7%5:0.+$%;&,-'&6'&)-'1'&-6#5&'3&#*7-3%6&0'.#6;&<&'3&-3&6'321%&7'3'5#*;&,-'&6'&)-'1'&)*#30'#5&)'5%&3%&'6&#*7%5+0.+=#>*'?

Page 25: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'(&)*+'!,-'&,./-0-&*+&#+&'*+/(0-&,1'&2#*34

/*%&5-,-&#+&!67-3(/,-%&*'-&*'&#+!&(6#'(8+9&:!6&;*<&

)*+'!+0-&*'-&5-,-&)-'(=6*%&5-,-&!65!+<!=6*%&>*4

,-'&5-+'*7#(0-&5(*3/!'&,*/!'9&?&;*5*'&6!'&"#(,*4

3!'&!@#0!+&!&!;!+<!3%&@&0*'0*&*'*&)#+/-&0*&;('/!&

7+-'*-687(5-&+-&*'&+*7!/(;-%&)*3-&+-&>!@&#+&,.4

/-0-&"#*&)-0!,-'&)-+*3&*+&#+&)!)*6&'(+-&-='*34

;!5(-+*'&7*+*3!6*'%&!67-&(,)3*5('!'9&A-3"#*&!0*4

,1'&'*&,*<56!+&5#*'/(-+*'&5-,-&5-',-;('(8+&)3-4

)(!%&53**+5(!'&B3*6(7(-'!'&-&+-C%&53*!/(;(0!0%&'#*34

/*%&/3!0(5(-+*'&"#*&#+-&5#6/(;!%&,!*'/3-'&"#*&#+-&

>!&/*+(0-%&(+26#*+5(!'%&*/59&D(6*'&0*&5-'!'9

E'-&3*5-33*&*6&6(=3-&"#*&5-,*+/!,-'F&"#*&*+&#+&

'*+/(0-&7*+*3!6&'*&)#*0*&>!=6!3&0*&,./-0-&5-,-&

(+/3-0#55(8+&!&/!6&5-'!%&)*3-&*+&5#!+/-&)*+'!,-'&

*+&#+&,./-0-&,1'&5-+53*/-&/!6&5-'!&+-&*G('/*9&H-&

,(',-&'(&)*+'!,-'&"#*&)-0*,-'&53*!3&#+&,./-0-&

)!3!&5-+'/3#(3&#+!&+#*;!&'-5(*0!0%&*'-&+-&*'&!67-4

3(/,(<!=6*9&I/3!&5-'!&*'&"#*&(+/*+/*,-'&-3(*+/!34

+-'%&=#'5!3&*+/3*&/-0-'&5!,(+-'&!&*G)6-3!39&A!5-&

*G)6(5!&"#*&*6&,./-0-&/(*+*&;!3(-'&'(7+(2(5!0-'F&*+&

#+&'*+/(0-&!67-3$/,(5-%&"#*&'*&)#*0*&#'!3&*+&!67#4

+-'&/*,!'%&@&*+&#+&'*+/(0-&7*+*3!6%&"#*&'*&)#*0*&

)6!+/*!3&)*3-&+-&*'&!67-3(/,(<!=6*9&

!"#$%&'()*'"+*$,-&$."(*$&#/"0"$12&1"2"'+*$

-'$3)02*$#*02&$3"$4/&2(&2"$(-3/-2"56$7'$8"2)*#$

9*%&'":&#$2&()&'/&#;$9"#$/2"/"+*$3"$(*'(&1<

()='$+&$>2"'()#(*$>&2'?'+&@$A-&B$+&$&#/"$'*<

()='6$7'$2&#-%&';$C(=%*$&'/)&'+&$."(*$&#/&$

(*'(&1/*D

H-&"#*& 6*&)3*-5#)!=!&!&A!5-&*'& 6-&"#*&+-'&>!&

)3*-5#)!0-&!&/-0-'&0*'0*&>!5*&=!'/!+/*&/(*,)-F&

#+&0(;-35(-&-& (+5-,#+(5!5(8+&*+/3*&*6 &,#+0-&0*&

6!' & >#,!+(0!0*' & @ & *6 & 0* & 6!' & 5(*+5(!'9 & J3!+0*'&

5(*+/$2(5-'&-&/*5+86-7-'&"#*&*3!+&5!)!5*'&0*&>!5*3&

73!+0*'&!)-3/!5(-+*'&*+&*6&5!,)-&0*&6!'&5(*+5(!'&

)*3-&5#@-&0*'5-+-5(,(*+/-&0*6&,#+0-&0*&6!'&>#4

,!+(0!0*'&*3!&/-/!69&K!@&"#*&0*5(3&"#*&6-'&73!+4

0*'&5(*+/$2(5-'&+-&/*+$!+&*'!'&6!7#+!'9&A*+'*,-'&

*+&L#''*66% &E(+'/*(+&-&*+&;!3(-'&,1'9&A*3-&*+&6!&

,!@-3$!&0*&6-'&5!'-'&+-&'*&0!&*'!&5(35#+'/!+5(!9&M&

*+&*6&5!,)-&0*&6!'&>#,!+(0!0*'&>!@&73!+0*'&2(684

6-7-'%&>('/-3(!0-3*'&-&2(68'-2-'&"#*&*+&*6&5!,)-&0*&

6!&5(*+5(!&'*&,#*;*+&5-+&,#5>!&0(2(5#6/!09 &E'/-&

53*!&(+5-,#+(5!5(-+*'%&@&)3-;-5!&"#*&'*&>!=6*&5-+&

)-5-&5-+-5(,(*+/-&0*&5!#'!9&E'/-&*'/1&)!'!+0-&*+&

*6&1,=(/-&0*&6!&,*/-0-6-7$!&0*&6!&5(*+5(!&@&*+&*6&

0*&6!'&>#,!+(0!0*'9&N+&,!/*,1/(5-&'!=*&0*&,!4

/*,1/(5!'&@&+(&'("#(*3!%&'(&)3*5('!,-'%&0*&,!/*,14

/(5!'F&'!=*&0*&/-)-6-7$!&-&0*&/*-3$!&0*&6-'&+O,*4

3-'%&)*3-&+-&'*&,*/*&*+&7*-,*/3$!&!67*=3!(5!&-&*+&

-/3-'&5!,)-'9&E+&*6 &1,=(/-&0*& 6!'&>#,!+(0!0*'&

)!'!&!67-&)!3*5(0-9&E'-&*'/1&*+&6!&,*+/*&0*&/-4

0-'F&6!&*')*5(!6(<!5(8+&66*;!0!&!6&*G/3*,-%&!6&*')*4

5(!6(',-%&!6&'!=*3&,#5>-&0*&5!'(&+!0!&@&5!'(&+!0!&

0*6&3*'/-9

H-&"#*&A!5-&>!5*%&/-,!+0-&)(*&*+&,#5>$'(,-'&

!#/-3*'%&*'&,(3!3&6-'&(+/*+/-'&)!3!&'#)*3!3&*'*&0(4

;-35(-&-&(+5-,#+(5!5(8+&*+/3*&*6&,#+0-&5(*+/$2(5-&@&

*6&0*&6!'&>#,!+(0!0*'&@&6!&)-'(=(6(0!0&0*&53*!3&#+!&

+#*;!&5#6/#3!&*+&6!&"#*&*'!&'*)!3!5(8+&'*&)#*0!&

0('-6;*39&E'&(,)-'(=6*&"#*&#+-&'*)!&/-0-&0*&/-0-%&

)*3-&'*&)#*0*&(+/*+/!3&'!=*3&,#5>-&0*&!67-&@&!6&

,(',- & /(*,)- & /*+*3 & 5-+-5(,(*+/-' & =1'(5-' & 0*&

-/3!' & ,!/*3(!'% & (+56#@*+0- & /!+/- & >#,!+(0!0*'&

5-,-&!')*5/-'&5(*+/$2(5-'9&A!5-&*'53(=(8&'-=3*&*'-%&

*'53(=(8 &,#@ & =(*+% & >(<- & !3/$5#6-'% & '*,(+!3(-'% & @&

*'/*&6(=3-&"#*&+-'&>!&0*P!0-%&"#*&/(*+*&#+&$+0(5*&

)3-;('(-+!6&@&0*6&"#*&>!@&*'53(/-'&*6&)3(,*3&5!)$/#4

6-%&73!+&)!3/*&0*6&'*7#+0-&@&0*&6-'&0-'&3*'/!+/*'9&

E6&6(=3-&'*&5-,)-+*&*+&#+!&(+/3-0#55(8+&6!37!&@&0*&

/3*'&5!)$/#6-'9&E+&*6&)3(,*3-&!+!6(<!&5#!/3-&5!'-'F&

6!&,*0(5(+!&>()-531/(5!%&*6&!"#$#%&&0*&Q3*5>/%&'#()"*

+",-&(.%+/$/&&0*&D(6/-+%&*6&0*=!/*&R*S/-+4J-*/>*&

'-=3*&6!&/*-3$!&0*&6-'&5-6-3*'9&E+&-/3-&5!)$/#6-&>!4

=6!&0*&T(*+5(!'&U-5(!6*'%&*')*5(!6,*+/*&0*&6!&E5-4

+-,$!&@&6!&V(6-'-2$!9&M&*+&*6&!)!3/!0-&0*&5-+56#'(-4

+*'&)3*'*+/!&#+&/3!=!P-&,#@&-3(7(+!6% &5-+& (0*!'&

+!0!&/3(;(!6*'9&E+&*6&6(=3-&>!5*&)#*'&!)-3/!5(-+*'&

EF !!!!!!ERTLNTWX?Y?U9&L*;('/!&T3$/(5!&0*&T(*+5(!'&U-5(!6*'&&ZZ&&&+[\%&]^_]%&))9&`^4aa

!"#$%&'$()*#$+)*'$',$-./)/$0#,$.12'12#,$3)/)$,&3'/)/$'0$4.5#/*.#$'12/'$'0$-&14#$*.'167*#$8$'0$4'$0),$+&-)1.4)4',$8$0)$

3#,.9.0.4)4$4'$*/')/$&1)$1&'5)$*&02&/)$'1$0)$%&'$',)$,'3)/)*.:1$,'$3&'4)$4.,#05'/;

Page 26: La metodología de las ciencias sociales en

! " # $ % " & ' ( $) ( ! !" # $ "%& ' ( )*+, - (. ' /" #

!"#$%&'()(*+&'(*$*,-)($.,('/($#$*"$'(,)0+$1($2,*$

3,2,)(*4$*,-)($2+$1%*3"*%5&$1(2$!6',1,$(&$2+*$7%(&8

3%+*$9,3%+2(*4$#$,'),*$!"3/,*$,'),*$'(!+*:$;&$',8

1,*$(22,*$/+#$"&+$!%)+1+$&,<(1,*+:$=+!-%6&$(&$

(*'($+>+)'+1,$1($3,&32"*%,&(*$ %&32"#($"&+$)(?2(8

@%5&$*,-)($*%$(&$(2$*%A2,$BBC$*($>"(1($/+-2+)$1($'(8

!+*$3,&'),<()'%1,*4$3,!,$2+$("'+&+*%+4$(2$+-,)',4$

*%&$>,*(()$3,&,3%!%(&',*$3%(&'0?%3,*$1($&D32(,*$1($

2,*$'(!+*$1%*3"'%1,*:$9%$E"()(!,*$%&'()<(&%)$(&$'(8

!+*$1($-%,6'%3+$1(-(!,*$*+-()$+2A,$1($-%,2,A0+4$

>,)E"( $ *% $ &, $ (*'+!,* $/+-2+&1, $>,) $/+-2+): $ ;*,$

F+3,$ 2,$'"<,$!"#$(&$3"(&'+4$+1(!G*$1($E"($*($

?,)!5$(&$',1,$(22,:$H(#5$!"3/,*$2%-),*$1($3%(&3%+$

#$1%<"2A+3%5&$3%(&'0?%3+:$F,)$>,&()$*52,$"&$(I(!>2,4$

+1!%)+-+$!"3/,$"&$2%-),$E"($#,$'+!-%6&$+>)(3%,$

!"3/,J $!"#$%&'"#(&$)&#*&+#&(,&-"*.-$ 1($K,A()$

F(&),*(:$F(),$'+!-%6&$!"3/,*$,'),*:

7"+&1,$*($(1%'($(2$2%-),$E"($(*',#$3,!(&'+&1,$*($

>,1)G$<()$',1,$(*',:$=+!-%6&$!($A"*'+)0+$E"($*($

>"-2%3+)+& $ 2+* $ 3,&?()(&3%+* $( $ %&'()<(&3%,&(*$E"($

'%(&($*,-)($(2$'(!+$(&$,'),$<,2"!(&:$7)(,$E"($*(8

)0+&$+>,)'+3%,&(*$!"#$%&'()(*+&'(*4$E"($*,&$-"(8

&+$!"(*')+$1($2+$+3'%<%1+1$1($F+3,$(&$2,*$D2'%!,*$

+L,*4$*%&$1(I+)$1($2+1,$,')+*$?+3('+*$1($*"*$D2'%8

!,*$')+-+I,*$3,!,$*"$A)+&$(&*+#,$*,-)($.)+!*3%4$

,$*"$/.-#%$"#%$0'&-10*"*#*&(.2-3)02"4$*"$2%-),$*,8

-)($4).,5"1:$

M$',1,$(*',$'(&%(&1,$(&$3"(&'+$E"($%))"!>%5$(&$

*"$<%1+$2+$(&?()!(1+14$#$+&'(*$2+$1($N("*$F,)'+4$

*"$3,!>+L()+4$*"$(*>,*+:$F+3,$<%<%5$2,*$1,*$D2'%8

!,*$+L,*$1($*"$<%1+$!"#$1")+!(&'(:$M,$&,$3)(0$

E"($%-+$+$!,)%):$C&32"*,$(&$2,*$D2'%!,*$!,!(&',*4$

2($<%$!+24$>(),$F+3,$'"<,$(2$3,)+I($1($<(&%)$1(*1($

*"$3+*+$+2$3(&'),$1($2+$3%"1+14$(2$10+$(&$E"($3(2(8

-)+!,*$#$)(3,)1+!,*$2+$CC$K(>D-2%3+:$9($2($<(0+$

(&?()!,4$>(),$#,$&,$!($/+30+$+$2+$%1(+:$O($>+)(3($

%!>,*%-2(:$

P$>(*+)$1($',1,$(*',$2,$3"(&',$)G>%1,$#$!+24$(*$

!"3/,$2,$E"($&,*$/+$1(I+1,$(&$(*'($2%-),$E"($3,8

!(&'+!,*:

!"#$%&'($)'*+#$%&'#$,&-'-+.%-%/&

+$2,*$QRR$>),3(*+1,*$1(2$9%&1%3+',$P&1+2"S$1($=)+8

-+I+1,)(*$T9P=U$>,)$2"3/+)$>,)$(2$)(>+)',$1($2+$'%(8

))+V$#$+$P2?,&$#$+$;2(&+$1($W+22(3+*4$<03'%!+*$1($2+$

)(>)(*%5&$#$2+$!+&%>"2+3%5&:

!"#+%6#*&+#*5"7

*&1,%81#*&#%$#&1)"++0*.7

,&$&)-"-3

"+#90$

&$#&1)"#.12%-0*"*

TF,(!+$E"($9+3)%*'G&$3,&'(!>25$+)+L+1,$3,&$2+*$

"L+*$(&$(2$3+2+-,S,$XY$1($2+$Z(?+'")+$9">()%,)$1($

F,2%30+$1($[+)3(2,&+$1")+&'($(2$?)+&E"%*!,U

00 !!!!!!;N7K\7CZP]P9:$K(<%*'+$7)0'%3+$1($7%(&3%+*$9,3%+2(*$$^^$$$&_Y4$`RX`4$>>:$aR8QQ