8/12/2019 Genero 1997

1/15

Sex Roles Vo l. 36 Nos. 7/8 1997

Gender Att itudes Fem inist Ident i ty and BodyImages Among Col lege WomenT h o m a s E C a s h : J u l ie R . A n c i s a n d M e l i s s a D . S tr a c h a nOld Domin ion Univers i ty

Cu l tu ra l f o rc e s i n f l u e n c e b o d y - ima g e d e v e lo p m e n t i n g e n d e r - c o n t in g e n t wa y s,s u c h t h a t w o m e n i n o u r so c i et y p o s s e s s m o r e d y s f u n c t i o n a l b o d y - i m a g ea t t it u d e s t h a n m e n d o . H o w e ve r, f e w s t u d ie s h a v e e x a m i n e d h o w w o m e n sbod y- ima ge experiences re la te to the ir ow n gender a t t i tudes an d ideo log ies . Th isin ve s ti ga tion o f 1 2 2 c o ll eg e wo me n a sse s se d mu l t i p l e p a ra m e te r s o f b o d y ima g e( i. e. , e v a lu a tio n , i n v e s tme n t , a n d a f f e c t) a n d d i f f e re n t f a c e t s o f g e n d e r a t t i t u d e sa n d f e m i n i s t i d e n t it y d e v e l o p m e n t . R e s u l t s r e v ea l e d m i n i m a l r e l a t i o ns h i p sb e t w e e n b o d y - i m a g e a t t it u d e s a n d e i th e r f e m i n i s t i d e n ti ty o r a d h e r e n c e t otrad i t ion a l gen der be l ie fs a t ind iv idua l /s tereo typ ic or soc ie ta l leve ls . O n theo th e r h a n d , t ra d i t i o n a l g e n d e r a t t i tu d e s a t t h e l e ve l o f ma le - f e m a le so c ia li n t e ra c tio n s we re a s so c ia te d w i th s tro ng e r a n d m o re d y s fu n c t io n a l i n v e s tme n t sin c u l tu ra l a n d p e rso n a l a p p e a ra n c e s ta n d a rd s . Th e sc ie n t if i c , so c ia l, a n dc l in i c a l imp l i c a t io n s o f t h e se fi n d in g s a re d i scu sse d .

B o d y i m a g e i s a m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l s e l f- a t ti t u d e t o w a r d o n e ' s b o d y , p a rt i c u -l a rl y i ts s i z e, s h a p e , a n d a e s t h e t i c s ( C a s h P r u z i n s k y , 1 9 90 ; T h o m p s o n ,1 9 9 6 ) . B o d y i m a g e r e f e r s t o p e r s o n s ' e v a l u a t i o n s a n d a f f e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e sr e g a r d i n g t h e i r p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e s , a s w e l l a s t h e i r i n v e s t m e n t s i n a p p e a r -a n c e a s a d o m a i n f o r s e l f- e v a l u a t i o n (C a s h , 1 9 9 4a ). B o d y - i m a g e e v a l u a t i o n sa n d e m o t i o n s d e r i v e i n p a r t f r o m s e l f - p e r c e i v e d d i s c r e p a n c i e s f r o m i n t e r -n a l i z e d p h y s i c a l i d e a l s ( C a s h S z y m a n s k i , 1 9 95 ; S t r a u m a n G l e n b e r g ,1 9 94 ; S z y m a n s k i C a s h , 19 95 ). B o d y - i m a g e i n v e s t m e n t i n c l u d e s t h e e x t e n to f a t t e n t i o n a l s e l f- fo c u s o n o n e ' s a p p e a r a n c e , i ts i m p o r t a n c e o r s c h e m a t ic i t yv is -a -v is o n e ' s s e n s e o f s el f, a n d b e h a v i o r s f o r t h e m a n a g e m e n t o r e n h a n c e -1 T o w h o m c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s h o u l d b e a d d r e s s e d a t D e p a r t m e n t o f P sy c h ol o gy O l d D o m i n i o nU n i v e r s i t y N o r f o l k V A 23529-0267.

4 3 30360-0025/97/0400-0433512.50/1~ 1997 Plenum Publish ingCorporation

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

2/15

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

3/15

Gender ttitudes and B ody Image 4 5H ym es , 1985 ; Jackson e t a l . , 1988; Kl ingensp or , 1994 ; Tim ko , S t r iege l -Moore , S i lbers te in , & Rodin , 1987).Th e c o m p le x i ty o f r e l a ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n g e n d e r a t t it u d e s a n d b o d y im -age wi l l l ike ly re f lec t the mul t id imens iona l na tu re o f each cons t ruc t . Ash-m o r e a n d h i s c o ll e a g ue s h a v e a r t i c u l a t e d a n i n t e r g r o u p r e la t i o n s m o d e l i nw h ic h g e n d e r a t t i t u d e s o r i d e o lo g i e s o p e r a t e a t s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t a l b e i t i n -t e r c o n n e c t e d le v el s ( A s h m o r e , 1 99 0; A s h m o r e & D e l B o c a , 1 98 6; A s h m o r e ,D e l B oca , & Bi lde r , 1995). These leve ls pe r ta in to gend er -s te reo typ ic be -l ie fs abou t (a ) ind iv iduals , (b ) ma le - fem ale rela t ions , (c ) cu l tu ra l ly de f in edro les , and (d ) soc ie ta l is sues . Thus , e va lua t ing linkages be tw een ge nd er a t -t i tudes and body image requ i res a ssess ing the va r ious leve ls o r d imens ionso f g e n d e r a t t i t u d e s r a th e r t h a n r e g a r d in g t h e m a s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e i n d i c e so f a h o m o g e n e o u s c o n s t r u c t . F o r e x a m p le , a w o m a n m a y h o ld t r a d i t i o n a lv a lu e s a b o u t m a l e - f e m a le r el a t io n s y e t s im u l t a n eo u s ly m a in t a in e g a l i ta r i a nbe l ie f s abou t women 's soc ie ta l r igh ts .Whe the r v iewed f rom a soc iob io log ica l o r soc iocu l tu ra l pe rspec t ive ,w om en 's phys ica l aes the t ic s a re in f luen t ia l in da t ing , ma t ing , and o th e r fac -e ts o f hetero soc ia l re la t ions (e .g . , Buss , 19 87; Cash, 1990; Feing old , 1990;Jackson , 1992 ; Rose & Fr ieze , 1989 ; Smi th , Waldor f , & T remba th , 1990 ;Sprec her , 1989). Trad i t iona l v iews o f ma le - fem ale re la t ions , a s o f ten re -f lec ted in ch i ld ren ' s s to rybooks , comm erc ia l adver t i seme n ts , t e lev is ion , f ilm,a n d p o p u l a r m u s i c a n d l i t e ra tu r e , p r e s e n t w o m e n ' s p h y si c al a p p e a r a n c e a sthe g i f t wr ap to a t t rac t me n (Mirk in , 1994 , p . 85 ). There fo re , i t i s reason -a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h a t w o m e n w h o s u b s c r ib e t o t r a d it i o n a l v a lu e s r e g a r d in ghe te rosoc ia l re la t ions wou ld a l so inves ted in the i r phys ica l appea rance andin c o n f o r m i ty t o s t a n d a rd s o f f e m in in e b e a u ty .A n o th e r c o n c e p tu a l a p p r o a c h t o g e n d e r a t t i t u d e s c o n c e r n s f e m in i s ti d e n t i ty d e v e lo p m e n t . Th i s f ra m e w o r k ( Ba r g a d & H y d e , 1 9 9 1; D o w n in g &Roush , 1984) pos i t s a f ive -s tage exper ien t ia l p rogress ion tow ard fem in is tiden t i ty : (1 ) Pass ive Accep tance re fe rs to den ia l o r unawareness o f sex isma n d a n e n d o r s e m e n t a n d v a lu in g o f g e n d e r - r o l e st e r e o ty p e s . ( 2 ) Re v e l a t i o ninvo lves exper iences o f in i t ia l sens i t iza t ion to sex ism and women 's oppres -s i o n a n d t h e a s s o c ia t e d e x p e r i e n c e o f a n g e r a n d g u i lt . ( 3) Em b e d d e d n e s s -Em a n a t i o n p e r t a in s t o g r o w in g i n v o lv e m e n t a n d e m o t io n a l c o n n e c t e d n e s swi th o the r women as soc ia l suppor t , and dec reased , cau t ious soc ia l iz ingwi th men . (4 ) Syn thes is cha rac te r izes a t ranscendence o f t rad i t iona l genderr o le s , a v a lu in g o f w o m a n h o o d , a n d t h e e v a lu a ti o n o f m e n o n a n i n d iv id ua lbas i s . (5 ) Ac t ive Commitmen t en ta i l s a conso l ida t ion o f femin is t iden t i tyand s t rong devo t ion to ac t ion fo r soc iopo l i t i ca l change .D o e s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f f e m in i s t i d e n t it y f o s t e r le s s c o g n i ti v e -b e h a v -io r a l i n v e s tm e n t i n a p p e a r a n c e a n d g r e a t e r b o d y a c c e p t a n c e ? U n l ik e t r a -d i t io n a l ly i d e n ti f i e d w o m e n , f e m in i s t- i d e n ti f ie d w o m e n m a y b e m o r e a w a r e

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

4/15

4 6 ash etaL

o f t h e s u b t le a n d i n s i d io u s c u lt u r a l m e s s a g e s a b o u t f e m a l e b e a u t y a n d m o r eres i s tan t to the adverse body- image e f fec t s o f such messages . The scan ts t u d i e s o f t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n h a v e p r o d u c e d i n c o n s i s t e n t e v i d e n c e ( D i o n n e ,Dav is , Fox , & Gurev ich , 1995 ; Ke lson , K earney-C ooke , & L ansky , 1990;Mintz & Betz , 1986) .Th e pu rpose o f th i s invest iga t ion was to te s t hypo theses tha t t r ad i t ion a lg e n d e r a t t i t u d e s a n d i d e n t i t y a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ( a ) g r e a t e r b o d y - i m a g einves tmen t , inc lud ing in te rna l iza t ion o f soc ie ta l ly p resc r ibed s tanda rds fo rw o m e n ' s a p p e a r a n c e , a n d ( b ) m o r e n e g a t i v e b o d y - im a g e ev a l u a t io n s a n daf fec t . Such assoc ia t ions a re a l so hypo thes ized to be s t ronges t fo r gendera t t i tudes th a t re f lec t tr ad i t iona l exp ec ta t ions and p re fe renc es v is -a -v is he t -erosocia l re la t ions .

METHO

ParticipantsF e m a l e s t u d e n t s a t O l d D o m i n i o n U n i v e rs i ty s e r v e d a s v o l u n t e e r p a r -t i c ipan ts in exchange fo r ex t ra c red i t in va r ious c la sses . The 122 respon-

d e n t s ' m e d i a n a g e w a s 22 y e a r s ( r a n g e = 1 8 t o 35 ) , a n d 8 1 % w e r eu n m a r r i e d . T h e r a c i a l / e t h n i c d i v e r s i t y o f t h e s a m p l e c o n s i s t e d o f 6 7 %W h i t e s , 1 8 % A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s , 5 % A s i a n s o r A s i a n A m e r i c a n s , a n d 1 0 %r e p r e s e n t i n g o t h e r m i n o r it i es .

ProcedureA n i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t f o rm , a d e m o g r a p h i c d a t a s h e e t, a n d t h e s t u d y 'ss t a n d a r d i z e d a s s e ss m e n t s w e r e a s s e m b l e d i n t a k e - h o m e p a c k e t s t o b e c o m -p l e t e d a n d r e t u r n e d w i t h in a w e e k . A n s w e r i n g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s r e q u i r e da b o u t 9 0 m i n u t e s . Co d e d p a c k e t s e n s u r e d p a r t i c i p an t s ' a n o n y m i t y . Th e o r -d e r o f t h e g e n d e r - a t t i t u d e v e r s u s b o d y - i m a g e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w a s c o u n t e r -

b a l a n c e d , w i t h a f i x e d ra n d o m i z a t i o n o f m e a s u r e s w i t h in e a c h t y p e .Gender-Atti tude Measures

The Gender At t i tude Inventory GA I). As hm ore e t a l. (1995) de ve lop edt h is 1 0 9 - it e m s t r u c t u r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e o f a t t i t u d e s to w a r d t h e m u l t i p le o b -j e c t s t h a t o r g a n i z e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ' t h o u g h t s a n d f e e l i n g s a b o u t s e x a n dg e n d e r ( p . 75 3) . I t e m s w e r e p r i n c i p al l y s e l e c t e d f r o m e x t a n t g e n d e r - a t t i-tude in s t rumen ts , and a re sco red on a 1 ( s t rong ly ag ree ) to 7 ( s t rong ly

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

5/15

Gender ttitudes and Bod y Image 437d i s a g r e e ) r e s p o n s e f o r m a t . I ts a u th o r s r e c o m m e n d t h e u s e o f t h r e e e m p i r i -c a ll y d e ri v e d , s e c o n d - o r d e r f a c to r s c o re s c o n g r u e n t w i th t h e a u th o r s ' i n t e r -g r o u p r e l a t io n s m o d e l . Th e s e G A I f a c to r s ca l es t ap t h r e e l e ve ls o f g e n d e rat t i tudes: Firs t , ref lect in g an individual level of analysis , the 16-i tem Stere o-types sca le pe r ta ins to eva lua t ive be l ie fs abou t m a les and fem ales . Th e 14-i tem Sexua l Re la t ionsh ips sca le taps be l ie f s abou t women 's sexua l i ty ro les( i. e. , r eg a rd ing casu a l sex and in i t ia t ion o f sex ). T he th i rd fac to r sca le , So-c ie ta l Organ iza t ion , has 37 i tem s tha t a ssess gen der - r e la ted be l ie f s abou tcu l tu ra l ly de f ined ro les , inc lud ing fami ly ro les , work ro les , l eade rsh ip , andwomen 's f igh ts . Ashmore e t a l . ' s (1995) f ind ings suppor t the in te rna l con-s i s tency , 3 -w eek s tabi li ty , and the conv ergen t and d isc f iminan t va lid i ty o fa l l th ree sca les . Higher va lues on each re f lec t t rad i t iona l a t t i tudes .The Male-Female Relations Questionnaire MFRQ). S p e n c e , H e l m -r e i c h , a n d S a w in ( 19 8 0) d e v e lo p e d t h is s e l f - re p o r t in v e n to r y t o a s s e s sm e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s t e n d e n c y t o m o d i f y t h e i r b e h a v io r t o c o n f o r m t o s e x -r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s i n so c i al i n t e r a c t i o n s a n d s e c o n d a r i l y , t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e sa n d e x p e c t a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e o t h e r se x ( p. 4) . T h ea u th o r s ' o r i g in a l a n a ly s e s o f t h e 3 6 - i t em n o n m a r i t a l v e r s i o n f o r w o m e ns u g g e s t e d tw o s u b s c a le s , o n e r e g a r d in g c o n v e n t i o n a l S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o nw i th m e n a n d t h e o th e r r e f l e c t i n g M a le P r e f e r e n c e ( i .e . , f o r t r a d i t io n a l ,d o m in a n t m e n ) . Th e l a t t e r 4 - i te m s c a l e , h o w e v e r , h a d p o o r r e l i a b il i ty ( a l-p h a = .5 6) . Th e r e f o r e , i n th i s s tu d y a ll 3 6 i t e m s w e r e a d m in i s t e r e d , w i tha 0 t o 4 a g r e e - d i s a g r e e r e s p o n s e f o r m a t , a n d w e r e s c o r e d a s a s i n g l ec o m p o s i t e s c a l e r e f l e c ti n g w o m e n ' s p r e f e r e n c e s f o r t r a d i ti o n a l g e n d e r -r o l e r e l a t i o n s w i th m e n .The Feminist Identity Development Scale FIDS). G u i d e d b y D o w n i n gand Roush ' s (1984) mode l , Bargad and Hyde (1991) cons t ruc ted and va l i -d a t e d t h is 3 9 - it e m in d e x o f t h e f iv e h y p o th e s i z e d s t ag e s o f w o m e n ' s f e m in i s ti d e n t it y d e v e lo p m e n t . Th e F I D S u s e s a 1 t o 5 d i s a g r e e - a g r e e r e s p o n s e f o r -ma t and has mul t i - i t em subsca les fo r each s tage : Pass ive Accep tance (12i tems; a lpha = .85 ), Reve la t ion (7 i t ems ; a lpha = .75 ), Em bed ded nes s -Em ana t ion (7 it ems ; a lpha = .82 ), Syn thesis (5 it ems ; a lpha = .65 ), andA c t iv e Co m m i tm e n t ( 8 i t em s ; a l p h a = .8 0) . F o r c o n c e p tu a l a n d p s y c h o m e t -r i c r e a s o n s, Ba r g a d a n d H y d e (1 99 1) r e c o m m e n d e d c o m b in in g t h e f o u r thand f i f th subscales .

Body-Image MeasuresMultidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire MBSRQ). The 69-i t e m M B S R Q i s a s t a n d a r d i z e d , a tt i t u d in a l a s s e s s m e n t o f b o d y i m a g e( Ca s h , 1 9 9 4 c ; Ca s h e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ) , c o m p o s e d o f 1 0 r e l i a b l e a n d v a l i d

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

6/15

4 8 C a s h et a

s u b sc a le s . Re s p o n d e n t s r a t e d i s a g r e e m e n t - a g r e e m e n t w i th s t a t e m e n t s o n a1 to 5 sca le . Two MB SR Q fac to r subscales were us ed in th i s s tudy (B rown,Cash , & Miku lka , 1990) : Appearance Eva lua t ion (7 i t ems) a ssesses nega-t i v e - t o - p o s i t i v e e v a lu a t i o n s o f o n e ' s o v e r a l l a p p e a r a n c e . A p p e a r a n c e O r i -e n t a t i o n ( 1 2 i t e m s ) a s s e s s e s b o d y - i m a g e i n v e s t m e n t a n d m e a s u r e s t h ed e g r e e o f im p o r t a n c e o f a n d a t t e n t i o n p a id t o o n e ' s a p p e a r a n c e , a s w e lla s behav io ra l e f fo r t s in ma in ta in ing and improv ing appearance .Situational Inventory of Body-Image Dysphoria SIBID). T h e S I B I D(Cash , 1994b) l i s t s 48 s i tua t ions fo r wh ich re sponden ts ind ica te the i r f re -q u e n c y o f n e g a t i v e b o d y - im a g e e m o t io n s ( f r o m 0 = never to 4 = alwaysor almost a lways). Si tua t ions inc lude soc ia l and nonsoc ia l con tex ts invo lv ing ,fo r exam ple , phys ica l se lf - focus , soc ia l compar isons , exe rc i se , g rooming , ea t -ing , sexua l in t imacy , a s we l l a s appea rance a l te ra t ions (e .g . , changes inwe igh t o r ha i r s ty le ) . The S IBID i s an in te rna l ly cons is ten t (Cronbach ' s a l -pha > .90 ), s tab le (1 -m onth r = .86 ), and con s t ruc t va l id index o f nega t ivebody - image a f fe c t (Cash , 1994b).Appearance Schemas Inventory ASI). Th e A S I ( Ca s h & La b a r g e , 1 9 9 6)a s se s se s a s s u m p t io n s r e g a r d in g t h e s a l ie n c e a n d m e a n in g o f o n e ' s p h y s ic a lappearance in one ' s l i fe . I t s 14 s ta temen ts a re ra ted on a 1 to 5 d isag ree -a g r e e s c a l e ( e . g. , "Th e o n ly w a y I c o u ld e v e r l ik e m y lo o ks w o u ld b e t oc h a n g e w h a t l o o k li k e "; "To b e f e m in in e , a w o m a n m u s t b e a s p r e t t y a sposs ib le") . In te rna l ly cons is ten t AS I sco res (a lpha = .84 ) have been fo undto p red ic t dys func t iona l body- im age exper iences (Cash & Lab arge , 1996 ;Labarge , Cash , & Brown, in p ress ) .The Sociocultural Attitude s To wards Appearance Questionnaire SA-TAQ). This 14 - i tem inven to ry (He inb erg , Thom pson , & S to rm er , 1995) a s -s e s s e s w o m e n ' s r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c e p t a n c e o f s o c i e t a l l y p r e s c r i b e ds t a n d a r d s o f p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e . I t s c o n s i s t s o f tw o f a c to r s u b s c a l e s - -A w a r e n e s s (e . g. , "P e o p l e t h in k t h a t t h e t h in n e r y o u a r e t h e b e t t e r y o u l o o kin c lo th e s " ) a n d I n t e r n a li z a t io n ( e .g ., " I t e n d t o c o m p a r e m y b o d y t o p e o p l ein m a g a z in e s a n d o n TV ") . S t a t e m e n t s a r e r a t e d o n a 1 t o 5 , d i s a g r e e - a g r e efo rm at . Th e two subsca les a re re l iab le (a lphas = .71 and .88 , re spec t ive ly )a n d c o n v e r g e s a ti s fa c to r il y w i th o th e r m e a s u r e s o f b o d y im a g e a n d e a t i n gd is tu rbance (He inberg e t a l . , 1995) .

R E S U L T STab le I p rov ides means , s ta ndar d dev ia t ions , va lue ranges , an d C ron-b a c h ' s a l p h a s f o r e a c h o f t h e s t u d y 's g e n d e r - a t t i t u d e a n d b o d y - im a g e m e a s -u r e s . Th e s e d a t a a r e s im i l a r to t h o s e r e p o r t e d i n p r e v io u s v a l id a t i o n s t u d ie swi th co l lege s tuden ts . Al l in te rna l cons is tenc ies were sa t i s fac to ry . The fac t

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

7/15

G e n d e r A t t i t u d e s a n d B o d y I m a g eTable I . Me a n s , S t a n d a rd D e v ia t io n s , a n d R e l i a b i li t i es o f t h e M e a s u re s o fG e n d e r A t t i t ud e s a n d B o d y I m a g e

4 9

C ro n b a c h ' sMe a s u re s M S ( R a n g e ) A l p h aG e n d e r A t t i t u d e sG A I S te reo typ es 3 .31 0 .98G A I Sexua l Re la t ionsh ips 2 .43 0 .94G A I Soc ie ta l Orga n iza t ion 2 .32 0 .79M F R Q Ma le -F e ma le R e la t io n s 1 .6 1 0 .3 9FI DS Pass ive Acce p tance 2 .31 0 .56F ID S R e v e la t io n 3 .1 8 0 .6 5F ID S E mb e d d e d n e s s -E m a n a t io n 2 .7 5 0 .7 4

F ID S S y n th e si s /A c tiv e C o m mi tm e n t 3 .5 2 0 .4 9B o d y Ima g e sM B S R Q A p p e a ra n c e E v a lu a t io n 3 .3 4 0 .8 5M B S R Q A p p e a ra n c e O r ie n ta t io n 3 .6 3 0 .6 7S IB ID B o d y - Ima g e D y s p h o r i a 1 .5 6 0 .8 4A S I A p p e a ra n c e A s s u mp t io n s 2 .6 5 0 .6 2SATA Q Aw areness 3 .62 0 .63SATAQ In te rna l iza t io n 2 .95 0 .89

(1.0-5.8) .87(1.0--4.9) .88(1.0-5.0) .93(0.7-2.4) .83(1.0-3.6) .75(1.4--3.6) .65(1.1-4.9) .83(2.1-5.0) .73(1.1-5.0) .90(1.9-5.0) .88(0.2-3.6) .98(1.2-4.6) .84(1.8-5.0) .65(1.0-5.0) .86

T h e G A I a n d M F R Q g e n d e r - a t t i t u d e s c a l e s a r e s c o r e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o ft rad i t iona l a t t i tudes . The FIDS sca les a re scored in d irec t ions conveyed by thesca le names .

t h a t l o w r e li a b il it ie s w e r e f o u n d f o r t h e o r ig i na l s u b s c a l e s o f M F R Q M a l ePre f e r enc e ( a lpha = .29 ) and F ID S Syn thes is ( a lpha = .52 ) sup por t s t hedec i s ion no t t o exam ine these b r i e f subsca l es i ndiv idua lly . Ana lyses o f va r i -a n c e ( A N O V A s ) i n d i c a t e d t h a t m e a s u r e s w e r e u n a f f e c t e d b y q u e s t i o n n a i r eo rde r .

Tab le I I p r esen t s t he Pea r son co r r e l a t ions r e f l ec t ing the r e l a t ionsh ipsb e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s as p e c t s o f g e n d e r a t t i t u d e s a n d p a r t ic i p a n t s b o d y - i m -a g e e xp e r i en c e s . T h e G A I a n d M F R Q g e n d e r - a t t i tu d e s c a l e s a r e s c o r e d inthe d i r ec t ion o f t r ad i t i ona l a t t i t udes . The F IDS sca l es a r e sco red in d i r ec -t i ons con veye d by the sca l e names . Resu l t s r evea l 10 s ign i fi can t r s , bu t on lyf ive a t t a ined s ign i f i cance a t t he more appropr i a t e ly conse rva t ive a lpha l eve lo f . 0 1 . A m o n g t h e h i g h e r - o r d e r g e n d e r a t t i t u d e s o n t h e G A I ( i . e . , S t e r e o -types , Sexua l Re la t ionsh ips , and S oc ie t a l Organ iza t ion ) , two we re r e l a t edt o o n e s p e c i f ic f a c e t o f b o d y i m a g e a t a p - l e v e l < . 0 1. A s t r o n g e r a d h e r e n c et o s t e r e o t y p ic a l v ie w s o f m e n a n d w o m e n a s i n d iv i du a l s a n d t o t r a d i ti o n a lv i e w s o f w o m e n s s e x u a li ty w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o r e d y s f u n c t io n a l a s -s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f o n e s p h y s ic a l a p p e a r a n c e ( o n t h e A S I ) .Be l i e f s a t t he Soc ie t a l Organ iza t ion l eve l o f gen der a t t i t udes o n the G AI ,however , were uncor r e l a t ed wi th body image . Tab le I I a l so ind ica t es t ha tl it tl e r e l a ti o n w a s e v i d e n t b e t w e e n w o m e n s b o d y i m a g e s a n d t h e i r e n d o r s e -m e n t s o f b e l i e f s a t a n y o f t h e s t a g e s o f f e m i n i s t i d e n t i t y d e v e l o p m e n t o n

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

8/15

440 Cash e t a lTable H. Correlations Between Measures of Gender Attitudes and Body Image

Body-Image MeasuresGender-Attitude MBSRQ MBSRQMeasures AE AO SIBID ASI SATAQ-A SATAQ-I

GAI MeasuresStereotypes -.12 .02 .09 .25c .01 .01Sexual Relationships -.04 .12 .04 .25c -.06 .19bSocietal Organization .11 .01 -.12 .10 -.04 .06MFRQ MeasureMale-Female Relations -.19b .26c .20b .50c .18/' .40cFIDS MeasuresPassive Acceptance -.06 .09 -.07 .18b .16 .07Revelation -.08 .19b .17 .16 .00 -.06Embeddedness-Emanation .08 .14 .03 .12 -.11 .07Synthesis/Active Commitment .14 .09 -.02 .01 .05 -.13aAE = Appearance Evaluation; AO = Appearance Orientation; SIBID = SituationalInventory of Body-Image Dysphoria; ASI = Appearance Schemas Inventory; SATAQ-A =Awareness scale; SATAQ-I = Internalization scale.b p < .05.Cp < .01.

the FIDS. An alternative method of examining possible relationships be-tween dimensions of feminist identity and body image entails a typologicalanalysis (Rickard, 1989). Accordingly, on the basis of median splits of Pas-sive Acceptance (PA) and Synthesis/Active Commitment (SAC) scores,women were classified into these two, most disparate stage groups (i.e.,above median on one scale and below median on the other). This proce-dure permitt ed the distinctive classification of 61% of the sample. Betwee n-groups ANOVAs comp ared PA- ident i fi ed women (n = 35) andSAC-identified women (n = 40) on the six body-image measures. Resultsindicated no reliable differences in body image as a function of traditionalversus feminist identity (all ps > .20).

As predicted and shown in Table II, a stronger and more consistentpattern of results occurred with the Male-Female Relations Questionnaire,which assessed participants' role expectations regarding social relations be-tween men and women. Women's preference for and accommodation ofconventional, complementary roles of masculine dominan ce and femi-nine submission was associa ted (at p < .01) with several aspects of bodyimage. Women who maintained more traditional attitudes about male-fe-male relations had greater cognitive-behavioral investment in their appear-ance (MBSRQ Appearance Orientation; r = .26), had internalized societalstandards of beauty more fully (SATAQ-Internalization; r = .40), and en-dorsed more problematic assumptions about the pivotal importance and

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

9/15

Gender ttitudes and Body Image 44in f lue nce o f the i r app ea ra nce in the i r lives (ASI ; r = .50 ). Th e co r re la t ionsb e t w e e n M F R Q a n d e v a l ua t iv e /a f fe c ti v e b o d y i m a g e w e r e m o r e m o d e s t(ps < .05 ). Trad i t iona l a t t itudes were a ssoc ia ted wi th som ew ha t le ss pos i -t ive , more dysphor ic body- image exper iences .F i n a l l y , s t e p w i s e r e g r e s s i o n s w e r e c o n d u c t e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e rg e n d e r - a t t i t u d e a n d f e m i n i s t- i d e nt i ty va r ia b l es w o u l d i n c r e m e n t a l l y p r e d i c te a c h b o d y - i m a g e m e a s u r e . W i t h a n F - t o - e n t e r p - l e v e l s e t a t . 0 1 , o n l y t h ea t t i t u d e s a b o u t m a l e - f e m a l e r e l a ti o n s ( o n t h e M F RQ s c a le ) e n t e r e d t o p r e -d i c t M BS RQ A p p e a r a n c e O r i e n t a t i o n , A S I , a n d S A TA Q I n t e r n a l i z a t i o nscores .

D I S C U S S I O NThe a im o f th i s inves t iga t ion was to d i sce rn the re la t ionsh ips be tweenc o l l e g e w o m e n ' s g e n d e r a t t i tu d e s a n d t h e i r b o d y - i m a g e a tt i tu d e s . O u r e m -p i r ica l ev iden ce d id not s u p p o r t t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a f e m i -n i st i d e n t i t y p e r s e o r t h e e n d o r s e m e n t o f a n e g a l it a r ia n s o c i e ta l i d e o l o g ywo uld en ta i l mo re favorab le body- image eva lua tions and le ss in te rna l iza t ion

of appea rance -based c r i t e r ia fo r se l f -eva lua t ion . Ne i the r was an iden t i ty in -vo lv ing pass ive accep tance o f t r ad i t iona l gen der ro le s re la ted to bo dy imag ea t the .01 s ign i f icance leve l . Ra the r , r e su l t s d id conf i rm tha t women wi thc o n v e n t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d p r e f e r e n c e s a b o u t g e n d e r r o l e s i n male female social relations w e r e m o r e i n v e s t e d i n t h e i r l o o k s a n d , t o a g r e a t e rex ten t , had in te rna l ized soc ie ta l s tandards fo r and ma ladap t ive a ssumpt ionsa b o u t t h e i r p h y s i c al a p p e a r a n c e .Th e l a c k o f a n o b s e r v e d e m p i r i c a l r e la t i o n sh i p b e t w e e n b o d y d i s sa ti s-f a c t io n a n d f e m i n i s t a t ti t u d e s c o n c u r s w i t h c e r t a in c o n c l u s io n s o f D i o n n ee t a l . (1995) . Af te r con t ro l l ing fo r ex t raneous va r iab les (e .g . , age , we igh t ,e t c .) , t h e r e w a s n o r e l a ti o n s h ip b e t w e e n b o d y i m a g e a n d f e m i n i s t id e o l o g yi n g e n e r a l . H o w e v e r , g r e a t e r b o d y s a t i s f a c t i o n w a s f o u n d a m o n g w o m e nw h o r e j e c t e d specific b e li e fs r e g a r d in g t h e n e c e ss i ty o r i m p o r t a n c e o fwo m en 's a t t rac t iveness to men (p . 278) . St il l, i t shou ld be no te d tha t themagn i tude o f th i s a ssoc ia t ion was qu i te sma l l .S u b s e q u e n t t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f o u r r e s e a r c h , t w o a d d i t i o n a l pu b l is h -e d s t u d ie s h a v e p r o v i d e d s o m e e v i d e n c e o f a r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n f e m i n i s ti d e n t i ty a n d b o d y i m a g e . S n y d e r a n d H a s b r o u c k ( 19 96 ), w h o a l s o u s e d t h eFID S to a ssess d imens ions o f femin is t iden t i ty , foun d tha t bod y sa t i sfac t ionw a s n e g a t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h P a s s i v e A c c e p t a n c e ( o f t r a d i t i o n a l g e n d e rv a l u es ) a n d p o s it iv e ly r e l a te d t o A c t i v e Co m m i t m e n t ( t o f e m i n i s m ) . H o w -ever , mo s t o f the la t te r mode s t co r re la t ions were un re l iab le (ps < .10 ). Ina r e c e n t s u r v e y o f Psychology To day m a g a z i n e r e a d e r s , G a r n e r ( 1 9 9 7) s t a t e d

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

10/15

4 4 C a s h a a /

t h a t t h e r e w a s o v e r a l l a p p e a r a n c e d i s c o n t e n t a m o n g 3 2 p e r c e n t o f s e l f -p r o -c l a i m e d f e m i n i s ts , c o m p a r e d w i t h 4 9 p e r c e n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l w o m e n .F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a n a ly s e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o e l u c i d a t e th i s i n t e r e s t in gfinding.D o a t t i t u d e s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t h e t e r o s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h a v e a n yb e a r i n g o n w o m e n ' s b o d y i m a g e s ? O u r r e s u l t s s u g g e s t , a s h y p o t h e s i z e d ,t h a t w o m e n w h o e s p o u s e f e m i n i n e r o l e e n a c t m e n t i n t h e i r s o c i a l i n t e r a c -t i o n s w i t h m e n s i m il a rl y e m p h a s i z e c o n f o r m i t y to p e r s o n a l a n d s o c i e ta ls t a n d a r d s o f f e m i n i n e b e a u t y . A s A s h m o r e ( 19 90 ) a r g u e s , p h y s i c a l/ m a t e -r ia l a t t r ibu tes a re imp or tan t face t s o f se l f -p resen ta t ion tha t a re a co re pa r to f g e n d e r i d e n ti ty a n d g e n d e r - ro l e e n ac t m e n t . W o m e n w h o v a l u e f e m i -n i n e b e h a v i o r a l s e l f- p r e s e nt a t io n s in t h e i r in t e r a c ti o n s w i t h m e n , w h o mt h e y a l so p r e f e r t o a d o p t m a s c u l i n e i n t e r p e rs o n a l r o l e b e h a v io r s , h o l ds i m il a rl y t r a d it i o n a l a p p e a r a n c e e x p e c ta t io n s . M a n y g e n d e r - a t t i t u d e i t e m so f t h e M a l e - F e m a l e R e l a t i o n s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e e m p h a s i z e b e i n g f e m i n i n ew i t h / f o r m e n , al t h o u g h n o i t e m m e n t i o n s p h y si c al a p p e a r a n c e . I n d e e d , t h ep e r s o n a l c o n s t r u c t o f f e m i n i n i t y o f t e n r e fe r s to a p p e a r a n c e - - t h a t i s, b e i n gf e m i n i n e m e a n s l o o k in g f e m i n i n e ( Br o w n m i ll e r, 1 9 8 4 ; D e a u x & Le w is ,1984 ; Sp en ce & Sawin , 1985). F ur the rm ore , the soc ia l cons t ruc t o f femi-n in i ty i s pa r t ia l ly t i ed to pe rce ived beau ty , a s ev inced by the wh a t i s beau -t i fu l i s sex - typed s te reo ty pe (Cash , 1990 ; Cash & D unca n , 1 984 ; Gi l len ,1981).W o m e n w h o i n t e rn a l i ze m o r e e x t r e m e i d e a ls o f a t t r a c ti v e n e s s a ss u m e ,a l b e it t o a d i s t o r t e d d e g r e e , t h a t t h e s e a r e t h e s a m e p h y s i ca l s t a n d a r d s b ywhich me n judg e wo m en (A. Fa l lon & Roz in , 1985 ; Jacob i & Cash , 1994 ;Ro z in & A . Fa l lon , 1988; Szymansk i & Cash , 1995). M oreo ver , co l legew o m e n s ' p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t t h e i r p h y s i c a l a t t r i b u t e s a r e d i s c r e p a n t f r o mm e n ' s f e m a l e b e a u t y i d e al s a r e p o s it iv e ly r e l a t e d t o e a t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e ( S zy -man sk i & Cash , 1995) . Thus , a wo ma n 's t r ad i t iona l a t t i tudes abo u t m a le -fem ale re la t ions m ay impl ic i t ly requ i re tha t she possess an d d i sp lay thephys ica l and behav io ra l cha rac te r i s t i c s tha t she be l ieves me n f ind a t t rac t ive .A t t h e s a m e t i m e , s h e m a y o r m a y n o t i d e n t if y w i t h f e m i n i s t o r e g a l i t a r i a na t t i t u d e s r e g a r d i n g s e x i s m , w o m e n ' s e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s , a n do t h e r s o c i e t al g e n d e r is su es . O u r d a t a i n d i c at e t h a t s u c h h i g h e r - o r d e r g e n -d e r a t t it u d e s d o n o t n e c e s s a ri l y h a v e a p r o t e c t i v e r o l e w i t h r e s p e c t t ocogn i t ive -behav io ra l inves tmen t in appea rance o r in te rna l iza t ion o f cu l tu ra lb e a u t y s ta n d a r d s . M e s s a g e s a b o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f w o m e n ' s a p p e a r a n c e ,b o t h i n g e n e r a l a n d i n d e v e l o p i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p sw i t h m e n , m a y b e s o i n g r a i n e d a n d s o c ia l ly r e i n f o r c e d t h a t t h e a c q u is i ti o nof femin is t ideo logy has l i t t l e impac t on these co re be l ie f s . In e f fec t , thesev i ew s m a y b e e x p e r i e n c e d b y m a n y w o m e n a s s e p a r a t e i s s u es .

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

11/15

Gender ttitudes and Body Image 443Severa l l imi t s to t he genera l i ty o f th i s inves tiga t ion ' s conc lus ions and

d i rec t ions fo r fu r the r inqu i ry a re no tewor thy . Pa r t ic ipan ts were re la t ive lyy o u n g c o l le g e w o m e n , m o s t o f w h o m w e r e s i ng le , Ca u c as i an , a n d p r e s u m -a b ly h e te r o s e x u a l . F u tu r e r e s e a r c h s h o u ld e x a m in e m o r e d iv e rs e s a m p le s - -l e ss e d u c a t e d w o m e n , w o r k in g w o m e n , m e n , m a r r i e d i n d ivid ua l s, v a r io u sr a c i a l /e t h n i c gr o u p s, a n d g a y a n d l e s b ia n p e r s o ns . Th e a s s e s s m e n t o f p a r -t ic ipan ts ' pa t te rns o f ea t ing behav io r fe l l beyond the scope o f th i s s tudy .G iv e n t h e c l e a r a s s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n b o d y - im a g e a n d e a t i n g d i s t u r b a n c e s(Cash & Dea g le , in p ress ; Tho m pson , 1996), re sea rche rs shou ld examin ere la t ionsh ips o f spec if ic gen der a t t i tudes to dys func t iona l ea t ing behav io rs .M o s t r e s e a r c h t o d a t e o n m a s c u l i n e / fe m in in e s e l f- c o n c e p t a n d e a t i n g d i s-tu rba nce has p rod uce d conf l ic ting f ind ings (e .g. , Kl ingenspor , 1994 ; Sn yde r& Hasb rouck , 1996 ; Tim ko e t a l ., 1987).

S o c i a l d e m a n d s f o r w o m e n ' s a t t r a c t i v e n e s s a n d r e s u l t a n t i n v e s tm e n t sin a p p e a r a n c e m a y f u r t h e r s e r v e to p o s i t io n w o m e n a n d t h e i r l o o ks a s s o -c ia l -compar ison s tandards fo r se l f -eva lua t ion . Upward soc ia l compar isonscan lea d to neg a t ive body- imag e exper ienc es (Cash , Cash , & But te r s , 1983 ;Ga rner , 1997 ; He inbe rg & Tho mp son , 1992 , 1995 ; I rving , 1990) . Trad i t iona la t t i tu d e s a b o u t h e t e r o s o c i al re l a t io n s m a y f o s te r a e s th e t i c c o m p e t i t i o na m o n g w o m e n , w h e r e b y a t t r ac t iv e w o m e n r e p r e s e n t s e l f -e v a lu a t iv e t h r e a t s.A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i s r e q u i r e d t o d e t e r m in e h o w b o d y - im a g e a n d g e n d e ra t t i t u d e s i n f l u e n c e so c ia l re l a ti o n s a m o n g w o m e n ( Ca s h , Ro y , & S t r a c h a n ,1997).

U n d e r s t a n d in g t h e c a u se s , c o r r e l a te s , a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n e g a t iv ebod y im age i s a sc ien t i f ic endea vor o f soc ia l and c l inica l s ign i ficance . Body-im a g e p r o b l e m s a r e i n c r e a sin g ly p r e v a l e n t a m o n g A m e r i c a n w o m e n ( Ca s h& H enry , 1995 ; Ga rne r , 1997) . Ef fec t ive in te rven t ions to p reven t and am e-l io ra te body- image d i f f icu l t ie s a re c ruc ia l . In th i s rega rd , cogn i t ive -behav-i o r a l p r o g r a m s o f t r e a t m e n t a n d o f s e lf - h e l p h a v e s h o w n s u b s t a n t i a lp rom ise (Cash , 1995 , 1996 , 1997 ; Cash & Gran t , 1996; Gran t & Cash , 1995 ;Th o m p s o n , 1 99 6) . Th e p r e s e n t r e s u l ts s u g g e s t t h a t s u c h p r o g r a m s m a y a l soneed to address pa r t ic ipan ts ' v iews o f the ro le o f phys ica l appea rance inr e la t io n s b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d m e n .

R E F E R E N C E SAshmore , R. D. (1990) . Sex , gender , and the ind iv idua l . In L A. Perv in (Ed . ) , Handbook ofpersonality: Theo ry an d research. New York : Gui l fo rd Press .Ash mo re , R. D. , De[ Boca , E K. (Eds . ) (1986) . The socialpsychology o f male female relations:A critical analysis o f central concepts. New York : Academic Press .

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

12/15

C a s h e t a l

Ashm ore, R. D . , Del Boca, E IC, & Bi lder , S . M. (1995) . Const ruct ion and val idat ion of theGen d er At t i t u d e In v en t o ry , a s t ru c t u red i n v en to ry t o as sess m u l t i p le d im en s io n s o f g en d erat t i tudes . Sex Roles, 32, 753-785.Bargad, A . , & Hyde, J . S . (1991). W om en 's s tud ies: A s tudy of femin is t iden t i ty deve lopm entin wo m en . Psychology o f Wo men Quarterly, 15, 181-201.Berscheid , E . W alster, E . , & B ohrnsted t , G. (1973 , Novem ber) . Th e happy Am eric an body:A survey repor t . Psychology Today, 7, 119-131.Brown, T A. , Cash , T E, & M ikulka, P. J . (1990). At t i tud ina l body- image assessment : Factoranalysis o f the Body-Sel f Relat ions Quest ionnai re . Journal o f Personality Assessmen~ 55,135-144.Brownmiller, S. (1984). Femininity. New York : Bal lan t ine Books.Bu ss , D . M . (1 9 8 7 ) . S ex d i f f e r en ces i n h u m an m at e se l ec t i o n c r i t e r i a : An ev o lu t i o n aryperspective. In C. Crawford, M. Smith, & D. Krebs (Eds.), Sociobiology and psychology:Ideas, issues, and applications. Hil lsdale , NJ: Er lbaum.Cash, T E (1990). Th e psychology of physical app eara nce : Aesthetics, a ttribute s, and imag es.In T E Cash & T Pruzinsky (Eds.) , Body images: Development, deviance, and change.New York : Gui l fo rd Press .Cash, T E (1994a). Body-image att i tude s: Evalua tion, inves tme nt, an d affect. Perceptual andMotor Skills, 78, 1168-1170.C a s h , T . E ( 1 9 9 4 b ). T h e S i t u a t i o n a l I n v e n t o r y o f B o d y - I m a g e D y s p h o r i a : C o n t e x t u a lassessment o f a negat ive body image. The Behavior Therapis~ 17, 133-134.Cash, T E (1994c). Users manua l for the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire.Old D om inion Univers ity , Norfo lk , VA.Cash, T E (1995). What do yo u see when yo u look in the mirror?: Helping yourself to a positivebody image. New Yo rk : Ban t am Bo o k s .Cash, I :E (1 9 96 ). Th e t r ea tm en t o f b o d y im ag e d i s t urb an ces . I n J . K . Th o m p so n (Ed . ) , Bodyimage, eating disorders, and obesity: A practical guide fo r assessment and treatment.Washington , DC : A me rican Psycholog ical Associat ion .Cash, E E (1997). The Body Image Workbook. Oak l an d , CA: New Harb in g er P u b l i ca t i o n s.Cash , T E, & Brown, T A. (1989) . Gender and body images: S tereo types and real i t ies . SexRoles, 21, 361-373.Cash , T E , Cash , D. W., & But ters , J . W. (1983) . Mirror , mirror , on the w a l l . . .? Con trasteffects an d se lf-evalu ations of physical attractiveness. Personality and Social PsychologyBulletin, 9, 351-358.Cash , T E, & Deag le, E . ( in p ress). T he n atur e and ex ten t o f body- image d is tu rbances inanorex ia nervosa and bu l imia nervosa: A meta-analysis . International Journal of EatingDisorders.Cash , T . E , & Du n can , N . C . (1 9 8 4 ) . P h y s i ca l a t t r ac t i v en ess s t e r eo ty p in g am o n g B lackAmerican co l lege s tudents . Journal o f Social Psychology, 122 , 71-77.C a s h , T E , & G r a n t , J . R . ( 1 9 9 6 ). T h e c o g n i t iv e - b e h a v i o r a l t r e a t m e n t o f b o d y - im a g edis tu rbances . In V. Van Hassel t & M. H ersen (Eds.) , Sourcebook o f psychological treatmentmanuals fo r adult disorders. New York : P lenum.Cash , T E, & He nry , E E. (1995). W om en 's body images: The resu l t s o f a na t iona l survey in

th e U.S .A. Sex Roles, 33, t9 -28 .Cash , T E, & H icks, K . L. (1990) . Being fat versus th ink ing fat : Relat ionsh ips wi th bodyimage, eating behaviors, and well-being. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 327-341.Cash , T E, & Jacobi , L . (1992). Looks a ren ' t every th ing ( to everybody) : The s t re ng th of idealsof physical ap pearance . Journal o f Social Behavior and Personality, 7, 621-630.Cash, T E , & Lab arg e , A . S . ( 19 9 6) . Dev e lo p m en t o f th e A p p earan ce S ch em as In v en to ry : Anew cogni t ive body- image assessment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 37-50.Cash, T E, & Pruzinsky, T (Eds.) (1990). Body images: Development, deviance, and change.New York : Gui l fo rd Press .Cash , T E, Roy , R. E. , & St rachan , M. D. (1997 , May) . How physical appearance affectsrelations among women: Implications fo r wo men's body images. P o s t e r ses s i o n p resen t edat the ann ual conv ent ion of the Am erica n Psychological Society , Washing ton , DC.

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

13/15

G e n d e r A t t i t u d e s a n d B o d y I m a g e 5Cash , T E, Szymanski , M. L (1995) . The deve lopm ent and val idat ion of the Body-Ima geId ea l s Qu es t i o n n a i r e . Journal of Personality Assessment 64 466-477.Cash , T E, W instead , B. A. , Janda , L . H. (1986 , Apr i l ) . The great Am erica n shape-up :Body image survey repor t . Psychology Today 20 30-37.De aux , K. , Lewis , L . L . (1984) . S t ructure o f gende r s tereotypes: In ter rela t ionsh ips am ongco m p o n en t s an d g en d er l ab e l. Journa l of P ersonality an d S ocial Psychology 46 991-1004.Di onn e, M., Davis, C., Fox, J . , Gurev ich , M. (1995) . Fem in is t ideo logy as a p red icto r o fbody dissatisfaction in wo m en. Sex Roles 33 277-287.Dow ning , N. , Roush , K. (1984) . From passive accep tance to active com mitm ent : A mod elo f f emin i s t id en t i ty d ev e lo p men t fo r wo m en . T h e Coun seling Psychologist 13 695-709.Fallo n, P., Ka tzm an, M. A., Wooley, S. C. (Eds.). (1994). Fem inist perspectives on eatin gdisorders . New York : Gui l fo rd Press.Fal lon , A. E . , Rozin , E (1985). Sex d i f ferences in percep t ions o f body shape. Journal ofAbnormal Psycholo~ 94 102-105.Feingold , A. (1990) . Gender d i f ferences in ef fects o f physical a t t ract iveness on romant icat t ract ion : Com par ison across f ive research dom ains . Journal o f Personality and SocialPsychology 59 981-993.Fisher, S. (1986). Development and structure o f the bod y image. Hi l lsd a l e, NJ: E d b au m.Franzoi , S . L . (1995). T he body-as-ob ject versus the body-as-process: G en der d i f ferences a ndg en d e r co n s i d e ra t i o n s. Sex Roles 33 417-437.Franzoi , S . L . , Kessenich, J . J ., Sugrue, P . A. (1989) . Gend er d i fferences in the exp er ienceof bo dy awareness: A n exper ien t ial samp l ing s tudy . Sex Ro/es, 2 / , 499-515 .Garner , D. M. (1997 , January) . The 1997 body image survey resu l t s . Psychology Today 3030-44, 75-80, 84.Gi lber t , S . , Th om pson , J . K. (1996) . Fem in is t exp lanat ions o f the developm ent o f eat ingd i s o r d e rs : C o m m o n t h e m e s , r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s , a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l is s u e s. ClinicalPsychology: Science an d Practice 3 183-202.Gi l l en , H . B . (1 9 8 1 ) . P h y s i ca l a t t r ac t i v en ess : A d e t e rmin an t o f two t y p es o f g o o d n ess .Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 7 277-281.G ra nt, J. R., Cash, T E (1995). Cognitive-behavioral body- image therapy: Comparat iveeff icacy of g roup and modest -contact t reatments . Behavior Therapy 26 69-84.He inbe rg L. J . , Thom pson , J . K. (1992) . Social compa r ison : Ge nder , target imp or tanc erat ings , and relat ion to body image d is tu rbance. Journa l of So cial Behavior an d Personality7, 335-344.He inberg L. J . , Thom pson , J . IC (1995) . Body image and televised images of th inness anda t t r ac t i v en ess : A co n t ro l l ed l ab o ra t o ry i n v es t i g a t i o n . Journal of Social and ClinicalPsychology 14 325-338.He inberg , L . J . , Thom pson , J . IC, S torme r , S . (1995) . De velopm ent and val idat ion of theS o c i o cu l t u ra l A t t i t u d es To ward s Ap p earan ce Qu es t i o n n a i r e . International Journal ofEating Disorders 17 81-89.I rv in g , L . M . (1 9 90 ). M i r ro r imag es : E f f ec t s o f t h e s t an d ard o f b eau ty o n t h e se l f - an dbody-esteem of w om en e xhib i t ing vary ing levels o f b u l imic symptoms. Journal of Socialand Clinical Psychology 9 230-242.

Jack so n , L A . (1 9 9 2 ). Physical appearance a nd gender: Sociobiological and socioculturalperspectives. Albany: S tate U nivers i ty o f N ew York Press .Jackson , L . A. , Su l l ivan , L . A. , Hym es, J . S . ( I985) . Ge nder , gende r ro le , and physicalappearance. The Journa l o f Psychology 12 51-56.Jackson , L . A. , Su l l ivan , L . A. , Rostker , R. (1988). Gende r , gend er ro le , and body image.Sex Roles 19 429-443.Jacobi , L , Cash , T E (1994) . In pursu i t o f the perfect appearan ce: Discrepanc ies am ongsel f - ideal percep ts o f m ul t ip le physical a t t r ibu tes . Journa l o f Applied Social Psychology 2 4379-396.K e l s o n , T . R . , K e a r n e y - C o o k e , A . , L a n s k y , L . M . (1 9 9 0) . B o d y - i m a g e a n d b o d yb eau t i f i ca ti o n amo n g f emale co l l eg e s t u d en t s . Perceptual and M otor Skills 71 281-289.Kl ingensp or , B. (1994) . G en der iden t i ty and bu l im ic eat ing behavior . Sex Roles 3L 407-431.

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

14/15

6 C a s h e t a LLaba rge, A. S . , Cash , 1 : E , & Brown , l: A. ( in press) . U se of a modif ied St roop task toe x a m i n e a p p e a r a n c e - s c h e m a t i c i n f o r m a t i o n - p r o c e s s i n g i n c o l le g e w o m e n . Cognit iveTherapy. and Research.Mintz, L . B. , & Betz, N. E. (1986) . Sex d i f ferences in the nature, real i sm and correlates onb o d y i m ag e . Sex Roles, 15, 11-20.M irkin, M. P. (Ed.). (1994). W om en in context: Toward a fem inis t reconstruction o f psychotherapy.New York : Gui l fo rd Press.M uth , J . L . , & Cash , l: E ( in p ress). Body- image at ti tudes: W hat d i f ferences does gende rm a k e ? Journa l o f App l ied Soc ia l Psychology.Pl iner , P ., Chaiken , S . , & Flet t , G . L. (1990). G end er d i fferences in conce rn wi th body weigh tand physical appearance over the l i fe span . Personali ty and S ocial Psychology Bullet in , 16,263-273.Rickard , IC M. (1989) . The relat ionsh ip of sel f -moni to red dat ing behaviors to level o f femin is tiden t i ty on the Fem in is t Iden t i ty Scale . Sex Roles, 20, 213-226.Rod in , J ., S i lbers tein , L . R. , & St r iegel -Mo ore, R. H. (1985). Wom en and weight : A norm at ived isconten t . In 1: B. Sonde regger (Ed .) , Nebraska sympos ium on mot iva t ion: Psycho logyand gender. Linco ln : Unive rs i ty o f N ebraska Press .Rose, S., & Frieze, I . H . (1989). Young single s' scripts for a first date. Gender and Soc ie ty ,3, 258-268.Ro t h b l u m , E . D . (1 99 4 ). 'T I I d i e fo r t h e r ev o lu t io n b u t d o n ' t a sk m e n o t t o d i e t : F em in i smand th e c on t in u ing s t igmat izat ion of obesity . In P . Fal lon , M. A . Ka tzma n, & S. C. W ooley(Eds.), Fem inist perspect ives on eat ing disorders. New York : Gui l fo rd Press.Rosen , J . C. (1990) . Body- image d is tu rbanc es in eat ing d isorders . In 1: E Cash & 1: Pruzinsky(Eds.), Bo dy images: Development , deviance, and change. New York : Gui l fo rd Press .Rozin , P ., & Fal lon , A. (1988) . Body imag e, a t t i tudes to weigh t, and misperc ep t ions o f f igurep re fe r en ces o f t h e o p p o s i t e sex : A co m p ar i so n o f m en a n d wo m en i n t wo g en era t i o n s .Journa l o f Ab nor ma l Psycho logy , 97 , 342-345.Si lbers tein , L . R. , S t r iegel -Moo re, R. H . , Timko, C. , & Rod in , J . (1988) . Behavioral andpsycholog ical im pl icat ions o f body d issati sfaction: Do me n and wo me n d i f fer? Sex Roles,

19 , 219-232.Sm ith, J. E., Waldorf, V.. A., & lt 'embath, D. L. (1990). Single white m ale look ing for thin,very at t ract ive . . . S e x R o le s , 2 3 , 675-685.S n y d er , R . , & Hasb ro u ck , L . (1 9 9 6 ) . F em in i s t i d en t i t y , g en d e r t r a it s , an d sy m p to m s o fd i s t u rb ed ea t i n g am o n g co l l eg e wo m en . Psycho logy o f Women Quar ter ly , 20 , 593-598.S p e n c e , J . T . , H e l m r e i c h , R . L . , & S a w i n , L . L . ( 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e M a l e - F e m a l e R e l a t i o n sQu e s t i o n n a i r e : A se l f - r ep o r t i n v en to ry o f sex ro l e b eh av io r s an d p re f e r en ces an d i t srelat ionsh ips to mascu l ine and fem in ine personal i ty t rai ts , sex ro le at t i tudes , an d o the rmeasures . Cata log o f Se lec ted Documents in Psycho logy , M S # 2 1 2 3 .S p e n c e , J . T ., & S a w i n , L . L . (1 9 8 5 ) . I m a g e s o f m a s c u l i n i t y a n d f e m i n i n i t y : Areconce ptual izat ion . In V. E. O 'Leary , R. K . Unge r , & B. S . Wal ls ton (Eds.) , Women,gender, and socia l psychology. Hi l l sd a l e , NJ : E r lb au m .Sprecher , S . (1989) . The im por tanc e to males and fem ales o f physical a t tract iveness , ear n ingpoten t ial , a nd expressiveness in in i t ia l a t t ract ion . Sex Ro les , 21 , 591-608.St rau ma n, I: J . , & G lenberg , A. M . (1994) . Sel f -concept and body- image d is tu rbance: Whichself -bel iefs p red ict body s ize o verest im at ion? Cognit ive Therapy and Research, 18, 105-125.Sul l ivan , L . A. , & H arn ish , R. J . (1990). Bod y image: Dif ferences betw een h igh an d lowse l f -m o n i to r i n g m ales an d f em ales. Journal of Research in Personali ty , 24, 291-302.Szymanski, M. L., & Cash, 1: E (1995). Body -imag e distur ban ces an d self-discrepa ncy theory:E x p a n s i o n o f t h e B o d y - I m a g e I d e a l s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l a n d C l i n ic a lPsychology, 14, 134-146.Tho mp son , J . K. (Ed .) (1996). Bo dy image, eat ing disorders, and obesi ty: A n integrative guidefor assessmen t and t rea tmen t . Wa shington , D.C. : A me rican Psychological Assoc iat ion .T ig g em an n , M. , & Ro th b lu m , E . D . (19 8 8) . G en d e r d i f f er en ces in so ci al co n seq u e n ces o fperceived overweigh t in the Uni ted States and Aust ral ia . Sex Roles, 18 , 75-86.

8/12/2019 Genero 1997

15/15

Gender ttitudes and Body Image 447T'nnko , C. , S t r iegel -Moore, R. H. , S i lbers tein , L . R. , Rodin , J . (1987). Femin in i ty /masc u l in i tyan d d i so rd ered ea t i n g i n wo m en : Ho w a re t h ey r e l a t ed ? International Journal of EatingDisorders 6 701-712.Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women. New York :M o r ro w.