*.eizexrd lr cd cec 'textle df xn`na dpecpd dl`yd z` iiptl bivdy obxti` ipit xnl zecedl dvex ip``zipihld dlind z`xedquasimya z`fd dlind z` iznbxz .'-enk div`ehiq dze`a' `id dfd xywda

lkl z`fd ipepiad zxev oia exyiw xy` miipiad ini inbxzn zeawra z`fa izcrve ,'dnecn' ixard x`ezddlind .(meik dlind yeniya laewny itk) dica ly oeeb lk jkl deelpy `la ,oeincd gekn xvepy dn`l` ,mvr my x`znd i`eelk zixara zynyn dppi` `idy `l` ,'lekiak' `id jkl xzeia dni`znd zixard

.mly cbidl zqgiiznd zxbqen dxin`k

[23±7 'nr ,(d"qyz) 4 oeilib ,dixehqidl dxirv dna ,did did]Ÿ¨'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`z7

dpn`d' ziixe`z) 'dnecndquasi

contractlvxd ly (ly ziteqelitd dixe`zl ipeirxd rwxa oeir*dpicn ly dpepik zwcvdl lvxd a`f oinipa

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil`

.eizepeirxn wlg lvxd a`y dpnny ztqep zipeir zextq lr riavdl ywan df xn`n

ilxailÎl`iveqd mxfl sygp `ed ztxva i`pezirk yniy lvxdyzra ik rivdl dvex ip`

ziztxvd zxeqnd gqepa miilxail zepexwr alyl s`y df mxf .epnn rtyede iztxvd

lvxdy cg` ihxe`z `yep cenri iixac cwena .zeihqil`iveq zeilklk zeqitz mr

oeirx z` rivde dfd oiiprl yxcp lvxd .dpicn oepikl zixqend dwcvdd :ea wqr

) 'dnecnd dpn`d'quasi-contract.(`dreci dziid ef oirn dixe`z ik ze`xdl ywa`

gkepl lvxd ixac zpadl zeixyt` zeklyd lr cenrl dqp`e ,dtewz dze`a ztxva

.iztxvd ihiletd giya einia ernypy zepeirxl ezpyn oia zrvend dwifd

aeqp lvxd (xece`iz) a`f oinipa ly miipicnd eizepeirx xwga mipecpd mi`yepd cg`dyrnl miytgn ,'rwxd' xg` mixz xy`k .ihiletd elretle ezpynl rwxd zece` lr

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 8

.jci`n zepeirxl d`xydd zexewne cgn iynnd ixehqidd rwxd :milcap mixac ipy`

xexial edyn mexzl zeqple d`xydd zexewnl mirbepd mipiipra cwnzdl ipevxa.lvxd ly zihiletd ezpyn ly miihxe`zd miyxeyd

drvd dlrez z`f mewna .zexewnd oeebn ly dqixt bvez `l o`k bvend xwgnazextqd .eizepeirxn wlg lvxd a`y dpnny okziiy ,zipeir zextq ly sqep xewnldxyr ryzd ze`nd dptna miiztxv miilxailÎl`iveq minxf ly ef `id zxaecndzeqitz mr ziztxvd zxeqnd gqepa miilxail zepexwr alyl eqip xy` ,mixyrde.elld zepynd oia dxe`kl miniiwd mixrtd lr xybl eywiae zeihqil`iveq zeilklkdpepikl zixqend dwcvdd ± ea wqr lvxdy cg` ipeirx `yep cenri mixacd cwenaelyn oexzt rivd s`e ef oinei zwizr dl`yl yxcidl oekpl d`x lvxd .dpicn lyxxal lvxd wwfp mrh dfi`n dligz oec` .oeaixd ly eizeiekfl ixqend xewnd zl`yldixe`za `vn `edy zeirad odn hxt`e eizeawra crv` okn xg`l .ef dpyep dl`yycgnz` miillk mieewa hhxy` seqal .Dpiad `edy itk ± eqex w`'f o`'f ly ef ,zxg`d,ezpynl miwecivd zxdad jxevl .odipia qgid z` oga`e rivdy zitelgd dixe`zd`ny e` ely zeixewn zeaygn dl` m`d :eizepeirx z` lvxd a`y oiipn dl`yd ogaizdnk oiiv` mixacd qeqia xg`l ?dtewzd za ziztxvd zextqd ly d`xyd ixt od

.dpexg`d zexyt`d zlawn zeraepd zeklyd

?oeaixd zwcvd zl`ya weqrl lvxd wwfp recn .`

rbepa lvxd ly ezpyny ,'micedid zpicn' xtqa xywdd z` dligz xikfdl oicd ondycg jxc" oey`xd ipicnd extqa `evnl dqip lvxd .ea zxkfen dpicn oepik zwcvdl

,"micedid zl`y oexzta1dpicn znwd did zeinyihp`d ziiral rivdy oexztde;dpicn znwda `ed oexztdy oerihd zbvd (`) :letk xtqd ly epiipr jkitl .micedil.yenin xa oeirx m` ik itehe` oiipr dppi` micedil dpicn znwd recn xaqd ozn (a)lkn zwzepnd dycg dpicn znwdl zipkz lvxd bivd diipyd dxhnd zbyd myl± ixqen cg`d :miixeaiv miteb ipy miwdl yiy eid zipkzd ixwir .zinyihp` daiaq

.'zicedid dxagd' ± iwqrÎihtyn ipyde 'micedid zceb`'2xicbdl ecrep xtqd ly eiwlgyi lvxd it lr .micedid zceb` ly dcerii aeyg eppiiprl .elld mitebd iciwtz z`

`oiia ly dxvwd ezxiwqa `evnl xyt` ihiletd eweqirl rwxde lvxd ly d`xydd zexewn zbvd z`ipefg lynl e`x .lvxd ly icedid rwxl xzei ax ybc zzl ie`x ik mixeaqd yi .49±42 'nr ,(g"lyz)

.zihpeelxd zextqd zxiwq dievn my zexrda .(a"qyz)

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (9

z` 'dceb`'d zcqiin ,micedidÎmr itlk [...] miipicne miircn miciwtz 'dceb`'l"epnny ,rahd ircn oeylk i`nwd `zd z` ± dpey`xd dtewzl miigxkdd zecqend

picn ly miixeaivd zecqend xzei xge`n gztzdl mixen`."micedid z3

xykdd xaca ihxe`z oeicl iyrnd oeicdn bxeg lvxd ,'dceb`'a wqerywlgd ziy`xajxc .oeaixd ly zeknqd xewn zl`y z` ycgn oegal yxcpe dceb`d ly iwegÎixqenddl`ya weqird zxfra ,eiptl miax ellqy jxcd zeawra zcrev ef dira mr ezeccenzdoiipra eqex ly drecid dixe`zd mr mixace oica `a `ed jkitl .dpicn deedzn cvik."diixete d`xep drtyd" dl dziid lvxd itl xy` ± zizxagd dpn`d ziixe`z ± dfd4

epl xizene 'dzeixet' z`hazn dna `l s`e 'dzei`xep' z`hazn dna hxtn epi` lvxd.eifnx z` gprtl zeqpl

lvxd d`x dn iptn dl`ya oeica mrh yiy dnec lvxd ly ezrvda oiir`y mcewlr aiydl icky d`xp .ziyrnd ezipkzl igxkd epi` dfk oeic dxe`kl .jka oecl jxevz` akrl eze` `iad dayiil oevxdy ef ,eze` dcixhdy diral al miyl ie`x dl`ydef dira eay ote`dne ,eipneia oiirl yi z`fd dcigd z` xeztl ick .df oeic lv` envr

:z`fd dl`yd lr zeprl ligzdl xyt` my zxkfen

wx yi dpicnl .zerh ef .zizxag dpn` yiy oin`d eqexnegotiorum gestio.(mipiiprd ledip)

i`xg` dyrp ip` ef jxca mle`e ,gek ietii icia epzpy ila ,micedid ipiipr z` ldpn ip` jk

.(83 'nr ,micedid oiipr) .mditlk`

oey`x seba xacl xaer lvxd ,zepynd izy zxkfd xg`l ,df rhwaaenvr l` qgiiznezeqgiizd gekayiy d`xpe ,eqex lr zxewia ixaca gzet `ed .micedid ipiipr lymldpnk

.sirqd zxzeka izavidy dl`yd lr zeprl ick eqexl ef

`dl` oebk mixwna zeknqd xewn `yep .inexd igxf`d htynd megzn gewl 'eihqb mexeivebp' gpend,1895 ipeia eazkp el` mirhw .113 'nr ,micedid oiipr ,eipneia mb mi`exy itk ,ce`n lvxd z` cixhdxeaiga mda izynzyde ,'micedid zpicn'l mlek miqgiiznd daygn iqiqx" md el`y envr lr cirn lvxde

ily ipicndDer Judenstaatxtqdn miliawn mirhwae dfd rhwa ynzyd lvxd .(74 'nr ,micedid oiipr) "Îa 1896 x`epia 17Îa mqxtzdy ,'micedid zl`y ly dpexzt' xn`na 'micedid zpicn'Jewish Chronicle

xyt` jkne ,mipey zenewna dl` eixac z` xikfd `ed .7 'nr ,` ,miipeiv mixn`ne mine`p xtqa zixarae.ezpyn ly ceqid ipa`n wlg mda d`x `edy cenll

aeli`e ,(98 'nra mb my e`x) envr lvxd `ed ('xehqb'd) 'mipiiprd ldpn' oneid it lr ik al miyl yihwiexta xaecny dyegz mipneidn dler illk ote`a .(64±63 'nr) micedid zceb` idef 'micedid zpicn'ajxer lvxdy ze`eeydl izpeek .xg` ilnq oiipra mb iehia icil `a df `yep .l`xyi ly mriyenk envr elydyn `id 'micedid zceb`' " :xne` `ed 'micedid zpicn'a .dyn zbdpda mixvn z`ivi oial ely zipkzd oiaip`" :dnbecl ,dyn oial epia sxd `la deeyn `ed eipneiae ,(63 'nr micedid zpicn) ."micedid ly ycgddl` ly daehd zeitkl mb .adfd lbr aiaq cewixl ,mixvn ly xyad ixiq lr zellil :lekl onefne okenlvxd d`x eay ote`d lr eazkp miax mipeic .(81 'nr ,` ,micedid oiipr) "xzeia lecbd aegd z` epl miagy

.95 dxrd 143 'nr ,(1999) l`xd e`x `yepd lr dtiwn zitxbeilaia dxiwql .ezebidpn z`

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 10

ezekfn cexh did lvxd ik ze`xl xyt` oneiay mixvwd mixacd itlmiwdl zixqendzhily ly ixqend swezd xaca eqex ly dixe`zd z` oiad day jxcd lya z`fe .dpicn,ziaihxp dwcvd ly dcezna hwep eqex 'zizxagd dpn`d lr' extqa .eipizpa oeaixddligza my x`eznd mixacd xcq itl .xara dpicnd dcqep cvik xetiq zxfra xnelkf` wxe ,ecb`zd jkae ,dpn` mc`d ipa lk mdipia ezxk okn xg`l .envrl yi` lk did

.cg`e cg` lk ly iytegd epevx jezn llegzd jildzd lke .oeaix mnvrl exga,xard ly ihpze` xetiq exetiqa d`x `l envr `ed ik dprhd zlaewn eqexl rbepamiqgid zxcbdle dxaga zxxeyd zegekd zkxrn zbvdl ilk ynynd izextq irvn` `l`lcen xetiqa d`x `edy xnel xyt` oitelgl e` .oeaixd oial mpiae mnvr migxf`d oiay

.zepeaixl iaihnxep weciv xyt`ny ihxe`z iteqelit`z` epiad `le eby miax mxamirexi`d eygxzd jk eqex zrcl ik exaq dxyrryzd d`na ei`xew aex dyrnl .jk eqexeqex zrcly xg`ny eiazkn wiqd `ed jkitle ,lvxd mb oiad jk .ziynnd dixehqidahilyl yiy ixd ,ie`xd z` mb `l` didy dn z` wx `l bivn dpicnd znwd xe`izcb`zn xy` mr ,dligz eilr eze` jilnnd mr yi m` wxe j` ezepeaixl zixqen dwcvd©©`ed .oihelgl jetd oEeik ziyrnd ezipkza rivd lvxd .iyteg oevx jezn ea xgeaelthl ("gk ietii icia epzpy ila") envr z` dpnnd oeaix zxfra dpicn miwdl ywiaoi` dly oeaixly dpicn miwn lvxd f` ik ,wcv eqex m` .icedid mrd ly eipiipralvxdy itk ,xy` ,(!zg` wx) eqexn znieqn dwqt hhvn lvxd icka `l .zixqen dwcvdly dcind dpwa zcner dpi`y dpicn lk ly zixqend zekfd z` zrwrwn ,dpiad

:zizxagd dpn`d ziixe`z

milha mze` dyer xzeia lwd iepiydy ,jk mkqdd rah it lr mixcben ef dpn` itirq

,`id jkn d`vezd :milheaneyxetna mlern eraed `l m` el it`ymidf md ixd

.'eke dwizya mewn lka minkqene milaewn ,mewn lkaa

:mixac ipyl lvxd wwfp eizeipkzl dwcvdd z` qqale zixqend dirad z` ayiil ickzitelg dpyn bivdle (dze` ezpad it lr) eqex ly zizxagd dpn`d ziixe`z z` jixtdl

lk ,oiipern lvxd did day jxca micedil dpicnd znwdl zipkzd z` xiykz xy`xne.mixg`l zipeaix dpicn miwdl zekfd z` dnvrl zgweld dveaw ici lr

`'nr ,(e"kyz) lexb lynl e`x `yepa zeixwird zercd zxiwql .eqex ipyxt axwa zlaewnd drcd idefirahd avnd z` ely xe`izdy (160 'nr ,(b"pyz) eqex) yxetna xg` mewna xn` envr eqex .114±105

.ze`ivna did jky aiigzn `ed oi`e iaihlewtq `edazpicna enbxez mdy itk (25±24 'nr ,(f"hyz) eqex lv` `vnp mxewny) eqex ly eixac z` iz`ad

zipnxbd dxecdna mb) lvxd ly hehiva driten (zexfetn zeize` zervn`a) dybcdd .61 'nr ,micedid.eqex ly xewna dievn dppi` j` ,(dpey`xd

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (11

eqex ly dixe`zd ziigcl zeprh .a

dqpn z`fd dixe`zd ,ziy`x .zeprh izy jnq lr eqex ly dixe`zd z` dgc lvxddppi` ef lvxd zrcl .ixehqid xetiq ici lr oeaixl cigid oiay miqgid z` wicvdl

eqex w`'f o`'f(1778±1712)

dcezn hwp `ed 'zizxagd dpn`d lr' extqa

oia dzxkpy dpn` zx`znd ,ziaihxp

jka dwicvne oeaixd zlawl qiqak micigid

.oeaixd meiw z`

zeipxcend wegdzepicn liaya" :dwitqn dwcvdxak dwegd zeid iptl m` ,dl`yl iyrn jxr oi`lk lr dzr [...] zizxag dpn` zniiw dziidmigxf`l dlynn oia zihtynd dwifd ,miptoeyl .(61 'nr ,micedid zpicn) "zcnere dreawdl`y dppi` oeaixd ly swezd zl`y ,xg`;oezp onfl cr mirexi`d elblbzp cvik zipexk`iczeclez ly minid ixaca wecal mrh oi` jkitledl`ya xaecn .zepicn eppek cvik zeyep`doeaixd z` dkfn dn ± deeda avnd lr zipexkpiqdwcvdd z`y lvxd xaq df oiipra .ezeknqa.eipizp oial epia daezkd dwegd zwtqn oeaixloigadl bedp llkd jxc lr ?dweg dze` `id dn

:zeweg ly mibeq ipy oia5dweg' ,oey`xdz` miraewd miiqiqad mixcqdd :'zil`ixhndweg' ,ipyd ;mdipia miqgid z`e oehlyd zecqenlr mdl mipwen xy` ,micxtp miizwiwg miknqna mipbernd miweg zkxrn :'zilnxet

.zeywep e` zepeilr ly mipiit`n aex it`xexa (66 'nr) 'micedid zpicn'a aezkd it lr.dpicn lka dievnd zil`ixhnd dwegl oeeik lvxdy6

lkky oiiv` j` .dwegd ly zixqend dwcvdl rbepa izednd oeicl o`k qpk` `ldtexi`ae zixad zevx`a dgeexy dcnrd gkepl lvxd ly eixac z` ze`xl yi d`xpdzynnnd `ide ,'zizxagd dpn`'d `id dnvr dwegd ik zqxebd dcnr ,dtewz dze`a

.mrd oevx z`7xaecn oi`y jkl ahid rcen did envr lvxd ± micedid zpicnl xy`mixwirl yi dycg dpicn mew zrle dweg zpwzd iptl" :dweg zlra dpicn ly avn lrdycg dxivik daygna zxiihvn micedidÎzpicn ,ok` [...] ziyrn zeaiyg mb elldok lr xy` .(61 'nr ,micedid zpicn) "oiicr drawp `ly dixehixh lr ,dpina zcgein

.dpicnd znwd mvr lr mb oeayge oic zzl ul`p `ed

`,ipyd beqd on md 'l`xyil dweg' ly e` 'zizwegd dktdnd' ly mixywda zxkfend dwegd ik xir`.wcva `ly df xywda lvxd z` axrl mibdepy d`xpe

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 12

jixtdl ick oerih ly sqep caexa jxev yi ,zniiw dpicnl dwcvda xaecn oi`y xg`n.zepicnd enw eay ote`l rbepa ixehqid xe`iz bivn eqexy oreh lvxd jk myl .eqex z`mikxca ecqepy zene` lr zeiecr epicia yi ezprhl .oekp epi` xetiqd ik qxeb lvxdic if` ,dixehqida rxi`y dn it lr ie`xd z` qqia ,lvxd zrcl ,eqexe li`ed .zexg`dnn dpey zeidl lkei ie`xd mby ick ,eqex ly exe`izn dpey dixehqidd ik gikedligkepd xywday `l` ,lvxd ly zekxtdd aiha wtwtl oicd on ,xen`k .eqex rivdy

.diyxey lr cenrle envr ely dpyna cwnzdl oiipern ip`

lvxd ly dixe`zd .b

dwcvda oecl yi ezrcle ,mialy ipy oia oigan lvxd eqex lr zxewiaa ,izi`xdy itkdqpn `ed ixd ,lvxd ly eizelina ynzype wiicp m` .cxtpa mdn cg` lk ly zixqend

" lr cenrlihtynd ceqidwwfp `ed jk myl .(61 'nr ,micedid zpicn) "dpicnd ly?dpicnd oepikl zihtynd dwcvdd `id dn ,dpey`xd :zecxtp zel`y izy lr zeprlxak yiy xg`l mipizpl oeaixd oiay miqgid z` zihtyn dpigan xicqn dn ,diipyd

?dpicndwcvd ytgn lvxd okl mcew izybcdy itkzihtyneixac llkn .alye aly lkl

zxfra zppEkn dnvr dpicndy meyn ,dpicnd zeedzdl mcew htynd ik micnl epivnpweg yi mxha cer zeniiw ihtyn swez zepa zelert ik `et` `vei .zihtyn dlert

h oey`x hana .'rah'd it lr aiegn df weg dxe`kle dpicnd ixag miwwegnyon dpr.xqend oial irahd wegd oia zedf zniiw ik zqxebd dcnrl daxw lr dcirn dfd beqd,miyrp md eit lry weg ly eneiw z` gipn zeihtyn zeklyd ilra miyrn ly mneiwdfk oEeik .xg` weg lkl mcewy irah weg miiwy xryl yi zepicnd zexveeid mxhaedwcvd xg` yetiga ihxe`zÎixqend oeicd z` xinn lvxd recn oiadl epcra riiql leki

.zihtyn:ezpyn ixwir z` bivdl ok m` xear`

,ipxeaq .ihtyn qeqia ribtna zyxec ,mihleyl mihlypd cvn ,minrtl dwirnd ,dwifd

z` migxf`d llka epl zencl epilr jk jeza .'eihq`b mexeiveb`p'a eze` `evnl ozipy

zpicn) .'xehqb'Îd z` dlynnae [mixg` ici lr bveind oec`d=] 'mexeivebp qepinec'Îd

.(62 'nr ,micedid

zxbqna ,inexd wegd itirqa `et` `ven lvxd dpicnd oepik zwcvdl ihtynd qeqiad z`

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (13

xywda eneyii xaqd z`e byend zernyn z` .'eihq`b mexeiveb`p'Îl rbepd wegd:envr lvxd wtqn ihiletd

eyekxydry .zpcernztenÎzxivi 'eihq`b mexeivebp'a xvi mi`nexd ly`ltpdhtyndyeg

ly mldpn ,'xehqb'd edf .elivdl `eal mc` lk i`yx ,dpkqa oezp mipe`Îxqg mc` ly

gxekn el `a egekÎieti .mc` icin gekÎieti mey xnelk ,gekÎieti mey el oi` .mixf iwqr

,zeaxzd ly dbxce dbxc lka mipey mipte`a dpicnd liaya egqpl ozip df oeilr gxek .oeilr

,mrd `ed ,'qepinec'd zaehl zpeekn ,dbdpdd ,'eihq`b'd .zr dze`a illkd dbyddÎgek itl

[...] epnn wlg `ed envr xehqbd mby

zlaewnd jxca dligz biydl ozip `l ef dnglna .mrd ly meiwdÎzngln jezn dnw dpicnd

iniptd belitd [...] dligzkln zlykp dziid llkd zaehl dnfei lk ,ok` .oiwz gekÎieti

lk z` ,mixne`y enk ,`iadl oi` .uega mexigd avn gkep obn xqg mrd z` dyer did

gz miy`xdzpicn) .y`xa jlede raekd z` zehyta xehqbd yaeg ok lr .cg` raek z

.(62 cenr ,micedid

mda d`x lvxd recn wtqn xaqd xqg ik d`xp ,icnl mixexa mnvrlyk mixacdy s`,edylk inex wegl iznkq ote`a zn`ez ezipkz m` mb oky ,elretl zixqen dwcvdlr epryida lvxd xzg dnl :dl`yd jkitl zl`yp .mled ixqen oerih jka oi` oiicr§jezn ,oey`xd .mipeeik ipyn z`fd dl`yd mr ccenzdl zeqpl ipevxa ?inexd wegdly rwxd zl`ya weqrl ize` `iai ipyd ;qqazn `ed eilry inexd wega xvw oeic

.bivdl dqpn lvxdy dixe`zdzecewp dnk cer oiivl yi mle` ,icnl dvnn wegd z` x`zn lvxdy xe`izd ,xen`kicegii ok` oecpd wegd ,raw lvxdy itk ik xirdl oicd on dligz .df wegl zerbepd

.inexd htynl8leki dnk cr xexa `l ik zrcl aeyg wegd ly eneyii swidl rbepaokziie ,ezaehl df m` mb ,zeyxa `ly exag ly eiqkp z` iphpetq ote`a ldpl mc` lkli`ed ,zizedn ef dcewp eppiiprly dnec .df oiipra zexenz elg envr inexd wega s`y

.lvxd dbdy oeirxl qiqad hnyp if` ,ipevig iepin yxcp m`e9

al miyl ie`x ,lvxd ly zwiecnd ezpeek lr cenrl dvxp m`y d`xp ,cere z`fzxbqna wegd `aed ditle ezxrdl�quasi ex contractu�micedid zpicn ;'zenecn zepn`')

.miipenn mixcqd ly dxeya xiknd inexd ihxtd wegd zxbqna wegl `id dpeekd .(63 'nripyd cvdy gipdl leki cg` cv ixd ,dfega zeyridl mixen` dl` mixcqdy it lr s`azka mkqd lky itk ,miccvd ipy z` aiign dfegd jkitle ,dfega `ed mb oiipernzeawra el eidy ze`vedd lk z` xehqbl xifgdl yxcii 'xfrp'd ,dnbecl) mze` aiign

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 14

`edy mipreh inexd htynd ixweg ?inexd htyna wegd qeqia `ed dn .(eiqkp zlvdmc`d ipa ly ziyep`d zeaiegnd z` yibcdl ick wweg `edye irahd oeibidd lr qqean

.dxv zrya dfl df xefrl10

htynd megzl eze` xiardle ihxtd htynd megzn wega ynzydl `et` rivn lvxdxv zrya edrxl xfer cigidy myk .izwegddrya enr ipa z` livn xehqbd jk ,d

elld mixaca oi` .ezepeaixl d`yxd lawn `ed jka .mnvr z` bidpdl mzlekia oi`yxqg lvxd ly eixacae ,mipizpÎoeaix iqgin mipey miihxt miyp` oia miqgi oky ,ic

.miaxd zeyxl cigid zeyxn ± zeyxa `ly wegd z`ved ly wecivl oerihdmiphtynl crep `l df xeaig"y iptn xeaicd z` df oiipr lr aigxn epi` lvxdihtynd ceqid xaca ily dixe`zd lr sextxa fenxl `l` lke` `l jkitl :miirevwnepi` lvxd ,xg` mewna xvw htyn cer hrnl .(61 'nr ,micedid zpicn) "dpicnd ly

.xqgd z` milydl zeqpl `l` epl xzep `l okle ,xac siqen

lvxd ly ezpynl iteqelitd rwxd .c

a`y `ed oiipn dl`yl yxcp inexd wega lvxd dyry yeniyd z` oiadl dqipy in lkote` dfi`a xxal eqip xzei cwenn ote`a .df oiipra inexd wegd lr oryidl oeirxd z`

.inexd wega xaecnd sirql lvxd rceezd11zeiexyt`d izyn zg` rivd oiilw celw) iztxvd igxf`d wega (1) :ze`ad�code civil�,inexd wega exewny liawn weg epyi (

.my wegd gqepl ce`n aexw lvxd ly geqipde12cvik xiaqdl dqpn epi` oiilwy `l`mihtynl xtqd ziaa lvxd ykx zihtynd ezxykd z` (2) ;iztxvd wegl lvxd rceezd

.1884 zpya hxehwecd z` laiw my ,dpieea`zpya oiilw oiivy itke li`ed aeyg df oiipr) wqle qixen mqxt 1879Moritz Wlassakxtq ,lvxd cnl eay xtqd ziaa mixend cg` ,(

ezxzekyZur Geschichte der Negotorium Gestio.('eihqb mexeivebp'Îd zeclez)xtqd zian eizericia inexd wegd mr lvxd ly ezexkid z` zelzl yi ok` m`dtewz dze`a ixehqidd rwxd gkepl eiperih z` oiadl yiy okzii ,dpieea mihtynl

dipnxbaaezkle ipe`iletpd cewd z`yehpl eywia el` zevx`a .dnr zexeywd zevx`aedgpdd aexl dgped mixacd ceqia .inexd wegl aeyg ciwtz ozip eae ,ycg miweg jxrn

`it lry oiivl yi .df rcinl xewnd dn rcei ipi` .inexd htynd lr divhxqic azk lvxdy oreh oiilwlr sqep .zepigad z` xar iyewae ely mihtynd icenila jk lk oiiprzd `l lvxd ,oiia qkl` azky dn,73±41 'nr ,(c"vxz) oiia e`x) xehwecd x`ez z` lawl ick divhxqic aezkl yxcp `l `edy reci jk

1983) oel` ;72 ,68 'nr cegiiaeny cil oiiv lvxd eay cigid mewnd ik xikfdl yi df xywda .(90 'nr ,(.'micedid zpicn' extql xryd `ed mihtynl xehwec ezeid zcaer z`

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (15

.(mnvr minexd mb dax dcina egipdy dgpd) irahd wegd z` bviin inexd wegd ikaxrzdl mc`l xyt`n inexd wegd m` :oldlck lvxd ly oerihd z` gzpl yi jkitleze` myiil xyt` if` ,envrl be`cl xg`d ly ezlekia oi` xy`k xg` ly etqkalthl envr z` dpnn xehqbdy myk .envrl be`cl zleki xcrp mc` mday mixwna± miyp` ly xzei ax xtqn ly mbidpnl envr z` dpnn oeaixd jk ,exag ly eiqkpaxtqn) izenk lcada mkzqn 'oeaix'l 'xehqb'd oia lcadd df daygn ew it lr .enr ipas` ile`e ,oze` wicvn xqendy zelert od dl`y meyn ,(mxeara miaxrzny miyp`ddwcvd ep`vn `linne ,mixg` ly dlvd dpicnd oepika ze`xl xyt` ,jk m` .oaiign

.zipeaix dpicn znwdl zihtynÎzixqen

lvxdd ly ezpynl iztxvd rwxd .d

yeniyd ly oeirxd z` lvxd a`y epnny xg` oeeik rivdl ipevxa xn`nd ly ipyd wlgagxkda xzeq epi` `ede ,dfd oeeikd lr ecnr mxh xwgna .dfd xywda 'dnecn dpn`'a

.enilyn `l` ,dk cr xn`py dn z``

1896 zpya 'micedid zpicn' extq z` mqxt lvxd.fixta 1895 ipeia epneia azky zeniyx zeawramipyd oia) mipy rax` za diidy miiq `ed onf eze`a

oezird gily yniy oday ,(1895±1891Neue Freie

Pressexewnd z` `evnl yiy okzii .fixta ixhqe`d,ztxva dtewz dze`a eniiwzdy mipeica lirl oeirxl

.mei mei mdl sygp ± ihilet azkk ± lvxdya

lvxd (xece`iz) a`f oinipa

oezird gily yniyy dtewza ,1893 zpyn dpenzNeue Frie Presse

miigd z` eiptl etyg (1895±1891) ztxva mipyd .fixta ixhqe`d

ziztxvd dwilaetxd ly zeibele`ci`d zepynd z`e miihiletd

.ziyilyd

xy`ke ,ziztxvd dktdnl d`xyd xewn eqex ly eizepeirx eaygp wcva `ly e` wcvamixacdy lekl did xexa ,'illkd oevxd' z` mi`han mipktdnd ik xiitqaex xidvd©

.eqex ly eixac zrtyda exn`p13jkl e`iad oehlyl oe`iletp ziilre dktdnd oelyik

`eze`ipy lr ,lvxd ly ezpyna zeax ewqr xy` ,qiie awri x"cle oiilw celw 'textl dpezp izcez.`yepa mdizerici z` inr welgl

a.(1999) l`xd mb oke ,181±110 'nr ,(c"vxz) oiia e`x lvxd ly eiiga ef dtewz lr zagxp dxiwqldpigad on od zipeivd drepzd bidpnk lvxd z` ztxva mipyd eavir cvik dl`ya l`xd zwqer ,dxn`na

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 16

xge`n .sweza ellyp md jkitle zeipktdn zeibele`ci` iqqan eaygp eizepeirxe eqexydpn`d ziixe`zl zycegn dpcr dziid ,dxyr ryzd d`nd ly mipenyd zepya ,xzeimillkeyn migeqipe ze`qxba ik m` ,dil` aeyl mikxc eytig mipey mibede ,zizxagd

azkp oiipra aeyg xeaig .xzeidiiEt cxtl` icia 1880 zpya¤

)Alfred Fouillée.(14cnr diietly daxd dzeaiyg lr exeaigadaivnd ,eqex ly dixe`zdmixeywd mihxt dpicnd ceqiaz`y `l` .dpn`a dfa dfxeza diiet x`iz z`fd dpn`d

�quasi-contract�dpn`' xnelk ,rpnidl `et` rivd `ed .'dnecndzxkpy zixehqid dprhn,exar mipnfa idylk dpn`idefy orh `ed z`f znerlejxev lk `la dzexkd zixa

.zilnxet dlerta

1789 ileia 14Îa dilihqad yeaik

d`xyd xewnl eqex ly eizepeirx eaygp wcva `ly e` wcva

.ziztxvd dktdnl

) d`e'bxea oe`l mqxt 1896 zpyaLéon Bourgeoisod miax mipeic xxer xy` xtq (,dincw`a od dwihileta`zeaxrzda jxevd mr mfilxaild z` ayiil dqip `ed eae

`l` ,'dpicn' dpeknd zi`nvr zeyi zniiw `l ik orh d`e'bxea .dlklkd iiga dpicnd.zeixcileq mdipia zxxey xy` mihxt wxe j` yiaay `ed oeirxd z` xidadl ick

zraepe mc`d ipa z` zcb`nd dnecnd dpn`d xaca diiet ly eixaca ynzyde.irah ote`a mdipia zxxeyy zeixcileqdnbdnecnd dpn`d oia oixyina xywn d`e'bxea

lvxdy jk lr driavn l`xd .(143±142 'nr) xehqbd `yepl mb zqgiizne zipeirxd dpigad on od ziyrnddilry drtydd lr zcner dppi` `id mxa .(135±133 'nr) dtewz dze` ly zeiztxv zeibele`ci`n rtyedz` ogeae fixta ezedy zra lvxd ly eizeazk xg` awer (g"lyz) ixry mb .df xn`na xacl oiipern ip`

.ziyilyd ziztxvd dwilaetxa zerxe`nd zeawra xar `edy zeiegztzdd`.eizepeirxl zeaebzd z` oke d`e'bxea ly ezqitz it lr dktdnd z` x`zn xlcp` .(1897) xlcp` e`x

.d`e'bxea ly eizepeirx lr dwihiletde xqend ircnl dincw`a miiwzdy mqxetn oeic x`zn `ed x`yd oiaxlcp` .'ipngel ihilet owqr' ezeid lya xwira drap d`e'bxea ly ezrtydy oiivn xlcp` ik xirdl aeygezpyn z` llkyl xyt` eizepeirx z` d`e'bxea a`y mdny miinexd miwega mipiirn m` ik ze`xdl ywia

.epnf ipa mipey mibed ly zetwzd iptn ezpbdl `vi s` `ed .oexg`d lya± xtqd ly eny raep mb o`knSolidarité.1896 zpya fixta dpey`xl xe`l `vi xy` ±

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (17

zepn`' ly zxzekd zgz miievnye inexd wega mxewn xy` ,igxf`d wega miwegd oiae.lvxd xikfdy wegd z` mb d`e'bxea oiiv df oiipra .'zenecn15miwegd ik orh d`e'bxea

zkxrn z` mippeknd mdy ,mc`d ipa oia zeixcileq yiy dgpdd lr miqqazn elld.dpicnd ly dipiipr z` mb ldpl yi mdit lrye dpicna mihxtd ly zeiccdd zeaegdzxez z` bivd day dpyk 1896 zpy z` aexl mipiivn d`e'bxea ly eiazk ixweg

zeixcileqd(Solidarité).16mqxt 1895 sxega xak ik dcaerd daeyg eppiiprl j`zrd azka mixn`n ly dxey d`e'bxeaLa Nouvelle Revuezeceqi z` hxit mdae ,

.dnecnd dpn`d oeirx z` dagxda my bivd s` `ed .ezhiy17wng lirl meqxtd jix`zmiybtp epgp` df meqxta .daxd ezeaiyg zexnl d`e'bxea ly ezpyn ixwegn dk crxywda 'dnecn dpn`' ly oeirxa miifkxn miztxv mi`picne mibed ly meyiia dpey`xld`e'bxea ly eixac enqxety zra ik xekfl mb oaenk yi .lvxdl mcew ihiletÎihxe`zmikldnd xg` xwira awr`ed eizeazknze`xl xyt`y itke ,fixta i`pezir lvxdyniydyrpy yeniyd ly onfde mewnd zekinq .oeaxea lkida eygxzdy mixreqd miihiletdmixxern lvxd ly epneia dpey`xl oeirxd meqxt iptly miycega fixta ddf oeirxa

.mixg` mixywda mnyiil ywiae el` zepeirxn rtyed `ed ik oin`dl`

vd zextql lvxd oia dwifdixweg ly mdipirn dk cr dnlrp o`k izxwqy ziztxjka .dnecnd dpn`d oeirxl xewnd dfy jk lr ecnr `l s` md .zipicnd ezhiye lvxdzecaer dnk lr riavdl ywa` izxryd z` wfgl ick .ezpyna aeyg jacp unged

.zetqep.ce`n daeyg zihilet zenc d`e'bxea did fixta ddy lvxdy mipya ik oiiv` ziy`xztxv zlynn y`xk d`e'bxea odik ,extq meqxtl cre elld mixn`nd meqxt oiayniy `ed dlynn y`xl dpeny cre 1888 zpyn .(1896 lixt` cr 1895 xanaepn)

.mixg` mixika miciwtza18jka .ziztxvd dwihiletd xg` lvxd awr qixta i`pezirkmirtendn gkeeidl xyt`zipicnd ezpynz`e d`e'bxea ly ihiletd elret z` xikd `edy

.lvxd ly eizeazka d`e'bxea ly eny ly miaxd19z` dpen s` lvxd cg` mewnaik x`zn `ede ,iztxvd hpnlxta xzeia miaehd min`epd xyr dying oia d`e'bxea

b:iriaxd wxtd ,(1998) d`e'bxea e`x�Dette de l�homme envers la société; le quasi-contract social�,1902±1901 mipya `ypyze`vxdzxcqaz`fd dixe`zd lr cnre d`e'bxea ayjk xg` xtqn mipy .54±43 'nrdnewn mb df llkae zilklkd ezhiy zxiwql .117±109 'nr ,(1907) d`e'bxea mb e`x .zeixcileqd zxez lr

.66±45 'nr ,(1932) xbxeand e`x dnecnd dpn`d xaca dixe`zd ly`mixicdnd ly mzxrda e`x .okl mcew cer oeirxd lr ayg lvxdy jkl zecr `evnl xyt` ik mixeaqd yi

j` .(161 'nra dxrd ,` ,(c"lyz) sxye oiia) 1892 xaehwe`a 16Îa dazkpy dazka ,'qix`tn zeazk'leipiipr dl` eid eli`k' eyexite eixaca xkfend ipihl iehia lr mipryp mixicdnd .qiqa oi` ef dprhly d`xpmi`yepl zg` dfinx `l s` my driten oi`e li`ed ,zxaecnd dpynd lr zecr mey my mixaca oi` .'ely

.dnecnd dpn`d zxezl mixeywy

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 18

Îl`iveq oecren' jezakyibxdl mihep eze` mirney xy`k.eizerc mr zexkid lr cirnd oiipr ,'ihilet20dtewza.d`e'bxea mr ybtp s` lvxd ,xzei zxge`n21ok m` yi

zeiyi` ly dixn`n xg` awr lvxd ik dxrydl wfg ceqidze` ly dwihileta gztn zenc dziidy ,zifkxn dk.epnn rtyed `ed ik xryl xzen jk zeawrae ,dtewz

xy` ,zeixcileqd zpyn z` mciw (1925±1851) d`e'bxea oe`l

.zeihqil`iveq zecnr mr miilxail zepeirx bfnl dzqip

.yecig zpigaa `ed dbdy oeirxdy xaq envr lvxd m` xxal aeyg eppiiprl ,cere z`fdycgd dixe`z"k eze` x`iz `ed 'micedid zpicn' extqa oeirxd z` bivnd `ed xy`kazky xg`l yceg) 1895 ileia dfd oeirxd z` bivd lvxd ik oiivl aeyg mxa ."ilyzazka .icedid xywda `ly (d`e'bxea ly eixac meqxt xg`l miiycege epneia oeirxd z`

`idy) iztxvd hpnlxta ezedyl mekiqd`ed ('oeaxea lkid' extqa oexg`d wxtd mb:azke dnecnd dpn`d oeirx lr xfg

ici lr dzeedzp `l dpicndy myk ikcontrat sociallrtiy gxkdd on jk ,[zizxag dpn`=]

Îd edf .xg` ihtyn qgi danegotiorum gestioeipipr z` ldpl ezlekiae egeka oi` mrd .

mdiyrn z` eyri mixehqbd e` xehqbd .mze` xweq hand oi`y cr ,swiddÎiaxe milecbd

lkid) .miyrnd ici lr dldpdd z` xy`l ekxhviy znerlk ,dxizi zevn`zdae zexidfa

.(150 'nr ,oeaxea

m`y gipdl xiaq .exyt z` oiadl leki epi` mcwen rci `la dfd xn`nd z` `xewy in`edy ixd ,dncwd lk `la extqa eze` mqxte aye ,ef jxca dfd xn`nd z` mqxt lvxd.mpiadl yxcpd rcid yi milikynd eirney lkly xaqe reci xac elld zepeirxa d`xdze`a mireci mixacn eixacl zexewnd z` a`y lvxd ik dxrydd z` wfgn df oiipr

.zrdnecn dpn` xg` yetigl oeirxdy okzii .zg` dpenzl mipezpd lk z` sxvl xyt` `nymeixvebp' ly oeirxd meyii mle` ,ziztxvd zextqa mipeicd zeawra lvxd lv` gnv

inexd wegdn 'eihqb`dlkydd zeawra ,oiilw orhy itk ,xyt`zd xywd eze`amb yibcdl aeyg .ely i`nvr yecig elld mixaca d`x `ed jk meyne ,ely zihtynd

`ly ezpyna mixkfend dnecnd dpn`d iweg oia yxetn ote`a xywn ,524±521 'nr ,(1897) xlcp`.inexd wega mxewnye iztxvd igxf`d wega miievnd dnecnd dpn`d iwegl d`e'bxea

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (19

mzrcl dpekpd jxca xwira epc xnelk ,ilklkd oiipra ecwnzd ezriq iyp`e d`e'bxeayoeicd z` 'oeaxea lkid'a yibcd mznerl lvxd .zihqil`iveq dlklk opekl yi dayxy` `ed df cegiiy okzii .exn`na sihd `ed eprnly ,ihxwehqix`d ,ipehlyd dpana

."ily dycgd dixe`z"k elld zepeirxl qgiizdl e`iadzeaiyg yiy ixd ,lvxd lr ziztxvd zipicnd daygnd ly drtyd dziid ok` m`ly oerihd ,epi`xy itk .ef zextqa driten `idy itk zepeaixd zwcvd okezl zrxkndnecnd dpn`a mitzeyd oia ihtynd xywdy jk lr oryp milxailÎl`iveqd mibeddzeixcileq zxxey ik dgpdd gkepl avern (migxf`k miiccdd mdiqgi z` opekn xy` xyw)

i oiawega lvxd ynzyd mrh dfi`n ± dcixhnd dl`yl aeyp m` .ux` dze` iayezeaiygd mb `l` ,ciwtz `lin irahd htynd ly oeirxd wx `ly gipdl lkep ± ?inexd

k inexd wegl lvxd qgiiymiyp` oia zeixcileq iqgil ihtyn iehiaxa df weg jkitl .ly qgi ,lvxd ly ezxryd it lr ,mdipia xxey xy` micedia xaecn xy`k meyiijezn cg` lk i`yx ,efk zeixcileq ly dneiw zgpd jnq lr ik siqedl yi .zeixcileqok` lvxd ik dxrydd .xehqbk envr ze`xl dxvn eig` z` livdl dqpn xy` dlidwdzeixcileqd oexwr lr zeax zeiepncfda eixacn zwfgzn dfd xe`a mipiiprd avn z` d`x

.zicedid dpicnd oepika izedn ciwtz el wiprn lvxdy ,micedid oia22

: o`k cr izbvdy ziztxvd drtydd gkepl lvxd ly eixaca zrk oiir`

,[oec`d=] qepinecd itlk xehqbd aiigzn ezeaxrzd ici lr la`dpn` it lr enk,quasi

ex contractu:xzei oekp e` ,dligzkln dpicna miiwd ihtynd oilnebdÎqgi edf .deedznd

dnr cgi.(ily dybcdd ,63±62 'nr micedid zpicn) .

lvxd ly yeniyd z` .dpicnd mr deedznd ihtyn qgil lvxd qgiizn dl` mixacazxivil irvn`k ± ztqep jxca mb o`k oiadl ozip irahd wegd ly melibk inexd wega.zyxetn `l dpn` mdipia mizxek xy`e zeixcileq mdipia yiy miyp` oia iweg xywzkxrnd ly dxivi m` ik ,xg` e` dfk 'irah weg'a yeniy o`k oi` ,zexg` milinazezxkp zepn` el` cnln inexd wegd .mihxt oia zxkpy dfeg zxfra dnvr ziwegd`l` ,aiign wegk ynyn epi` `edy jkn `vei .dfl df miaxrd miyp` oia irah ote`adpwa dler lvxd ly eixacn df hehiv .oixeg ipa mc` ipa oia (zenecn) zepn`l mbck

cnd zeedzd xg`l ik ezcnr mr cg`,dwicvn mb znieqn dcinae ,zppekn dwegd dpizihtynd zkxrnd zxvep cvik dl`yd zavip oiiprd cwena xnelk .zepeaixd z`

.dpicnd ceqia zcnery`

`,iriaxd wlgd cegiia ,(1895) d`e'bxea ly dxiyid ezrtyd zxkip z`fd dcewpa mb ik oiivl aeyg.zeigxf`d zeaegd zkxrnl ceqid `id dnecnd dpn`d elv` s`y ,397±392 'nr

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 20

zligzy exidvda eqex ly zizxagd dpn`d ly zxeqnd z` o`k jiynn lvxd dyrnlmr ccenzdl gilvn `ed ik xeaq lvxd .zixa zzixka `ed mc` ipa oia igxf`d xywddxiaqnd dpyn bivn `ed .xeztl dgilvn dpi` eqex ly dixe`zdy zixehqidd dirad¦mibdep ,mlern lreta dzxkp `l m` s`y ,zixa zzixk gekn xveeidl leki wegd cvikwegd `et` milyn dfd beqd on zezixa zezxkp cvik dpEwld z` .dzxkp ok` eli`k da

.inexdz`f ex`izy itk .sqep izedn oiipr ly xywda daeyg zeiztxvd zepynl dwifdmiyp` ixw ,miiyteg mihxt m` ik 'mr' eppi` dxag lkl ceqid ,d`e'bxeae diet xakzeixcileqd gkepl `ed dn xryl xyt`y) iyteg oevx jeznzixa mdipia mizxekd miihxtzilxail dcnr lr zqqazn ef dixe`z ,eqex ly dixe`zd enk `ly .(mdipia zxxeyyel` mixac .xg` aihwlew lk e` mrd `le micigi micner dpicnd ceqia ditle ,zwdaenxicbny dn mr s`e ,cigid ly eizeiekfe enewn xaca lvxd ly eixac mr ahid mialzyn

.mrk micedid z` ezrcl23avnl irahd avnd oia xarnay xeaq eqex z`f znerl) 'illkd oevxd' `ed epevx xy` 'iveaiw ip`' xvep igxf`dvolonté généralejq `le (

.lekd ly zepevxd`

eli`e ,ilklk did ezriq iyp`e d`e'bxea ly dixe`za cwend ,izxrd xaky itkoia zipeirxd dwifly d`xp j` .ipehlyd dpana did 'oeaxea lkid'a lvxd myy ybcdmegza mb dklyd dziid lvxd ly zeipicnd eizexez oial dl`d zeiztxvd zecnrdoexwr lr zqqeand zilklk dyib lvxd rivd 'cpliephl`' extqa ,dnbecl .ilklkd

.zeiccdd24.eiazkn dnka d`e'bxea lv` mb riten zilklkd zeiccdd oeirx25oicd ondcaer oeiva wtzq` dry itl j` ,mixeaigd oia dwifd z` mihxt ihxta `et` oegal

.cala efedid zpicn' xtqd ik dprhd,xara xak drnyp zilxailÎl`iveq dcnr bivn 'mic26

m` .dipnxba xzei xge`n mipy dnk ernypy zepeirx dnixhnd dcnrk dbved `idedcnr m` ik ,miipnxb zepeirxl zi`nvr zixewn dnxhd o`k oi` ixd ,mipekp iixaclvxda ze`xl xyt` oiicry oaen .zrd dze`a ztxva ernypy zepeirxn drtyedy

.dtexi` iwlg x`yl ztxvn el` zepeirx exiardy mibedd cg` z`icedid mrd ly xywda od dnecnd dpn`d ly dixe`zd zwcvl orh lvxd ,cere z`f

`zercd zxiwq e`x .'illk oevx'l eqgiizda eqex oeekzd dnl dl`ya ehagzd miax .6 'nr ,(f"hyz) eqexzecnrl wfg gzt dgzt ezcnry jka eqex z` miy`d oenlh awri .171±169 'nr ,(1957) s`b df oiipr lr.43 ,41 ,39 'nr cegiia ,50±38 'nr ,(1970) oenlh e`x .zeixhilheh zecnrl xzei xge`ne zeihqiaihwlewmewnd o`k `l j` ,elld miiywd z` swer dnecn dpn` lr exaicy mixg` lye lvxd ly oeeikdy okzii

.dfa jix`dl

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (21

dpicnd znwda d`x `ed ik lirl xxazd icedid xywdl rbepa .iztxvd xywda odmipiipr avnay xaq `ed jkitle ,mrd ly meiwd zngln jezn d`ay dlert zicediddpicna xehqbd ly eiepiny qxb `ed z`f znerl .envr z` zepnl xehqbd lr dfkz` ldpl ezlekiae egeka oi` mrd" :milibxd dpicnd iveli` lya ziyrp ziztxvdz` `evnl mini`znd miyp`d lr elld zeaiqpd lyae ,"swidd iaxe milecbd eipiipr

.`dz xy` jxcd `dz ,oehlyl ribdl jxcd27dixe`z bivdl dqip lvxdy micnl epivnpdpicne dpicn lkae ,micedid ly ihxtd dxwna ± dpicn ly dpepik zwcvdl zillk`ed ,ok lr xzi ;eqex ly eixac lr wleg epi` lvxd ly epeirx .ztxv ly dxwnak,eqexy da oenhd ixehqidd lykd mr ccenzdle eqex ly dixe`zd z` llkyl crep

.ez` ccenzd `l ,lvxd zrcl

mekq ixedxd .e

ly dpepikl zixqend dwcvdd xaca lvxd rivdy dpynl rwxd z` o`k oegal iziqipzextqd z` mb lelkl yi eizepeirxl d`xydd zexewn oiay ze`xdl izlczyd .dpicnly dwif lr riavdl xyt`y okziiy mb izprh ,hxta .ziztxvd zilxailÎl`iveqdjiyndl did xyt` .ilklkd megza zeiztxv zeixe`zl lvxd ly dixe`zd oia ynn,zg` `l xkfed xaky itk .mipiipr dnk cera iztxvd xywda lvxd ly ezpyna oeclehxtae ,mitwz eqex ly dixe`zd cbp lvxd dlrdy miwenipd m` dl`ya winrdl ie`xeizepeirx m`d oegal oiiprn ok enke ,zeixehqid zecaer lr eixaca oryp ok` eqex m`d

na zexg` zeira xeztl miieyr lvxd lyiziirad yeniyd znbeck ,eqex ly ezpy.'illkd oevxd' byena

z` xwal xyt` dxe`kl .rivn lvxdy dpynd mvr z` oegal mewn yi ok enkinexd wegd meyii m` dl`yd zelrl lynl dieyr .zxaecnd dixe`zd ly dzeixqenzenieqn zeizxag zeveaw ly zihqilpxht dcnr bivn epi` dpicn oepik ly xywdaly eztcrd oial z`fd dixe`zd oia wecd xyw `evnl lynl xyt` ± zexg`l qgia

.zihxwehqix`d oehlyd zxev z` lvxd28wwfp recn diidzd mb zxxerzny oaenkezrepzl zixhpelee zetxhvd lr oryidl el did ic `l recne z`fd dixe`zl lvxd

.(mrt icn rinyd envr `edy dprh)29

seygl `l` o`k iz`a `l .elld mipiiprd lkl yxcii lvxd ly ezpyna cwenn weqirepiidc ,ezpyn lr eritydy okzii xy` zextqa dk cr exwgpy dl` lr mitqep zexewniziqipy itk .dxyr ryzd d`nd idly ly ziztxvd zilxailÎl`iveqd diteqelitd

.eizepeirxn wlg dpnn wpi lvxdy dxiaq zexyt` zniiw ,ze`xdl

xy`Îxa mdxa` xevil` 22

mewn i`xn

1zpicn' xtqd ly dpynd zxzek jezn.'micedid

2.13 'nr ,micedid zpicn3.64±63 'nr ,micedid zpicn4.61 'nr ,micedid zpicn5,(1998) oefiab lv` dritend dwelgd it lr

.24±23 'nr6.28±25 'nr ,oefiab7.220±208 'nr ,(1957) s`b e`x8.624±620 'nr ,(1951) uley e`x9.313 'nr ,(1961) uiaelei e`x10xlcp` mbe ;624 'nr cegiia ,(1951) uley e`x

.ef dl`ya dagxda ocd ,(1897)11ipefg mbe ;28 dxrd 91 'nr ,(1990) oiilw e`x

.90±89 'nr ,(a"qyz)12.(1928) ofpxel e`x `yepa oeirl13vd .336 'nr ,(1866) ln`d e`xo`k mixacd zb

,228±221 'nr ,(1957) s`b ly extq it lr `iddpn`d ly mileblbd z`e zegztzdd z` xweqd

.zizxagd14.(1880) diiet15.1 dxrd 48 'nr ,(1998) d`e'bxea e`x16gztae (1932) xbxeand ly ditxbeiaa e`x

xtql xacdSolidarité.1715Îa mqxety wlgd xwira ,(1895) d`e'bxea

driten elld micenra .jli`e 392 'nrn ,i`naezhiyl ely ezhiy oia zyxetn d`eeyd mb`ed my ,1 dxrd 392 'nr mb e`x .eqex ly

.igxf`d wega mixaecnd miwegl qgiizn18e`x .15 dxrd 300 'nr ,` ,micedid oiipr e`x

xtql xac gzta mbSolidaritéd`e'bxea ,.8±7 'nr ,(1998)

19.(c"lyz) sxye oiia e`x20.99 'nr ,oeaxea lkid21oiipr e`x .1899 zpya miiwzd df ybtn

.121 'nr ,a ,micedid22,cpliephl` ;114 'nr ,` micedid oiipr e`x

"micedid oiipr"n' ,ixpia` dnly ;156 'nr,('micedid oiipr'l `eand) ' "micedid zpicn"l

.45 'nr23oiipr ;55 ,41 ,21 'nr ,micedid zpicn e`x

zel`yl yicwd lvxd .545 'nr ,` ,micedid.260 'nr ,dicela oeleq dfgna mewn elld

24,(f"txz) dixel ;147 'nr ,cpliephl` e`xoeirxa dagxda wqr dixel .173±162 'nr

.lvxd lv` 'zeil`ehen'd25.53 'nr ,(1998) d`e'bxea e`x26sxye oiia oke ;140±138 'nr ,(c"vxz) oiia e`x

mileki eppi` ik oiivn oiia .k±gi 'nr ,(c"lyz)`xwy zihqil`iveqd zextqd `id dn zedfl

ql .lvxdly zihqiliveqd ezqitz lr dxiw.161±132 'nr ,(f"txz) dixel e`x lvxd

27.151±150 'nr ,oeaxea ilkid28gkeeidl xyt` .67±66 'nr ,micedid zpicn

lvxd ly exn`na mi`yepd ipy oiay xywa.lirl xkfedy rhwa ,'oeaexea lkid'a

29ly eixac ;23 ,11 'nr ,micedid zpicn e`xzetxhvdd ,cec itl .137 'nr ,cpliephl` ,cec

.zixhpelee `id dycgd dxagl

zexewn zniyx

.(aia`Îlz) lvxd ,(1983) qenr ,oeli`ac mbxz ,` ,lvxd iazk xgan ,eizeclez xtq :lvxd xece`iz ,(c"vxz) qkl` ,oiia

.(aia`Îlz) ignwxciw oxd`e oeivÎoa ryedi ,'lvxd a`f oinipa ly zipeivd ezpyn' ,(g"lyz) qkl` ,oiia

.(milyexi) zipeiv zeipicne dibele`ici` ,(mikxer).(milyexi) b-` ,qix`tn zeazk :lvxd ,(c"lyz) (mikxer) sxy 'ne qkl` ,oiia

?dnvr z` dniybnd d`eap e` avn xe`iz :zizwegd dktdnd ,(1998) zex ,oefiab.(milyexi)

.(aia`Îlz) miazk ,(e"kyz) mleyn ,lexb

) 'dnecnd dpn`d' ziixe`zquasi contractlvxd ly (23

.(aia`Îlz) 1 ,lvxd iazk ,cpliephl` ,(j"yz) a`f oinipa ,lvxd.(aia`Îlz) 6 ,lvxd iazk ,'oeaxea lkid' ,(`"kyz) a`f oinipa ,lvxd

.(aia`Îlz) iriay dfgn ,6 ,lvxd iazk ,'dicela oeleq' ,(`"kyz) a`f oinipa ,lvxd.(milyexi) ` ,miipeiv mixn`ne mine`p ,(e"lyz) a`f oinipa ,lvxd

.(milyexi) il`ei ikcxn mbxz ,micedid zpicn ,(e"nyz) a`f oinipa ,lvxd.(milyexi) micedid oiipr ,(g"pyz) a`f oinipa ,lvxd

.11 ,zlkz ,'?zicedi dpicn dvx lvxd m`d' ,(a"qyz) mxei ,ipefg.(aia`Îlz) zeizxagde zeihiletd eizetwyde lvxd xece`iz ,(f"txz) dyn ,dixel

ecdn ,zizxagd dpn`d lr ,(f"hyz) w`'f o`'f ,eqexxe` sqei mbxz ,ziyily dx.(milyexi)

mbxz ,mixn`n jeza ,'mc`d ipa oia oeieeydÎi`l zeceqid' ,(b"pyz) w`'f o`'f ,eqex.(milyexi) weqa ecir

.d ,zepeivd ,'qix`ta lvxd' ,(g"lyz) cec ,ixryAndler, Charles (1897), �Du quasi-Contract Social et de M. Léon Bourgeois�,

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de 15 Mars, 1er Avril, 1er Mai et 15 Mai.Bourgeois, Léon (1998), Solidarité (Septentiron).Bourgeois, Léon (1907), Essai d�une Philosophie de la Solidarité: Conferences et

Discussion (Paris).Fouillée, Alfred (1880), La Science sociale contemporaine (Paris).Gough, John W. (1957), The Social Contract: A Critical Study of Its Development,

2nd Edition (Oxford).Hamburger, Maurice (1932), Léon Bourgeois 1851�1925 (Paris).Hammel, Ernest (1866), Histoire de Robespierre, 2 (Paris).Harel, Haya (1999), �From the Palais Bourbon to Der Judenstaat�, Gideon

Shimoni & Robert S. Wisrtich (eds.), Theodor Herzl: Visionary of the JewishState (Jerusalem & New York).

Jolowicz, Herbert F. (1961), Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law(Cambridge).

Klein, Claude (1990), L�État des Juifs: Nouvelle traduction de l�allemand et notes deClaude Klein (Paris).

Lorenzen, Ernest G. (1928), �The Negotiorum Gestio in Roman and Civil Law�,Cornell Law Quarterly, 13.

Schulz, Fritz (1951), Classical Roman Law (Oxford).Talmon, Jacob L. (1970), The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (New York).