SenecanParatragoedia

Anna Lydia Mono y JohnR, CLARK

RESUMEN

No obstanteque el interésy el reconocimientode la importanciade lasobrasteatralesde Sénecahancrecidosin interrupcióndesdeel siglo xíx, a al-,gunoscríticos todavía les perturbacieno excesoque existe en estasobras—los personajessonfrecuentementeretóricos,tiesos,histriónicos,histéricos.Muy a menudoestetipo de excesoincitabael desdénduranteel siglo xíx. Seargumentabaque los protagonistasde Séneca,como Medea,eranmerasver-sionesderivadase.inclusodoblesparódicosdesuspredecesoresgriegos.Noobstante,es estacuestiónde aparodiaola que ofreceunanuevaperspectivaen las tragediasde Séneca.A diferenciadelos héroesy las heroínasde la tra-gediagriega, los personajesde Sénecaprovocantemor en lugar de piedad.Puesestospersonajesdel primer siglo romanosonmerascaricaturasde losgrandeslíderes de un período anterior. Ellos pueden ser comprendidoscomounameraparodiadeantiguasfigurasdedignidady dehonor.

SUMMARY

Although interest in and recognitionof the importanceof the Senecanplayshavebeen,sincethe nineteenthcentury,steadily on the rise,neverthe-lesscritics arestill disturbedby certainexcesseslii theseplays — the charac-ters areoften rhetorical,stilted,histrionic, hysterical.Justsuch excessesfre-

CuadernosdeFilologz’aClásica.Estudioslatinos,9-1995.ServiciodePublicaciones13CM. Madrid

136 Atina Lydia Molto y John 1?. Clark

quentlypromptedmuch of the nineteenth-century’sscorn. It wasarguedthatthe Senecanprotagonists,like Medea,were mere derivative versions andevenparodicdoublesof their Greekpredecessors.Yet it is preciselythismat-ter of «parodyothat offers a new perspectiveon Seneca’stragedies.Unlikethe heroesandheroinesof Greektragedy,Seneca’scharacterselicit fear rat-hertran pity. FortheseFirst-CenturyRomanpersonaearemerelycaricaturesof the giant leadersof an carlierera.Theycanthusbe understoodto bemereparodiesof ancientfiguresof dignity andhonor.

After experiencinga low-pointof esteemin the critieism of the nineteenthcentury,Senecantragedyhas undergonea reversalof fortune; interest in andrecognitionof the importanceof the Senecanplays havebeensteadilyon therise, as recentbook-lengthstudiestestify >. Nonetheless,scholarsunderstan-dablyare still disturbedby certainexcessesin theseselfsameplays—thecharac-tersare often rhetorical,stilted,histrionic, nearto hysterical.Justsuchexcessesfrequentlyprompledmuch of the nineteenth-century’sscorn. Wilamowitz, forexample,deprecatedoneof Seneca’splayswith a sarcasticwitticism:

DieseMedeahatoffenbardicMedeadesEurípidesgelesen2~

Onerecentcommentatorhaselaborateduponthis remark:

That Senecahimself has studiedEuripideswith greatcare is indisputableandhardlyan occasionfor complaint,but thatbis charactershouldseemtosharethebenefitsof that study is consideredampleevidenceof an artisticfailure.Taken literally suchan interpretationwould openthe possibility oftheLatin Medeaappearingnot as avitiated, derivativeversionof her Greekpredecessorbut ratheras her parodicdouble,reenactinga roleshehasme-morized but adding tbe surplus of an ironic self-consciousnessbroughtaboutpreciselyby herfamiliaritywith analreadyscriptedpart ~.

Concurring with Wilamowitz, this critic adds that his own commentsare«scarcelyintendedas a perverseargumentfor a new perspectiveon Senecan

Studiesappearingwithin thc last decadeincludet MargaretheBillerbeck, SenecasTra-gódien.SprachhicheandS¡ihistischetintersachangen,Leiden& NewYork, 1988; A. J. Boyle,cd.SenecaTragicus. RamusEssayscm SenecanDrama, Maryborough,Mis., 1983; GordonBraden,Renaissance7ragedyandtheSenecanTradition, NewHaven,1985; DenisandElisabethHenry,Tite Mask of Power: SenecasTragediesand Imperial Rome,Chicago, 1985;Anna Lydia Mottoaud John R. Clark, SenecanTragedyAmsterdam, 1988; Norman T. Pratt, SenecasDrama,Chapel Hill, NC., 1983; and ThomasO. Rosenrneyer,Senecan,Drama and Stoic CosmnologyBerkeley& Los Angeles,1989.

2 Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moeliendorff, «Einleitung»to Euripides Medea,in GriechischeTragoedien,3 vols.,Berlin 1906,vol. 3, p. 162.

Michael André Bernstein,«When the Carnival Turns Bitter: Preliminary RetlectionsUpon theAbjectHero, Crificallnqairy 10 (1983)287.

SenecanParatragoedia 137

tragedy.»Yet it is preciselythe matterof «parodyoandof «self-consciousness»that can indeedoffer just such a new perspectiveon the Senecanplays, andthatpossibilitywill beseriouslyentertainedin thesepages.

First of alí, it shouldbe observedthatmostof Seneca’sevil charactersareadeptactors,capableof donningmasks,feigning attitudes,andplaying roles.Despite her outburststhroughoutthe drama, Medea is able to play beforeKing Creonte role of aweak and helplesswoman,a grievingsuppliant,soli-tary and distraught;despitehis legitimate fears (Medeais, after ah, a verydangerouswitch), shemanagesto win from Creona twenty-fourhour reprie-ve before being exiled—andthat providesber with ample time to work outher terriblevengeance,avengeancethat includeste destructionof this self-sameKing. In the scenewith herhusbandJason,sheis ableto assumesorneself-control,to conductrational discourse,andto requestof him a «boon»—that shebe allowedto give herchildrenonelastfarewell embrace.She is alsoableto allay many of Jason’sfearsand to extractfrom him important infor-mationabouthisown weaknesses.

Atreus, in the Thyestesis equally the masterfulactor; he suavelyfeignsbeinga forgiving and loving sovereignwho longsto sharete thronewith hisexiled brother.The gageof his performanceis his utter successin deceivingThyestesandthe Chorusof Mycenaeans.And Atreus-as-actoris douhtlessaLhis worst when he assumesthe mantle of priest and conductsan elaborate«blackmasso,whereThyestes’sonsare ritually slaughteredat a mock-altartAs usual,he conduetshimselfin his rolewith zestandaplomb.

In the Agarnemnon,Clytaemestrasimilarly actsa convincing part: shefeigns love and welcomeand wifely fidelity that convincesthe messengerEurybatesand her own returning Lord—until he is entrappedand subse-quently sIam.Phaedralikewise, in the Fhaedn,is capableof winningte pityandcomplianceof herNutrix, of playing the coy andfainting damsel-in-dis-tressbeforeI-lippolytus, andof assumingbeforeherhusbandTheseusthe ro-le of a chastemaidenwrongfu]ly ravishedby herruthlessstep-son.Even mi-nor butnastycharactersundertaketo play new parts; in the Troades,thewilyUlyssesactsas if Astyanaxhasbeencapturedand completelysuceeedsin ha-ving Andromachetaken in by this rase.Helen similarly pretendsto bring«goodnews»to Polyxena,wbenin fact the girí is to be ablood sacrificeuponAchilles’ tomb.

Suchplay-actingis characteristieof NewComedy—employedto cmphasi-ze the fertility of a tricky slave’s wits and Lo vindicatethe love-sickprotago-nistby revealinghis dedicationandsincerity,his inventivenessandflexibility.It is, therefore,unexpectedwhenthis self-sameplay-actingflourishesin Sene-cantheatre,in the so-called«tragediesof blood»,whereit servesas thevehi-cíe for a villain’s or a criminal’s triumph. Furthermore,suchrole-playingren-

Thyestes,627-758.

138 Anna Lydia Motto y John R. Clark

ders the principIe actors in Senecandrama more theatrical and self-cons-cious; they are the successful«makers»of their cruel plots, the choreogra-phersandmanipulatorsof their own harshandbloodstaineddestinies.

Indeed,it is just this rnixtusof play-actingandvillainy which rendersSene-cas playsso unusualas «tragedies.»Thecentral charactersteud to be rash,ra-bid, villainous. As concernsthe likes of an Atreus, a Clytaemestra,an Oedi-pus, or a Medea,thereis little for an audienceto pity aboutthem,and rathertoo muchto fear. Onerecentcritic hasnotedthat Romanswere the inventorsof purely «evil» characters5; Senecadoesindeedstand foremostamongthem.Furthermore,it is Senecawho movessuch charactersto stage-center,givingthem the dominantprotagonist’srole. The cruelMezentius,for example,~5 pe-ripheral to Vergil’s epic,but an Atreus,a Clytaemestra,a Medeaplay the leadrole. In addition, thesecharactersarestrikingly self-conscious.

It is little wonderthat Wilamowitz singlesout Seneca’sMedeafor his re-mark; sheis acutelyself-aware.«Medeasuperest»6, shetelísus, aud«Est(cf ¡ticmaiormetus)/Medea»7. 1-terown name,hertalents,herplans,herthreats,herpastareforeverupon herlips.

In addition to that, she is almost a travestyof extravagantemotionandchangeableness:

Incertaqualisentheosgressustulitcum iam receptomaenasinsanitdeoPindi nivalis verticeautNysaeiugis,talis recursathucethucmotueffero,furorisoresignalymphatigereus.tlammatafaciesspiritumex alto citat,proclamat,oculosuberifletu rigat,renidet;omnisspecimenaffectuscapit.(Medea,382-389)~.

(Justasa maenad,whenthedeity inhabitsherbody,tottersunsteadilywith inspiredstepsandrunsmadalongthetopof snowyPindusor upontheridgesofNysa,soMedeadashesabout,hereandthere,with wild motions,revealingin herfacethesignsof frantic madness.Hercheeksareinflamed,shegaspsfin breath,shecriesaloud,hereyesoverflowingwithtears,sheis radianí...)

Consult 8. 0. Farron. «The Roman Invenlion of Evil, Stadies ¡a Antiqaity 1 (1979-1980, 13-46.

6 Medea,166.Medea,516-517.

6 Ah translationsarc «urown.

SenecanParatragoedía 139

This rabidity and oscillation on Medea’spart are only exacerbatedby herpersistenthyperboleandbombast,herpropensityto over-stateherprofoundconvictionof self-importance.

dumterracaelummedialibratumferetnitidusquecertasmundusevolvetvicesnumerusqueharenisderit et solemdies,noctemsequenturastra,dumsiccaspolusversabitArctos,Ilumina in pontumcadent,numquammeuscessabitin poenasfurorcrescetquesemper.quaeferarumimmanitas,quaeScylla,quaeCharybdisAusoniummareSiculumquesorbensquaeveanhelantempremensTitanatantisAetnafervebitminis?nonrapidusamnis,nonprocellosummarePontusveCorosaevusautvis igniumadiutaflatu possitimitari impetumirasquenostras;sternamet evertamomnia.(Medea,401-414)

(Aslongasmiddleearthshallsupportthebalancedheavens,andtheshininguniversecontirniejts ceaselesachanges,solongassandsbenumberless,anddayaccompanythesun,andstarsattendthenight, solongastheconstellationsrevolvein theheaveus,solongasriversrun downinto thesea,just solongwill my rageforvengeanceneverceaseandshallswell forever.Whatsavageryof wildbeasts,whatScylla,whatCharybdis,swallowingtheAusonianaudSiciliansea,whatAetnaoppressingtheroaringTitan,shallragewithsuchthreatsas1?No rapidstream,no stormyseaor Pontisragingwith thenorthwestwind, or forceof fire drivenby thegalecanmatchthe impetusof my wrathl1 shallviolently overthrowanddestroyeverything!)

Suchboastful exaggerationvergesupon bathqsand,as we havenoted else-whereaboutanotherSenecanplay, undilutedmelodrama~. Forsucha play isoverfulí with thepaeansandariasof an anguishedbut hyperdramaticperfor-ming self ~o.SmallwonderthatMedeastrikes usat timesasbeingpuppét-like

ConsulíAnua Lydia Motío andJohn R. Clark, «SenecasThyestesasMelodrama,RSC26(1978)363-78.

1» Glorious allusiveandself-assertiverhetoric of this sortgayestrongimpetusto the Re-

140 Atina LycRaMottoy John R. (ilark

and parodic.As a matterof fact, sucha character,with her rapid changesofmood, heremotional ups and downs, and heroutpouringsof rhetoric at ti-mes surprisingly remindsus of the similar excessesso deftly mockedby Pc-tronius, in figureslike Encolpius,the perenniallydistraughtlover, and Eumol-pus,theperpetuallydeclaimingbard ~‘.

To complementthe hyperbolicvoiceandthecopiousfigures of rhetoric,weencounterthroughoutSeneca’splaysanacceleratingcriminalaction.

per scelerasempersceleribustutumestiter

(Agametnnon,115)

(Thesafewayfor crimeis alwaysthroughcrime)

is the clarion calI of Clytaemestrain the Agamemnon.There is a powerfulforce in the plays that pressesfor the advancementof crime in greaterandgreaterproportions.The sametendencyspurseachgenerationon. As Clytae-mestraexplainsaboutherow~Houseof PelopsandTyndarus,

O scelerasempersceleribusvincensdomus!

(Agamemnon,169)

(OHouse,alwaysovercomingcrimewithcrime!)

We thusencounterin Senecantragedyakind of perverse«ideaof progress»:thingsmustinevitablygetworseandworse! >2 Medeaevennotesthatherownearlier criminal actscry out for andfunetion as catalystsin instigatingfreshcrime:

scelerate hortenturtuaet cunclaredeant...(Medea,129-130)

(Let your own crimesurgeyou on andlet themalí return...)

naissancetheatre;oneneedrecollectwhatwas knownas «Marlowe’smight line» andsorneofhis mostnotoriousrantingfigures,TamburlaineandBarabas.

Needlessto say,Petroniusachievespowerful irony also,by havingdiminutive fools andtoadiesbear the namesof once-grandepical heroes,Agamemnonand Menelaus.These rno-derasaremerehusks,shells,andcaricaturesof theoriginal mythicandheroicfigures.

12 A moderncomicwork postulateswith mock-scientificseriousnessthat,in the world. ifthings canpossiblygo wrong, theyassuredlywill; seeArthur Bloch, Murphy’s Law and OtherReasoasWhyThingsGoWrong4Los Angeles1977.

SenecanParatragoedia 141

For such crimes are consistentlyrepresentedas part of an ordained,on-going, and acceleratingprocess.Note the exchangein the ThyestesbetweenthehorrifiedChorasandtheNuntiuswho reportsAtreus’dreadfuldeeds:

CHORVS

O saeuumscelus!

Exhorruistis?hactenussi statnefas,

plusest.

CHORVS

NUNTIVS

An ultramaiusautatrociusnaturarecipit?

ÑUNTIVS

Scelerishuncfinem putas?gradusest.(Thyestes,743-747)

(CHORUS

O savagecrime!

MESSENGER

Doesthishorrify you?If that’sbisonlycrime,heis pious

CHORUS

Doesnatureknow of anycrimegreateror moreatrociousthanthis?

MESSENGER

Do you think thisis fuelinuit?It’s merelythefirst step.)

142 .4nnaLycRaMottoy John R. Clark

Ihere is, distinctly in theseplays,a gradasad nefanda,a gradasad inferno. In away, theseviciouscharactersarethe reverseof theStoicproficienteswhostro-ve for moral progress,for wisdom. Unlike them, thesevile manipulatorsarejourneying toward scelera, seekingnot the summumbonum,but rather thesummummalum.Hence,behavinglike a competitor,Atreusviews himself assorne sort of regal Olympic athletewho, by a seriesof unspeakablecrimes,hasdeservedlywon the«palm> of victory >~.

Thus it is that suchcharactersare portrayedas travellingupon aprescri-bedcourse,imitating a knownaction,being hoistedby an automatedfork-lift,and trundíedalong upon a conveyorbelt to a foregoneconclusion.Needlessto say, sucha mechanicalportrayal of evil undermines4w very conceptofIhe tragicherofor whom,in spiteof his flaws, te readerfeelspathos.

Moreover,thereis anothersensein which thesevicious charactersmaybe understoodasenactinga burlesqueimitation of humanisticvalues.A fun-damentalcredo of Western Civilization hasbeenthe transíatiostudii, a con-ception that understandsthe growth of civilizations and the amalgamation,transfer,and integrationof cumulativeknowledgeovervastperiodsof time—from Egypt to Crete to Greeceand onwardto Rome.Ancestorswere wor-shippedand«patterns»from the pastdiscerned,exalted,andimitated, finallyattainingdecorumandthc statusof the«classic».

Particularly wasthis meansof transmissionidolized in primitive oshamecultures»,wherewhole tribes worshipped,revered,andalmostunconsciouslyimitatedrole-modelsandidealpatternsof behaviorfrom the past.

Dasantikelch undseinBewusstseinvon sichwareinanderesals dasunsere,wenigerausschliesslich,wenigcrscharfumgrenzt.Es standgleichsamnachhinten oflenundnahmvomGewesenenvielesmit auf,wasesgegenwártigwicderholte,undwasmit ibm ‘wiederda’ war.DerspanischeKulturphilosophOrtegay Gassetdríickt dassoaus,dassderantikeMensch,cheeretwastue,cinenSchrittzurticktrete,glcichdemTorero,derzumTodesstossaushole.Er sucheinderVergangcnheitcm Vorbild, in daser wie incineTaucherglockeschlíipfe,um sichso,zugleichgeschiitztund cntstcllt.

3 U Medea1017: «Meusdiesest.»

SenecanParatragoedia 143

in dasgegenwártigeProblemhineinzustiirzen.Darumsei 5cm Lebenin gewisserWeisecm Beleben,cm archaisierendesVerbalten14

(Theegoof antiquityandits consciousnessof itself wasdifferentfromours,lessexclusive,lesssharplylimited.It was,sotospeak,open-endedandtookmuchfromthepastwhich it repeatedinthepresent,reanimatingit. ThelearnedSpanishphilosopherOrtegay Gassetstatesthatman in antiquity,beforedoinganything,tookastepbackwards,like thebull-fighterwho stepsbackbeforedeliveringtEte deathblow. Hesearchesthepastfor a pattern,intowhich hemightslipasinto adiving-bellsothat, beingthusprotectedandsituated,hemight plungeintobisrpresentproblem.As a result,his lifewasin a certainwaya reanimation,andarchaizingposture.)

Even in later ageswas this customof imitating the greatmenof earlieragessustained.Thus,JonathanSwift in the eighteenthcenturystill looks back tothewisemenof yorefor guidanceanddirection:

• JinPointsof Ronourto betry’d,AII Passionsmustbelaid aside:Ask no Advice,butthink alone,SupposetheQuestionnotyour own:I-Iow diMí 1 act?isnottheCase,Buthow would Brutusin myPlace?In sucha Causewould Catobleed?AndhowwouldSocratesproceed?15

In hisprose,Senecahimselffrequently extolledtheuseof theancientsasmo-dels,pattcrns,andguides16•

In the arts,especially,wasthis transmissionof genres,techniques,andta-

4 Thomas Mann, «Freud und die Zukunft, GesarnmetreWerke 12 vds., Oldenburg1960, 9.494-95.

‘> «To Stella, Visiting me in my Sickness»(1720), lines 35-42, in Tite Poetnsof JonaihanSwzft,ed.HaroldWilliams, 3 voIs.,Oxford, 1937,p. 724.

‘< For Senecanpassageson choosinga model or guide, see Ep. 6.5-6; 11.8-10; 25.5-6;57.7-8;64.7-10;94.40-41,55; 102.30;104.21-22;De Brev. ViL 14.5-15.5;De Otto 1.1; and DeVila Beata1.2.

144 Anna LydiaMotto y John R. Clark

lentsconsidereda sacrosanctmeansfor the establishmentof literary tradi-tion. Oneimitatedthepastto secureandsustainone’sidentity, andonly thendid oneacquire the confidenceto advancebeyondone’smentorsand pro-ceedupon one’sown.ThathadbeenHorace’sgoal:

dicar

princepsAeolium carmenadItalosdeduxissemodos~

(1 sEtalí behailed...tEte first to havefitted AeoliansongtoItalianmeasures.)

When Milton speaksboldly in hisverse of his own new creativeendeavors,of hisattemptingto accomplish

Thingsunaítemptedyet in Proseor Rhime,»>~

he is making clearhis position within the tradition. Forhim to know what hasbeen«unattemptedyet» signifiesthat he is entirely familiar with the literarypast that he hastracedand followed t9 Only thereafter,under the aegisofthesefigures from the past,can one Ihen hope to advance.Thus, too, didDanterequirethe succorandguidanceof the poetVergil, ashe commencedto investigatea whole new literary world—and Vergil, with the help of Ho-mer,haddonevery muchthesame.

Whatwe encounterin Senecantragedyis virtually an imitation andmoc-kery of tEtis tradition. Characterslike Phaedraperceiveaperversefamily «tra-dition» to which theybelong:

Et ipsanostraefatacognoscodomus:tugiendapetimus...(Pitaedra. 698-699)

(Imysclfrecognizethe fateof my House:we seekwhatshouldbeavoided...)

‘ Horace. (urna 3.30.10,13-14.‘< ParadiseLan, Bk. 1. line 16, in Milto,Vs Complete Poems.ed. FrankAlíen Patterson,New

York 1936,p. 160.‘» Milton is in fact echoingAriosto, Orlando PanosoJi, 2: Cosa non dettamai in prosané

In rlma.

SenecanParatragoedia 145

As CassandraobservesconcerningAegisthusandClytaemestra,suchcharac-tersaresíavesto their kin, to their ancestry:

uterquetantoscelererespondetsuis—esthic Thyestenatus,haecHelenaesoror.(Agamemnon,906-907)

(In sogreatacrime,eachrespondsto his ownbackground—thismanbornof Thyestes,she,Helen’ssister.)

In fact,thesevillains turn to their savageancestorsas models.Atreus activelyinvokeshisprogenitorsas exemplars.

quidstupes:tandemincipeanimosquesume;TantalumetPelopem— aspice;adhaecmanusexemplaposcunturmeae.(Thyestes,241~243)>o

(Whatareyou waiting for? Begin atlastandtakecourage;look to TantalusandPelops;my handsaresummonedto imitatesuchexamples.)

Furthermore,suchSenecanvillains eveninvoke themselves!Their carliercri-mesarecalleduponto serveasguidesfor furtherandfuturecrime:

scelerate hortenturtuaet cunctaredeant...(Medea,129-130)

(Let your own crimesurgeyouon...)

nuncaliquidaudeseeleribusdignumtuis.(Oedipus,879)

(nowdaresomedeedworthyof your crimes.)

And addedto this drive to outdooneselfis the almostpathologicalurgetooutdoone’spredecessors.Theghostof Tantalusin the Thyestesaffirmsthis:

20 TEte agedOedipusin the Phoenissaeunderstandsthathis murderoussonsEteoclesandPolynicesimitate their cursedfather: «meorumfacinorurnexeniplaappetunt,/menunc secun-

tur» (lines331-32).

146 Auno Lydia Mono y John 1?. <York

iam nostrasubite stirpcturbaquaesuurnvincatgenusacme innocentemfaciatetinausaaudeat.(Thyesteá18-20)

(Now from my stockamultitudeiscomingforth which shallsurpassitsown race,daringdeedsas yet undared,andmakingme look innocent.)

Aud the Fury concurs;let novelty andcriminal inventionbe fruitful andmuí-tiply:

necvacetcuiquamvetusodissecrimen—semperoriaturnovum,necunumin uno,dumquepuniturscelus,crescat.(Thyestes,29-32)

(...letno onehavefreetimefo hateoídcrime;let newcrimealwaysarise...)

That is certainlyMedea’saim: to employ uniqueandunaccustomedpunish-ments,to outdoonesselfandaccomplishunheard-ofdeeds.

efferaignotahorrida,tremendacaelopariteracterrismalamensintus agitat— vulneraet caedemet...funus...levia memoravlnimis:haecvirgo feci. graviorexurgatdolor;maioraiam mescelerapostpartusdecent.(Medea,45-50)

(Deepwithin, myevil mmdis stirring upwild deeds,unknown,horrid,deedsto betrembledatboth on earthandin heaven—

wounds,andslaughter,anddeath...1 haverecollecteddeedstootrivial,deedscommittedwhen1 wasa girí. Leta heavierresentmenturgemeon. Nowgreatercrimesbecomeme...)

Atreusachievesthe reductioad absurdumin this samestrain of thinking, forhe yearnsandpines to befilled with a frenzymorevastthanevenhe cantma-gine:

SenecanParatragoedia 147

implen iuvatmaioremonstro.(Thyestes,253-254)

(...it delightsmeto befilled

withgreatermonstrosity.)

Herequiresemotionsanddeedsbeyondalt humanbounds.

Nescioquidanimomaiuset solito ampliussupraquefinesmonshutnanitumet...(Thyestes,267~268)21

(SomethinggreateranólargertEtanusualandbeyondtEteboundsof humancustomissweJJingin mysor>]...)

Surely this stateof mmd achieveswhat cantruly be termedthe «unnatural»,since it aspiresto accomplishfeelingsand actionsquite unavailableto any-one living in the realworld. Sucha state of mmd, of course,indicatestheabandonmentof reason.Clytaemestrain thetumult of herown rageobservesthat sheis sobesetby variousfloodwaters(fluctibusvariis agor, line 138)thatshehascastalí regulationto thewinds:

proindeomisi regimenemanibusineis—quocumqueme ira, quo dolor,quo spesferet,hucire pergam;fluctibus dedimusratem.ubianimuserrat,optimumestcasumsequi.(Agamemnon,141-144)

(Consequently,1 Etavelet theruddergo frommy hands—whereverwrath,wherevergrief,whereverhopesímIl carryme,therewill 1go; 1 Etavesurrenderedmy shipto tEtewaves.Wherereasonerrs,it is bestto follow chance.)

Yet, at other times, Clytaemestra’sthoughtsrun in an altogetherdifferentchannel:

tecumipsanuncevolvefemineosdolos,—quodulla coniunxperfidaatqueimpossuiamorecaeco,quodnovercalesmanus

2 Cf Thyestes195-96. sceleranonulciscerís/nisívincís» (You do not avengecrimesun-lessyou outdothem).

148 Amo Lydia Moito y John R. Clork

ausae,quodardeosimpiavirgo face,PhasiacafugiensregnaThessalicatrabe;ferrum,venena;vel Mycenaeasdomosconiunctasocioprofugefurtiva rate.quidtimida loqueris furtaetexilium etfugas?soror istafecit; te decetmaiusnefas.(Agamemnon,116-124)

(Now evolvein yourown hearta woman’sdecciís— whatanytreacherouswife, onepowerlesswith blind love.what thehandsofstepmothershavedared,whatthemaidenburningwith wickedflamefleeingherPhasiankingdomin aThessalianboathavedared;sword,poison;or fleetheMyceneanhomewithyourpartnerin afurtivebark.But,why areyoutalking timidly ofstealth,of exile,of flight? Yoursisterdid thesethings; agreatercrimeis suitablefor you.)

Far from abandoningreason,Clytaemestrahererehearsesto herselfthe «pat-terns»of thosewomen—unfaithful wives(suchas the Danaides),the treache-rousstep-dame(Phaedra),the barbarianmaid (Medea),andthe guilty sister(Helen)— alí who have committed notoriouscrimes in the past22~ IheseClytaemestrachoosesas herpatronsandguides,ashervery sourceof inspi-ration. Only at the last momentdoesshe abandonsuch patternsand exem-plars,and dreamfeverishly, like Atreus, of dispensingwith modelsand out-doingthem alí.

Clytaemestra’ssoliloquybrings us fulí circle, back to Wilamowitz’s sligh-ting remarkthat Seneca’sMedeamusthavebeenreadingthe Medeaof Euri-pides.MedeaandtheseothermonstrousSenecanprotagonistsmight not spe-cifically have«read»Euripides;but they are acutelymyth-conscious;andtheyarefully imbuedwith anhistorical sense.Forthey know alí toowell what fouldeedstheir ancestorsandothermaleficentavatarshavecommitted,andtheymeditateupon these«patternsoof negativethinking. Hence,they are parodiccharacters,for they imitateoneanother,andevenchildishly long to competewith and to «outdo’ their own vicious cultureheroesand heroines.In themost turbulent stagesof their delusions,they strive to commitdeedsand todreamdreamsaltogetherimpossibleof humanatíainment.

Meanwhile,behindthescenes,Senecaíhe dramatistaccomplishesa higher

22 In his commentary,Tarrantidentifies Phaedraasthe novercaandMedeaasthe Virgo, butconjecturesthat theconuunxrnight begeneralizedand«generie;Seneca,Agameninon,cd. R. J.Tarraní,Carnbridge1976,p. 196.

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order of parody than thesemad vice figures. For, in Seneca’sdeft hands,tEte protagonistsof Greek tragedyhavebeenreducedto modernlittle men-spiteful,fnnous,faltering, anó insecrne,incapableof selí-sacrificeor selí-re-gulation.They contemplatewith sullenenvy 23 tEte wickedactsof their ances-torsandlong to outstrip their vile behavior.Suchcontemptiblecharactersarewhatone recentcritic, speakingof our own era,terms «abjectheroeso24 — de-basedcastawaysfrom civilization, filled with spiteandmalice.

As one critic has observed,«Senecandramaenactsdiscontinuity andbreakdown...>’25 TEte irony of Senecantheateris that his characters,thoughbasedupon thoseof Athenian drama,havebeentransformedinto stuntedandfallen personalitiesof tEte romantic cast—egocentrie,restless,irrational,evil, guilt-ridden, imitative, andunheroic.Theveryfactthat «classic»talesarethus «deformed»gives Seneca’sdramaits meaning.For such First-CenturyRomanpersonaearemerelycaricaturesof the giant leadersof an earlierera.They canbe understoodto bemereparodiesof ancientfiguresof dignity andhonor. Next to AeschyleanandSophocleantragic figures,Seneea’sdiminuti-ve charactersare indeedno more —andno less— than their parodicdoubles.—And sothey wereintendedtobe.

23 Vid Harold Bloom, Tite Anxiety of Influence.A Theory of Poetry New York 1973.Bloorn positsíhat poetssuffer from a typeof Oedipuscomplez,eachnervouslystrugglingto de-featandsurpasshisinfluential progenitorsin the tradition.

24 Michael AndréBernstein,Biuer Carnival: ‘Ressentiment’andtite AbjectHero, Princeton1992.

25 Robert Welch,«SenecaandIhe English Renaissance:The Oíd World andthe New, inLiteratureand tite Art of Creation,cd. RobertWelch audSuheilBadi Bushrui,GerrardsCross,BuckinghamshireandTotowa,NewJersey1988,p. 208.