11 - San Alfonso y La Ciencia de Los Santos

7/27/2019 11 - San Alfonso y La Ciencia de Los Santos

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11.

San Alfonsoy la Ciencia de los santos

DENNIS J. BILLY*

En 1773, san Alfonso public una breve obra titulada: Reflexiones devotas

sobre diversos puntos de espritu para gua de las almas que desean avanzar

en el Amor divino1. Esta popular pieza de lectura espiritual busca ayudar a sus

lectores a profundizar en su relacin con Dios y crecer en su amor. Para

conseguir este fin, Alfonso propone cuarenta y cinco breves meditaciones y un

amplio espectro de cuestiones sobre la vida moral espiritual.

Entre estas reflexiones, incluye una exposicin sobre lo que l llama la

ciencia de los santos que, para l, es simplemente conocer el amor de Dios 2.

Mi propsito en este trabajo es examinar la presentacin que hace Alfonso de

este importante elemento de su visin moral espiritual. Pondr especial nfasis

en su manera de argumentar y en el modo en que conduce a sus lectores a lo

largo del proceso de conversin.

I. UNODEMUCHOS

* * Profesor en la Academia Alfonsiana, Roma.1 A. DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni devote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delle anime che

desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore, in: ID., Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Torino 1846,249-316. [Traduccin inglesa: Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to GuideSouls that Desire to Advance in the Love of God, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), The Complete Works ofSaint Alfonso de Liguori, vol. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York-Cincinnati-St. Louis 1886, 171-306].

2 La scienza desanti sapere amar Dio. Cf. Ibdem, 257; (Pious Reflections...,189).


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DENNIS J. BILLY

Desde el comienzo es importante hacer notar que el estudio de Alfonso

sobre la ciencia de los santos es una de las muchas meditaciones de una

obra especficamente diseada para conducir a otros a la santidad. Para este

fin, l mismo ley cada da un poco de esta pequea obra y animaba a otros a

hacer lo mismo. Debido a que cada meditacin es independiente y relacionada

con las dems en un sentido laxo y temtico, ofrece a sus lectores una ayuda

excelente para la meditacin diaria. Parece que Alfonso escribi esta obra con

este propsito especficamente en su mente3.

La mayor parte de las reflexiones siguen el mismo esquema tripartito: (1) un

breve ttulo, que introduce el tema (2) una meditacin, que lo desarrolla a

travs de un argumento racional y una rica seleccin de fuentes relevantes de

la tradicin catlica, y (3) una oracin conclusiva, que busca incitar al lector a

una oracin sentida desde el corazn 4. La reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia

de los santos, la sexta en esta coleccin, difiere de este formato literario

subyacente slo en que aade a la oracin un ejemplo histrico relativamentereciente para demostrar su punto de vista 5. El uso de este exemplum coloca

esta sexta reflexin como algo aparte de la mayora de las otras que forman la

coleccin, y ofrece a sus lectores un punto concreto de referencia desde el cual

medir su progreso en la vida moral espiritual 6. Por esta razn, el exemplum

debera entenderse formando parte integral de la meditacin y no como un

apndice innecesario o una ocurrencia literaria posterior.

Como textos para la meditacin, las reflexiones de Alfonso estn dirigidas al

corazn y diseadas para conducir a sus lectores hacia actos fervientes de

3

En una carta a la Hermana Brianna Carafa del monasterio de S. Marcellino en Npoles,fechada el 8 de septiembre de 1773, Alfonso escribe: Leo tambin algo cada da de laotra obrita titulada Reflexiones Devotas, etc.. Quisiera haga lo mismo; pues la compuseespecialmente para aquellas almas que desean entregarse completamente a Dios. Ver:Letters of St. Alfonso Maria de Liguori, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 2, 513. Para unainformacin sobre el original italiano, verOpera omnia SantAlfonso de Liguori, Lettera n.0001449 (http://www.eulogos.it/lettere/0001449.htm).

4 La mayora de las meditaciones de Alfonso en otros escritos siguen la misma estructurabsica. Ver, por ejemplo, su Via della salute, en: A. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10,Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1968, 7-133; [Traduccin inglesa: The Way ofSalvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., 17-169].

5 Este exemplum se refiere a la conversin de Pietro Metastasio, el poeta de la corteimperial. Ver: A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1),258; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1),190-191].

6 La sola excepcin es la reflexin decimosptima titulada, Della confidenza in Ges

Cristo. Ver: Ibdem, 275-277; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1),225-229].

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San Alfonso y la Ciencia de los Santos

oracin. No fueron escritas para resistir el intenso examen del telogo

profesional y no se debe esperar que produzcan frutos a ese nivel. Viniendo de

la mano de una de las grandes mentes morales espirituales del siglo dieciocho,

sin embargo, las Reflexiones devotas tienen mucha ms sustancia que su ttulo

podra sugerir en un primer momento. La reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia

de los santos es uno de estos casos. En lugar de ofrecer a sus lectores una

cadena de sentimientos piadosos, les trasmite una enseanza slida que toca

el corazn mismo del mensaje evanglico, es decir, la llamada a la conversin.

II. ELSIGNIFICADODE CIENCIA

Antes de continuar, deberamos decir algo sobre el uso del trmino ciencia

a lo largo de la reflexin.

Alfonso comienza diciendo que hay dos clases de ciencias en el mundo:

una celestial, otra mundana7

. Esta estricta divisin trae a la mente ladescripcin paulina de la lucha entre la carne y el espritu y la descripcin de

san Agustn de la continua lucha entre la ciudad de Dios y la ciudad del

hombre8. Un tipo de ciencia completamente opuesta al otro y puede no tener

nada que ver uno con otro. Esta perspectiva refleja una comprensin de Cristo

contra el mundo en la relacin cristianismo y cultura, que ha sido hecha

famosa por H. Richard Niebuhr9.

En cuanto a la palabra ciencia, el lenguaje de Alfonso permite tres

interpretaciones, dos de las cuales son distintas pero estrechamente

relacionadas, y una tercera que enfoca la cuestin desde otra direccin. Con

respecto a las dos primeras posibilidades, la palabra ciencia puede referirse aun cuerpo objetivo de conocimiento gobernado por un sistema verificable de

reglas y ordenanzas, o a la apropiacin personal de ese conocimiento. De

estas dos posibilidades, la segunda presupone la primera y es la ms

subrayada. La ciencia de cualquier clase sea matemticas, teora literaria o

una disciplina subalterna como la teologa alcanza su pleno potencial cuando

7 Due sorte di scienza vi sono sulla terra, luna celeste, laltra mondana: Ibdem, 257;[Pious Reflections... (nota 1),189].

8 Ro 8,1-12; Ga 5,13-26. Ver tambin AGUSTNDE HIPONA, De civitate Dei, XIV c.28-XVc.2.

9

Cf. H. R. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York 1951, 83-115.

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DENNIS J. BILLY

la persona humana la integra como un cuerpo vivo de conocimiento. Esta

comprensin de la ciencia reconoce las divisiones clsicas de conocimiento

objetivo y subjetivo, pero da una clara preferencia al segundo10.

En la tercera posibilidad, el trmino ciencia se refiere no tanto a un cuerpo

de conocimiento en el sentido objetivo o subjetivo, sino al encuentro

experiencial cara-a-cara con otra persona. En la ciencia de los santos, este

otro es Dios mismo. Esta posibilidad se basa en la diferencia entre conocer

sobre alguien y conocer a alguien personalmente. Con su insistencia en el

crecimiento en santidad y en el conocimiento experiencial de lo sagrado, se

asemeja ms a la visin monstica de la teologa, que a la escolstica, con su

fuerte nfasis en clarificar el objeto de la revelacin 11. Es tambin congruente

con el fuerte nfasis devocional de la devotio moderna tardomedieval en su

sospecha sobre el aprendizaje acadmico y sofisticado 12. Cuando se refiere a la

ciencia de los santos, Alfonso reconoce esta ltima posibilidad como la ms

importante: La ciencia de los santos es conocer el amor de Dios13

. En estecontexto, para Alfonso ciencia tiene que ver con (1) conocimiento y (2) el

amor de Dios. A pesar de que otras posibles interpretaciones no quedan

excluidas de esta simple definicin, el conocimiento al que Alfonso parece

estar refirindose es el conocimiento experiencial de lo divino. Tal conocimiento

no es mstico, en el sentido estricto de experiencias extticas extraordinarias de

lo divino, es ms cercano a los dones del Espritu de conocimiento y sabidura,

que corresponden y completan las virtudes teologales de la fe y la caridad 14.

10 La diferencia entre conocimiento objetivo y subjetivo se remonta a la distincin finisquo/finis cuius de Toms de Aquino. Cf. Summa theologiae, I-II, q. 1, a. 8, resp.

11

Para una comparacin entre teologa monstica y escolstica, ver B. P. GAYBBA,Aspects of the Medieval History of Theology, University of South Africa, Pretoria 1988, 52-57.

12 Cf. O. GRNDLER, Devotio Moderna in: JILL RAITT (ed.), Christian Spirituality: HighMiddle Ages and Reformation, Crossroad, New York 1988,176-93.

13 Cf. nota 2.14 Alfonso probablemente hace derivar la expresin ciencia de los santos (la scienza

desanti) de la definicin de doctrina sagrada dada por Toms de Aquino como cienciasubalterna: Et hoc modo sacra doctrina est scientia: quia procedit ex principiis notislumine superioris scientiae, quae scilicet est scientia Dei et beatorum, Summa theologiae,I, q. 1, a. 2, resp. Sobre la fuerte conexin que establece Toms de Aquino entre ladoctrina sagrada y la sabidura cristiana, verSumma theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 6, res. Para sudoctrina sobre los dones de conocimiento y sabidura, ver Summa theologiae, II-II, q. 9,aa.1-4; q. 23, prol.; q. 45, aa. 1-6. Debe notarse que, para Toms de Aquino, la accin de

los dones del Espritu constituye la verdadera esencia del misticismo cristiano y es un

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cuidadoso. En el siglo dieciocho, toda la base de la casustica moral

descansaba sobre el peso que poda ser atribuido a las opiniones de

autoridades reconocidas. A nivel popular y devocional, las citas de las

autoridades eran utilizadas como un modo de poner a la gente en contacto con

la tradicin viva de la Iglesia. Las autoridades citadas eran normalmente las de

la Escritura y los Padres de la Iglesia, los cuales eran citados abundantemente

para asegurar al fiel la consistencia y profundidad teolgica del mensaje que

estaban recibiendo16.

Alfonso sazona su reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos con una muy

generosa seleccin de autoridades. stas vienen en primer lugar de la Escritura,

los Padres de la Iglesia, los santos, y algunas fuentes seculares bien conocidas.

Por orden de aparicin, sus citas de la Escritura incluyen: 1Cor 3,19; 1Cor

8,1; Sant 4,6; Dt 32,29; Sl 75,6; Sb 10,10; Mt 11,25; y 1Cor 2,2 17. Estas

referencias vienen bien va cita directa o bien por alusin, y estn

seleccionadas por el modo en que contrastan la sabidura celestial con la delmundo. En cuanto a los Padres de la Iglesia, se cita dos veces a san Juan

Crisstomo y dos a san Agustn18. Las citas del primero se refieren

respectivamente a la naturaleza racional del hombre y a la meditacin sobre la

muerte como un camino para el aprendizaje de la vanidad del mundo; por su

parte, las del segundo tienen que ver respectivamente con la importancia de

amar a Dios sobre todas las cosas y cmo los ignorantes son capaces de

levantarse y asaltar el cielo. En cuanto a los santos, Alfonso recurre a san

Francisco, san Pascual, y san Juan de Dios como ejemplos de los que, a pesar

de un pobre conocimiento mundano, fueron particularmente destacados en la

sabidura de Dios19

. En contraste con estas figuras santas, Alfonso mencionacmo la muerte termina con las glorias de este mundo; as afirma que hombres

como Cicern, Demstenes y Ulpiano no tienen ya nada de qu presumir20.

16 Para la definicin de autoridad y del argumento de autoridad, cf. B. MONDIN,Autorit,in: B. MONDIN (ed.), Dizionario enciclopedico del pensiero di san Tommaso dAquino ,Studio Domenicano, Bologna 1991, 73-74. Para una visin ms general, cf. L. K RIEGER,Authority, in: PH. P. WEINER (ed.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas, vol.. 1, CharlesScribners Sons, New York 1973, 141-162, especialmente 147.

17 A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1), 257-58; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1),187-190].18 Ibdem, 257-58; [Pious Reflections...,187-189].19 Ibdem, 258; [Pious Reflections...,189].20

Ibdem, 257; [Pious Reflections...,189].

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En este uso de la autoridad, Alfonso usa la Escritura, los Padres, los santos

y las figuras seculares para presentar el contraste entre sabidura celestial y

mundana. Su intencin al usarlos es ayudar a sus lectores a hacer del

conocimiento del amor de Dios una prioridad en sus propias vidas.

2. Rationes

Adems de las citas de autoridades, Alfonso hace uso de argumentos

racionales para explicar su comprensin de la ciencia de los santos. Y lo hace

incluso cuando parte de su plan es dejar expuesta la debilidad del conocimiento

mundano.

Desde los tiempos de los apologistas cristianos, la razn era valorada como

una herramienta til para exponer las verdades de la fe cristiana.

Probablemente la mejor evidencia del profundo respeto del cristianismo por las

intuiciones de la razn sean las muchas sntesis teolgicas basadas en unamplio espectro de sistemas filosficos, la sntesis neoplatnica de Agustn y la

sntesis aristotlica de Aquino, por nombrar slo unos pocos. Aunque la

comprensin de lo que constituye un argumento racional ha evolucionado en el

curso de la historia, los pensadores cristianos han hecho buen uso de sus

contornos cambiantes para profundizar en su comprensin de la fe. Alfonso no

es una excepcin21.

Tomando la Escritura y las autoridades de la tradicin de la Iglesia como

punto de partida, Alfonso generalmente se mueve de un modo silogstico para

alcanzar una conclusin lgica. Un ejemplo de este uso del argumento racional

aparece pronto en su reflexin:Pero esta ciencia mundana es locura y necedad a los ojos de Dios. La sabidura

del mundo es necedad con Dios. Es necedad, pues hace necios a los que la

cultivan; los hace necios y como las bestias, pues les ensea a gratificar sus

apetitos carnales como las bestias. San Juan Crisstomo escribi: Llamamos

hombre al que preserva la imagen completa de un hombre; y cul es la imagen

del hombre? Ser racional. De modo que si una bestia actuara de acuerdo con

21 Para una presentacin histrica del uso de la razn en la teologa cristiana, cf. J. A.BONSOR,Athens and Jerusalem: The Role of Philosophy in Theology, Paulist Press, New

York and Mahwah, N.J. 1993, 1-97.

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la razn, deberamos decir que tal bestia acta como hombre; del mismo modo

decimos que un hombre que acta basndose en sus apetitos sensuales y de

modo contrario a la razn, acta como una bestia 22.

Alfonso comienza su argumentacin con una identificacin entre necios y

bestias. El conocimiento mundano, declara, ensea a la persona a satisfacer

sus apetitos sensuales. Al hacerlo, la persona se comporta como las bestias.

Una vez establecido este presupuesto subyacente, el resto del argumento fluye

con suavidad. Ser creado a imagen de Dios significa actuar de acuerdo con la

razn. Si un animal actuara de tal modo, sera descrito como actuando como

un hombre. As, si las acciones de un hombre son contrarias a la razn, es

razonable afirmar que est actuando como una bestia. El modo de razonar de

Alfonso aqu es bastante lgico. Usa la razn para apoyar su tesis de que el

conocimiento mundano es necedad a los ojos de Dios23.

3. Exempla

Lo que distingue la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santos de

las dems meditaciones en el libro es el exemplum, tomado de la vida de Pedro

Metastasio, que aade despus de la oracin conclusiva. Como se apunt ms

arriba, el uso de los exempla era una caracterstica comn de la predicacin

medieval y era una herramienta ampliamente usada en tiempos de Alfonso.

Alfonso tambin usa exempla en muchas de sus obras devocionales de modo

que su presencia en esta coleccin de meditaciones no debera sorprender a

nadie. El propsito de un exemplum es ofrecer hechos recientes que ayuden a

22 Ma questa scienza di mondo stoltezza e vera pazzia presso Dio: Sapientia enimhuius mundi stultitia est apud Deum. Pazzia, perch tale scienza rende pazzi tutti coloroche la coltivano: li rende pazzi e simili alle bestie, mentre loro insegna a secondare gliappetiti sensuali come fanno le bestie. Scrive s. Giovanni Crisostomo: Hominem illumdicimus, qui imaginem hominis salvam retinet; quae autem imago hominis? rationalemesse. Per ritener limagine duomo bisogna essere ragionevole, cio operare secondo laragione. Dal che ricavasi che, siccome se vi fosse una bestia che sempre operassesecondo la ragione si direbbe che quella bestia opera da uomo; cos allincontro un uomoche opera secondo lappetito desensi e contro la ragione deve dirsi che opera da bestia.Cf. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1),257; [Pious Reflections...,187-188].

23 Un buen ejemplo de uso alfonsiano de la razn en sus escritos ascticos puede verseen su refutacin del jansenismo en: A. DE LIGUORI, Del gran mezzo della preghiera, in: ID.,Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1962, 117-44. [Traduccin

inglesa: The Great Means of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 2, 161-200].

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la gente a identificarse con el mensaje trasmitido en el discurso. A pesar de que

el exemplum en este caso particular viene al final de la meditacin e incluso

despus de la oracin, juega un importante papel en la presentacin que hace

Alfonso del significado de la ciencia de los santos y debera ser considerado

como una parte integrante de toda la reflexin24.

Puesto que el exemplum es generalmente una narracin histrica breve, es

importante tomarlo en su totalidad. La historia entera tal como fue escrita por

Alfonso es presentada a continuacin:

Permtaseme aqu expresar la gran consolacin que tuve hace pocos das por

una informacin concerniente al objeto de las consideraciones precedentes, la

ciencia de los santos. Me han asegurado que, despus de recibir mucho aplauso

en toda Europa por sus composiciones poticas, las cuales son tan nocivas

como hermosas (me refiero a las que slo tratan del amor profano), pues cuanto

ms tiernas sus expresiones, ms estn calculadas para encender en los pechos

de los jvenes las perniciosas llamas de las afecciones impuras, el celebradoseor Pedro Metastasio ha publicado un librito en prosa, en el cual expresa la

detestacin de sus escritos sobre amor profano, y declara que, si estuviera en su

poder, los retirara y los hara desaparecer del mundo, incluso a costa de su

sangre. Y he sido informado de que sus composiciones poticas se reducen

ahora a piezas sobre materia moral o espiritual, que escribe slo para cumplir

con su obligacin de poeta con la corte imperial. Vive retirado en su propia casa,

llevando una vida de oracin. Esta informacin me ha producido una consolacin

inefable; pues su declaracin pblica y su muy laudable ejemplo ayudar a

desengaar a muchos jvenes que buscan adquirir un gran nombre con

similares composiciones de amor profano. Es cierto que, por esta retractacin, elseor Metastasio se merece ms encomios que mereciera por la publicacin de

mil obras poticas; pues stas pudieron ser alabadas por los hombres, pero

ahora l es alabado por Dios. Pues, como antes detest su vanidad en estimarse

con tales composiciones (no hablo de sus piezas sagradas, que son excelentes y

merecedoras de aplauso), ahora no cesar de alabarle; y si se me permitiera

24 Para una literatura de exempla, cf. O. GREGORIO ET ALII (eds.), S. Alfonso M. DeLiguori, Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma1960, 239-283. Uno de los mejores usos de ejemplos de S. Alfonso lo encontramos en Leglorie di Maria cf. ALFONSO M. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Redentoristi,SantAlfonso, Roma 1935; (Traduccin inglesa: The Glories of Mary, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o.

c., vols. 7-8).

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besara sus pies, viendo que se ha convertido voluntariamente en el censor de

sus obras, y que ahora l desea verlas desaparecer del mundo entero, a precio,

dice l, incluso de su propia sangre25.

Es interesante notar que el otro nico lugar de las Reflexiones Devotas

donde Alfonso usa un exemplum de modo similar es en la reflexin

decimosptima titulada, Sobre la confianza en Jesucristo 26. A pesar de que el

tema de este exemplum es ms difuso, la conversin de Pedro Metastasio (y la

alegra de Alfonso por ella) es subrayado como un punto central. Cuando

leemos estas reflexiones, es claro que Alfonso aadi estos exempla para

sealar a sus lectores, con una evidencia concreta, el movimiento de la gracia

de Dios en medio de ellos. En el contexto presente, Alfonso ayuda a sus

lectores a ver que la ciencia de los santos comienza con el aqu-y-ahora y

no es simplemente algo a lo que aspirar en el ms all. Para los lectores de

esta reflexin, Metastasio representa alguien que ha alcanzado las cimas del

conocimiento mundano, una hazaa que le ha aportado una considerable sumade riqueza y reconocimiento pblico. El vuelco completo de su parte, mostrado

incluso por su deseo de derramar su propia sangre para poder ver su poesa

profana destruida, presenta a los lectores un ejemplo concreto de lo que

25 Mi si permetta qui di manifestare una grande consolazione che pochi giorni sono mirec una certa notizia la quale cade a proposito della materia di sopra considerata dellascienza desanti. Mi fu assicurato per cosa certa, che il celebre abate signor PietroMetastasio dopo tante lodi ricevute da tutta Europa per le sue composizioni poetiche datealle stampe, che quanto pi belle, tanto sono state pi nocive (intendo di quelle cose chetrattano damor profano); poich le sue espressioni quanto sono state pi tenere e vive,tanto pi han potuto accendere necuori depoveri giovani fiamme perniciose daffettiimpuri; al presente ha dato fuori un libretto in prosa, ove detesta queste sue fatiche e siprotesta che se potesse ritirarle tutte e fare che pi non comparissero al mondo lo farebbead ogni suo costo, anche del suo sangue. Ed in effetto mi dicono che ora non componepi in versi se non alcuni drammi spirituali o morali costretto dallincombenza che tiene dipoeta della corte cesarea, e che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita devota e di orazione.Io no ho intesa una consolazione indicibile, perch questa sua pubblica dichiarazione equesto suo lodevolissimo esempio giover a far ravvedere molti giovani ingannati checercano acquistar nome ed onore con simili componenti amorosi. E certo che il signorMetastasio con tal sua dichiarazione merita pi encomio che se avesse dato alla luce millefamosi libri di poesia; mentre con quelli sarebbe lodato dagli uomini ed ora lodato daDio. Quindi ove prima io detestava la di lui vanit in pregarsi di tali suoi componimenti(non parlo dei drammi sacri che sono eccellenti e degni dogni lode), ora non mi sazio dilodarlo, e se mi fosse permesso gli bacerei i piedi, vedendolo fatto da se stesso censore diquelle sue opere, con desiderio di vederle abolite per tutto il mondo a costo (come dice)anche del suo sangue. Cf. A. DE LIGUORI, o. c. (nota 1),258; [Pious Reflections...,190-91].

26

Cf. nota 6.

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Alfonso ha estado diciendo. Pedro Metastasio no es un santo como san

Francisco de Ass, san Pascual o san Juan de Dios, sino alguien que ha

alcanzado las alturas del conocimiento mundano y sentido todo el peso de sus

vacas promesas. Alfonso incluye este exemplum al final de su reflexin porque

quiere que sus lectores reflexionen sobre su propia situacin ante las vanas

promesas del conocimiento mundano y actuar en consecuencia.

IV. ELUSODELTIEMPO

El uso por Alfonso de estos tres distintos tipos de argumentos auctoritates,

rationes, y exempla es importante para su presentacin de la ciencia de los

santos, porque cada uno de ellos empuja al lector en una particular

perspectiva sobre el significado y naturaleza del tiempo 27. Para entender las

connotaciones ms profundas de la reflexin de Alfonso, el lector debe tener en

cuenta estas tres perspectivas.

1. Auctoritates

Los argumentos de Alfonso desde la autoridad son tomados de la Biblia o

de los Padres de la Iglesia. Ambas fuentes subrayan el papel de la memoria y

de la retrospeccin para la comprensin del lector del tiempo, aunque de

diferentes modos. Las numerosas citas de la Escritura provienen del Antiguo y

Nuevo Testamento, y trasmiten un sentido de los muchos caminos por los

cuales Dios ha hablado a su pueblo a travs de los siglos. Este sentido de

multiplicidad temporal queda claro cuando se tiene en cuenta los muchosgneros literarios que componen la palabra escrita de Dios28. Las citas de

Alfonso representan la palabra de Dios tal como ha sido expresada en variedad

de medios: proverbios, himnos, cartas y los dichos de Jess. Aunque fueron

compuestas hace mucho tiempo, todas estas palabras retienen su significado

para el lector de hoy. Son afirmadas por los comentarios de los Padres de la

Iglesia, tales como Agustn y Crisstomo, cuyas intuiciones muestran que la

27 La conexin entre los tres tipos de argumentacin y el retrato de tiempo viene de J.LEGOFF, o. c., 78-80. La aplicacin a la reflexin de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los santoses ma.

28

La frase multiplicidad temporal es de J. LEGOFF, o. c., 79.

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DENNIS J. BILLY

palabra de Dios necesita ser escuchada e interpretada de nuevo en cada

poca. Cuando se toman en conjunto, las autoridades de la Escritura y los

Padres de la Iglesia ofrecen una comprensin escatolgica del tiempo, que

recoge el pasado en el presente al tiempo que mira hacia su futuro

cumplimiento. Cuando se aplica a la ciencia de los santos, este enfoque del

ya-pero-todava-no orienta al lector hacia el futuro, a travs del presente, por

va del pasado. Introduce al lector en la historia de la implicacin de Dios con

su pueblo y enciende la confianza para afrontar cualquier reto que el futuro

pueda traer29.

2. Rationes

Los argumentos racionales de Alfonso afirman la naturaleza eterna de la

verdad y la capacidad de la mente humana para percibirla. Subrayan las

funciones invariables y perennes de la verdad en medio del cambio histrico. Elcarcter atemporal de estas afirmaciones reducen la percepcin del tiempo a

un agente limitado e imperfecto. El tiempo no contiene la verdad, sino que es

contenido por ella. Los argumentos de Alfonso confrontan al lector a travs del

medio del presente didctico. No limitado por el tiempo, entran en su

conciencia a travs de las conclusiones sacadas por silogismo o deduccin

lgica. La afirmacin resultante funde las categoras del tiempo y lo eterno y

ofrece al lector la oportunidad de encarnar la verdad en un momento de

intuicin razonada.

A pesar de que puedan parecer intrusas en una meditacin enfocada en

gran medida sobre la futilidad del conocimiento humano, estas rationes

proveen un teln de fondo significativo sobre el cual conduce su reflexin sobre

la ciencia de los santos. Todos los otros tipos de autoridad introducidos por

Alfonso presuponen y utilizan, de algn modo, un elemento de la capacidad de

la razn para alcanzar la verdad. Sin esto, el movimiento de su reflexin no

podra moverse de una intuicin a la siguiente ni podra influenciar a sus

lectores con su poder para persuadir30.

29 Para el uso devocional que Alfonso hace de las autoridades, ver O . GREGORIOET ALII

(eds.), o. c., 329-331.

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3. Exempla

A diferencia de otros tipos de autoridad usados por Alfonso, el exemplum

coloca al lector en la experiencia diacrnica del tiempo. El movimiento narrativo

de un ejemplo histrico reciente familiariza al lector con su propia experiencia

cotidiana. El propsito del exemplum es establecer una conexin con el lector, demodo que las intuiciones expuestas en otras reas de la reflexin tengan un valor

ms inmediato y personal. El exemplum pone carne y hueso a las verdades

abstractas desarrolladas antes en la reflexin por las auctoritates y rationes.

Tambin le invita a considerar la posibilidad de incorporarlos a su propia vida.

Los Exempla a menudo describen un caso de conversin en la vida de un

personaje histrico de reciente memoria. En el caso de la reflexin de Alfonso

sobre la ciencia de los santos, sta se refiere a Pedro Metastasio, el poeta de

la corte imperial, y al rechazo de su poesa profana. Alfonso incluye este

ejemplo en su reflexin por varias razones: la fama de Metastasio, la cualidad

dramtica de su rechazo, la vida de reclusin y oracin que abraz, y su deseode derramar su sangre para defender sus nuevas convicciones. Todas estas

cualidades dan a Alfonso una oportunidad nica. Metastasio es una figura bien

conocida por sus lectores, que alcanza el pinculo de la ciencia mundana y la

rechaza a favor de la celeste. Al incluirlo en su reflexin, invita a sus lectores a

seguir un camino similar de arrepentimiento y conversin de vida31.

En su presentacin de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso emplea diferentes

tipos de argumentos para subrayar la orientacin ilimitada y polivalente de la

bsqueda de la santidad. A travs de estos argumentos, pasado, presente y

futuro confrontan al lector con la oportunidad de reflexionar sobre su propia

vida y responder a la llamada de la conversin fundamental. Slo de estemodo, se podr llegar a conocer el amor de Dios de un modo ntimo y afirmador

de la vida.

V. LAORACIN

30 La afirmacin de Alfonso sobre la naturaleza eternal de la verdad aparece incluso en suprimera obra publicada, Massime eterne. Ver A. DE LIGUORI, Opere ascetiche, vol. 9,Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma 1965, 379-95. [Traduccin inglesa: Maxims ofEternity, in: E. GRIMM (ed.), o. c., vol. 1, 387-403].

31 Para el uso general por Alfonso de los exempla, ver O. GREGORIOET ALII (eds.), o. c.,

285-290. Ver tambin nota 24.

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DENNIS J. BILLY

Dada la exposicin que hemos hecho ms arriba del uso alfonsiano del

tiempo, no debera sorprendernos que la oracin a Jess, al final de la

reflexin, contenga referencias especficas al pasado, presente y futuro. Dice

as:

Oh T que eres mi ms verdadero y perfecto amante, dnde encontrar uno

que me haya amado ms que T! Durante mi vida pasada, he perdido mi tiempo

en alcanzar el conocimiento de muchas cosas que no han beneficiado a mi alma

en nada, y no he pensado en conocer cmo amarte. Veo que mi vida se ha

perdido. Percibo que T me llamas a Ti, santo amante. Mira, lo dejo todo; desde

este da en adelante, mi nico pensamiento ser agradarte a Ti, mi ms alto bien.

Me entrego completamente a Ti; acptame; dame ayuda para serte fiel; no deseo

ya ser mo sino todo, todo tuyo. Oh Madre de Dios! Aydame t con tus

oraciones32.

En esta sentida oracin a Jess, Alfonso comienza con el tiempo futuro y

luego se mueve respectivamente en el pasado y el presente. La afirmacinfutura confirma los roles de Jess como el verdadero y perfecto amante;

nadie parecido puede encontrarse en lugar alguno. Esta fuerte afirmacin del

amor de Jess mueve a Alfonso a mirar a su pasado y a reconocer el tiempo

que ha desperdiciado innecesariamente con ocupaciones y a admitirlo

humildemente ante su Seor. Al hacerlo as, inicia un proceso de

arrepentimiento que ltimamente conduce a un deseo de cambio. La oracin

entonces se mueve desde estas afirmaciones en tiempo pasado hacia una

variedad en tiempo presente que refleja un profundo deseo de vivir un

proceso de conversin aqu y ahora: Veo que mi vida se ha perdido... Percibo

que T me llamas... Lo dejo todo... Me entrego completamente a Ti.Este deseo de querer vivir el proceso ntegro de conversin en un solo

momento de intensa purificacin se compensa ms tarde con el reconocimiento

32 O mio vero e perfetto amatore, dove trover io chi mabbia amato quanto mavete amatovoi? Io per lo passato ho perduto il tempo in sapere pi cose che niente mi han giovatoallanima e poco ho pensato a sapere amarvi. Vedo la mia vita perduta. Sento che michiamate al vostro amore: eccomi, lascio tutto: da ogginnanzi lunico mio pensiero sar didarvi gusto, mio sommo bene. Io tutto a voi mi dono, accettatemi voi, datemi aiuto ad esservifedele; io non voglio esser pi mio, ma tutto vostro, tutto, tutto. O Madre di Dio, soccorretemiancora voi colle vostre preghiere. Ver A. DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni devote sopra diversi puntidi spirito a pro delle anime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore , in: ID., Opere

ascetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Torino 1846, 258; [Pious Reflections... (nota 1), 190].

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de la necesidad de la ayuda de Dios para permanecer fiel. La implicacin aqu

es que el proceso de conversin exige ms que un cambio momentneo del

corazn. La prueba real vendr en los das venideros cuando la propia

resolucin sea probada a travs de las dificultades y tentaciones de la vida

cotidiana. Por esta razn, la peticin de ayuda corre paralela a la orientacin

futura de la oracin inicial. Alfonso desea ser un verdadero y perfecto amante

como Jess, su Seor y Redentor. La oracin de ayuda dirigida a Mara

confirma este deseo y extiende la oracin de una conversacin personal con el

Seor a una oracin que hace espacio (y acoge con todo el corazn) a la

intercesin de los santos.

Alfonso ofrece esta oracin en esta reflexin sobre la ciencia de los santos

primeramente para beneficio de sus lectores. Su energa y espontaneidad

demuestran que no puede provenir de ningn otro lugar que no sea

directamente del corazn y que espera que sea una gua til para sus lectores

en sus propias conversaciones orantes con el Seor. Ms importante, mueve elpunto principal de la reflexin ms all invitando a sus lectores no solamente a

reflexionar sobre el significado de la ciencia de los santos para sus vidas, sino

tambin a hacer algo sobre ello. Cuando es vista desde esta perspectiva, la

oracin es una parte integral de la meditacin. Une las diversas dimensiones

temporales expuestas en el resto de la meditacin, al tiempo que busca guiar a

sus lectores a una experiencia personal de la ciencia de los santos.

VI. CONCLUSIN

El librito de Alfonso Reflexiones devotas ofrece una variedad demeditaciones sobre el crecimiento en la vida moral espiritual. Su meditacin

sobre la ciencia de los santos se centra en un tema particular al presentar un

fuerte contraste entre conocimiento profano y conocimiento sagrado y luego

sita a sus lectores ante la necesidad de elegir uno de los dos.

A pesar de que la palabra ciencia, tal como aparece en la expresin,

puede referirse a un cuerpo objetivo de conocimiento y al modo en que ese

conocimiento es incorporado en el sujeto, su connotacin ms probable tiene

que ver con un conocimiento personal e ntimo de Dios mismo.

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DENNIS J. BILLY

Para mostrar el contraste entre lo sagrado y lo profano, Alfonso emplea

argumentos de autoridad, razn y ejemplo. Puesto que estos mtodos de

demostracin pueden usarse igualmente tanto en escritos seculares como

espirituales, este duro contraste implica tambin un cierto nivel de semejanza

entre los dos. En su enseanza de la ciencia de los santos, Alfonso no

rechaza tanto el valor del aprendizaje humano en s, sino su uso para fines

egostas o egocntricos.

En el anlisis final, la ciencia de los santos no es otra cosa que conocer el

amor de Dios. Este conocimiento personal de lo divino admite varios grados de

intimidad. Aunque no excluye los grados superiores de experiencia mstica,

como es el matrimonio espiritual, stos no son necesarios. Dios quiere que

todos participen de su amistad y distribuye su gracia para hacerlo posible.

Cuando se ve bajo esta luz, la enseanza de Alfonso sobre la ciencia de los

santos pone en primer lugar lo nico que importa. Los santos son posedos por

el conocimiento del amor de Dios. Vivir para Dios es su nico deseo, su solaocupacin. A travs de esta reflexin, Alfonso invita a sus lectores a seguir su

gua volviendo sus vidas hacia Dios y practicando el camino de la conversin.

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St. Alphonsus and the Science ofthe Saints

Dennis J. Billy, C.Ss.R.

In 1773, St. Alphonsus published a brief work entitled, Pious Reflections on

Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Souls that Desire to Advance in the Love

of God.33 This popular piece of spiritual reading seeks to help its readers

deepen their relationship with God and to grow in his love. To achieve that aim,

Alphonsus provides forty-five brief meditations on a wide range of topics on the

spiritual moral life. Among these reflections, he includes an exposition of whathe refers to as the science of the saints which, for him, is simply to know the

love of God.34 My purpose in this essay is to examine Alphonsuss

presentation of this important element of his spiritual moral vision. I will give

specific emphasis to his manner of argumentation and the way he leads his

readers along the process of conversion. I will also look at some of the

underlying assumptions of his teaching and offer some comments on his

understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life.

I. ONEOF MANY

At the very outset, it bears noting that Alphonsuss discussion of the science

of the saints is just one of many loosely related meditations of a work

33 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote sopra diversi punti di spirito a pro delleanime che desiderano avanzarsi nel divino amore, in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.) S. AlfonsoM. De Liguori, Opere aschetiche, vol. 2, Marietti, Turin 1846, 249-316. The Englishtranslation comes from Pious Reflections on Different Points of Spirituality to Guide Soulsthat Desire to Advance in the Love of God, in: EUGENE GRIMM (ed.) The CompleteWorks of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati,and St. Louis, 1886, 171-306.

34 La scienza desanti sapere amar Dio. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessionidivote 257; Pious Reflections 189.


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DENNIS J. BILLY

specifically designed to lead others to sanctity. To this end, he himself read a

little each day from this little work and encouraged others to do the same.

Since each meditation is self-contained and related to the others in only a loose,

thematic sense, it offers its readers an excellent aid for daily meditation.

Alphonsus, it seems, wrote this work specifically with this purpose in mind.35

For the most part, each of the reflections follows the same threefold

structure: (1) a short title, which introduces the theme offered for ones

considerations, (2) a meditation, which develops the theme through rational

argument and a rich selection of relevant sources from the Catholic tradition,

and (3) a closing prayer, which seeks to incite the reader to heartfelt prayer. 36

Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints, the sixth in the collection,

differs from this underlying literary format only in that he adds to the prayer a

relatively recent historical example to bring his point home. 37 His use of this

exemplum sets this sixth reflection apart from most of the others in the

collection and provides his readers with a concrete point of reference with whichto measure their progress in the spiritual moral life. 38 For this reason, the

exemplum should be understood as an integral part of the meditation and not

an unnecessary appendage or a mere literary afterthought.

As texts for meditation, Alphonsuss reflections are directed toward the heart

and designed to lead their readers to fervent acts of prayer. They were not

35 In a letter to Sister Brianna Carafa of the monastery of S. Marcellino in Naples, datedSeptember 8, 1773, Alphonsus writes : I also read every day something of the other littlework, entitled Pious Reflections, etc. I wish you to do the same; for I have composed it

specially for those souls that desire to give themselves entirely to God. See Letters of St.Alphonsus Maria de Liguori, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsusde Liguori, vol. 19, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1892, 513.For information on the Italian original, see Opera omnia SantAlfonso de Liguori, Lettera n.0001449 (http://www.eulogos.it/lettere/0001449.htm).

36 Most of the meditations in Alphonsuss other writings follow this same basic structure.See, for example, his Via della salute, in: O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. DeLiguori,Opere ascetiche, vol. 10, Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, Roma 1968, 7-133; TheWay of Salvation, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori,vol.. 2, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 17-169).

37 This exemplum refers to the conversion of Pietro Metastasio, the poet of the imperialcourt. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190-91.

38 The only exception is the seventeenth reflection entitled, Della confidenza in GesCristo. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 275-77; Pious Reflections

225-29.

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St. Alphonsus and the Science of the Saints

written to withstand the intense scrutiny of the professional theologian and

should not be expected to yield fruits on that level. Coming from the hand of

one of the great spiritual moral minds of the eighteenth century, however, they

provide much more substance than their title, Pious Reflections, might first

seem to suggest. Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints is acase in point. Rather than offering his readers a string of pious sentiments, he

offers them a sound teaching that touches the very heart of the Gospel

message, i.e., the call to conversion.

II. THE MEANINGOF SCIENCE

Before proceeding, something should be said about the use of the term

science throughout the reflection. Alphonsus begins by saying that there are

two kinds of sciences in the world: one heavenly, the other worldly.39 This

stark division calls to mind St. Pauls depiction of the struggle between theflesh and spirit and St. Augustines description of the ongoing struggle

between the city of God and the city of man. 40 One type of science is

completely opposed to and can have nothing to do with the other. This

approach reflects the Christ against the world understanding of the

relationship between Christianity and culture made famous by H. Richard

Niebuhr.41

As far as the actual word science itself is concerned, Alphonsuss language

allows for three possible interpretations, two of which are distinct but closely

related, and a third that approaches the question from another direction. With

respect to the first two possibilities, the word science can refer to an objectivebody of knowledge governed by a verifiable system of rules and ordinances or

to the personal appropriation of that knowledge. From these two possibilities,

the second presupposes the first and is emphasized the most. Science of

whatever sort---be it mathematics, literary theory, or a subalternated discipline

39 Due sorte di scienza vi sono sulla terra, luna celeste, laltra mondana. SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257; Pious Reflections 189.

40 See Ro 8,1-12 ; Ga 5,13-26. See also AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO, De civitate Dei, XIVc.28-XV c.2.

41

H. R. NIEBUHR, Christ and Culture, Harper & Row, New York 1951, 83-115.

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DENNIS J. BILLY

like theology--- reaches its full potential when it is the human person internalizes

it as a living body of knowledge. This understanding of science recognizes the

classical divisions of objective and subjective knowledge, but gives a clear

preference to the second.42

In the third possibility, the term science refers not so much to a body ofknowledge in the objective or subjective sense, but to the experiential, face-

to-face encounter with another person. As far as the science of the saints is

concerned, this other is God himself. This possibility bases itself on the

difference between knowing about someone and knowing that someone

personally. It resembles more the monastic approach to theology with its focus

on growth in holiness and the experiential knowledge of the sacred than the

scholastic with its strong emphasis on clarifying the object content of

revelation.43 It is also continuous with the strong devotional emphasis of the

late-medieval devotio moderna with its suspicion of sophisticated, academic

learning.44

When referring to the science of the saints Alphonsus recognizesthis last possibility as the most important: The science of the saints is to know

the love of God.45 In this context, science, for Alphonsus has to do with (1)

knowledge and (2) the love of God. Although the other possible

interpretations do not seem to be excluded from this simple definition, the

knowledge, Alphonsus seems to be referring here to the experiential

knowledge of the divine. Such knowledge is not mystical in the strict sense of

extraordinary ecstatic experiences of the divine, but more akin to the Spirits

gifts of knowledge and wisdom that correspond to and complete the theological

virtues of faith and charity.46

42 The difference between objective and subjective knowledge goes back to the finisquo/finis cuius distinction of Thomas Aquinas. See Summa theologiae, I-II, q. 1, a. 8,resp.

43 For a comparison between monastic and scholastic theology, see B. P. GAYBBA,Aspects of the Medieval History of Theology, University of South Africa, Pretoria 1988, 52-57.

44 See O. GRNDLER, Devotio Moderna in: Christian Spirituality: High Middle Ages andReformation, Jill Raitt (ed.) Crossroad, New York, 1988,176-93.

45 See above n. 2.46 Alphonsus probably derives the phrase the science of the saints ( la scienza desainti)

from Aquinass definition of sacred doctrine as a subalternated science: Et hoc modosacra doctrina est scientia: quia procedit ex principiis notis lumine superioris scientiae,

quae scilicet est scientia Dei et beatorum. See Summa theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 2, resp. For

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III. THREE KINDSOF ARGUMENT

In his presentation of the science of the saints, Alphonsus employees three

different kinds of proofs: auctoritates, rationes, and exempla. These common

forms of argument have three roots deep in the medieval ages and, byAlphonsuss time, had become a mainstay of popular preaching.47 Their use in

a work of spiritual reading such as the Pious Reflections points to the close

bond that Alphonsus saw between a pastoral activity such as preaching and

growth in the spiritual moral life. Since the goal of preaching and spiritual

reading was fundamentally the same---to help a person draw closer to Jesus

Christ---it makes perfect sense that elements from one form of expression might

eventually find their way in the other. This possibility becomes even more likely

when one realizes that spiritual reading was often looked upon as an internal

preparation that helped the preacher deepen his own relationship with the Lord.

When seen in this light, Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saintsemploys many of the same methods of demonstration as a sermon, the only

difference being that it is reflected upon in the quiet of ones heart rather than

expressed aloud in a public liturgical setting. A look at the use that Alphonsus

makes of all three arguments in this reflection bears this out.

1. Auctoritates. During Alphonsuss day, the use of authorities was already

a well-known method of establishing a theological point. The writings of the

Church fathers were filled with citations from Scripture to support their

arguments. The use of authority was also an integral part of the scholastic

method, where divergent voices from the tradition were subjected to careful

dialectical scrutiny. In the eighteenth century, the whole basis of moral

the close bond drawn by Aquinas between sacred doctrine and Christian wisdom, seeSumma theologiae, I, q. 1, a. 6, res. For Aquinass teaching on the gifts of knowledge andwisdom, see Summa theologiae, II-II, q. 9, aa.1-4; q. 23, prol. ; q. 45, aa. 1-6. It should benoted that, for Aquinas, the actuation of the gifts of the Spirit constitutes the true essenceof Christian mysticism and is an ordinary rather than extraordinary phenomenon in thelives of Christians and. In Alphonsuss day, this classical understanding of Christianmysticism was obscured the Churchs reaction against Quietism and by the generally heldbelief that mysticism required the reception of extraordinary graces and was not to bedesired or expected. See J. AUMANN, Spiritual Theology, Sheed and Ward, London1980, 122-30, esp. 127.

47 For the medieval roots of such arguments, see J. LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination,Arthur Goldhammer (trans.) The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1988,

78-80.

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DENNIS J. BILLY

casuistry rested on the weight that could be attributed to the opinions of

recognized authorities. On the popular, devotional level, citations from

authorities were used as a way of putting people in contact with the living

tradition of the Church. These authorities cited were normally those from

Scripture and the fathers of the Church, which were cited in abundance toassure the faithful of the consistency and theological depth of the message they

are receiving.48

Alphonsus salts his reflection on the science of the saints with very

generous selection of authorities. These come primarily from Scripture, the

Church fathers, the saints, and some well-known secular sources. In the order

of their appearance, his citing of Scripture includes: 1Cor 3,19; 1Cor 8,1; Sant

4,6; Dt 32,29; Sl 75,6; Sb 10,10; Mt 11,25; and 1Cor 2,2. 49 These references

come either by way of direct citation or allusion and are selected for the way

they contrast heavenly wisdom with the wisdom of the world. As far as the

Church fathers are concerned, he refers twice to both St. John Chrysostom andto St. Augustine.50 Those from the former refer respectively to the rational

nature of man and to meditation on death as a way of learning the vanity of the

world; those from the latter have to do respectively with the importance of loving

God above all else and how the unlearned are the ones who arise and storm

heaven. As far as other saints are concerned, Alphonsus uses St. Francis, St.

Paschal, and St. John of God as examples of those who, though poor in worldly

knowledge, were particularly skilled in the wisdom of God. 51 In contrast to these

saintly figures, Alphonsus mentions how death brings the glories of the world to

an end and how the likes of Cicero, Demosthenes, and Ulpian now have

nothing to show for themselves.52 In his use of authority, Alphonsus usesScripture, the fathers, the saints, and secular figures to demonstrate the

48 For the definition of an authority and a presentation of the argument of authority see B.MONDIN, Autorit, in: B. MONDIN (ed), Dizionario enciclopedico del pensiero di SanTommaso dAquino Edizioni Studio Domenicano, Bologna 1991, 73-74. For generalbackground, see LEONARD KRIEGER, Authority, in: Philip P. Weiner (ed.), Dictionary ofthe History of Ideas, vol.. 1, Charles Scribners Sons, New York 1973, 141-62, esp. 147.

49 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 257-58; Pious Reflections 187-90.50 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257-58; Pious Reflections 187-89.51 ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 189.52

ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 189.

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contrast between heavenly and worldly wisdom. His aim in using them is to

help his readers to make the knowledge of Gods love a priority in their own

lives.

2. Rationes. In addition to the citation of authorities, Alphonsus makes

use of rational arguments to explain his understanding of the science of thesaints. He does so even though part of his agenda is to expose the

weaknesses of worldly knowledge. From the time of the Christian apologists,

reason was valued as a useful tool for expounding the truths of the Christian

faith. Probably the best evidence of Christianitys deep respect for the insights

of reason are the many theological syntheses based on a wide range of

philosophical systems, Augustines Neoplatonic synthesis and Aquinass

Aristotelian synthesis to name but a few. Although the understanding of what

constitutes a rational argument has developed over the course of history,

Christian thinkers have made good use of its changing contours to deepen their

understanding of the faith. Alphonsus is no exception.53

Using Scripture or the authorities of Church tradition as his point of

departure, Alphonsus generally moves in syllogistic fashion to reach a logical

conclusion. An example of his use of rational argument appears early on in his

reflection:

But this worldly science is folly and madness in the sight of God. The

wisdom of the world is foolishness with God. It is folly, for it makes fools of

those who cultivate it; it makes them fools, and like the brutes, for it teaches

them to gratify their carnal appetites like the beasts. St. John Chrysostomwrote, We call him a man who preserves complete the image of a man; and

what is the image of a man?---to be rational. Hence it is that if a brute were

ever to act according to reason, we should say that such a brute acted like a

man; so we say that a man who acts upon sensual appetites and contrary to

reason acts like a brute.54

53 For a historical presentation of the use of reason in Christian theology, see J. A.BONSORAthens and Jerusalem: The Role of Philosophy in Theology, Paulist Press, NewYork and Mahwah, N.J. 1993, 1-97.

54 Ma questa scienza di mondo stoltezza e vera pazzia presso Dio: Sapientia enim huius

mundi stultia est apud Deum. Pazzia, perch tale scienza rende pazzi tutti coloro che la

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Alphonsus begins his argument with a close identification between fools

and beasts. Worldly knowledge, he states, teaches a person to satisfy ones

sensual appetites. In doing so, it makes that person behave like the beasts.

Once he establishes this underlying presupposition, the rest of his argumentmoves quite smoothly. To be created in the image of God means to act in

accordance with reason. If an animal were ever to act in such a way, it would

be described as acting like a man. So if a mans actions are contrary to reason,

it stands to reason that he is acting like a brute. Alphonsuss mode of reasoning

here is quite logical. He uses reason to support his claim that worldly

knowledge is foolishness in the eyes of God.55

3. Exempla. What sets Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints

apart from most of the other meditations in the book is the exemplum from the

life of Peter Metastasio that he adds after the closing prayer. As pointed out

earlier, the use ofexempla was a common feature of medieval preaching and

was a widely used tool for popular preaching in Alphonsuss day. Alphonsus

also uses exempla in many of his devotional works so its presence in this

collection of meditations should catch no one by surprise. The purpose of an

exemplum is to provide an historical narrative of recent vintage that helps

people to identify with the message being conveyed in the larger discourse.

Although the exemplum, in this particular instance, comes at the end of the

meditation and even after the prayer, it plays an important role in Alphonsuss

coltivano: li rende pazzi e simili alle bestie, mentre loro insegna a secondare gli appetitisensuali come fanno le bestie. Scrive s. Giovanni Crisostomo: Hominem illum dicimus,qui imaginem hominis salvam retinet; quae autem imago hominis? rationalem esse. Perritener limagine duomo bisogna essere ragionevole, cio operare secondo la ragione.Dal che ricavasi che, siccome se vi fosse una bestia che sempre operasse secondo laragione si direbbe che quella bestia opera da uomo; cos allincontro un uomo che operasecondo lappetito desensi e contro la ragione dee dirsi che opera da bestia. SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 187-88.

55 For a good example of Alphonsuss use of reason in his ascetical writing, see hisrefutation of Jansenism in his Del gran mezzo della preghiera, in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.)S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche,vol. 2, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma1962, 117-44; The Great Means of Salvation, in E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works ofSaint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 3, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St.

Louis, 1886, 161-200.

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presentation of the meaning of the science of the saints and should be

considered an integral part of the entire reflection.56

Since the exemplum is generally a brief historical narrative, it is important to

take it in its entirety. The entire story as written by Alphonsus appears below:

Permit me here to express the great consolation which I derived a few days

since from information connected with the subject of the preceding

considerations---the science of the saints. I have been assured that, after

having received so much applause from all Europe for his poetic compositions,

which are as noxious as they are beautiful (I mean those only which treat of

profane love), for the more tender his expressions, the more they are calculated

to kindle in the breasts of young persons the pernicious flames of impure

affections, the celebrated Signore Peter Metastasio has published a little book

in prose, in which he expresses his detestation of his writings on profane love,

and declares that, were it in his power, he would retract them and make them

disappear from the world, even at the cost of his blood. And I am informed that

his poetic compositions are now confined to some pieces on moral or spiritual

subjects, which he writes in order to comply with his obligation as poet to the

imperial court. He lives retired in his own house, leading a life of prayer. This

information has given me unspeakable consolation; because his public

declaration and his most laudable example will help to undeceive many young

persons who seek to acquire a great name by similar compositions on profane

love. It is certain that, by his retraction, Signore Metastasio has deserved more

encomiums than he would by the publication of a thousand poetic works; forthese he might be praised by men, but now he is praised by God. Hence, as I

formerly detested his vanity in prizing himself for such compositions (I do not

speak of his sacred pieces, which are excellent and deserving of all praise), so

now I shall never cease to praise him; and were I permitted, I would kiss his

feet, seeing that he has voluntarily become the censor of his own works, and

56 For the literature of exempla, see O. Gregorio et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori Opereascetiche, Introduzione generale, 239-83. One Alphonsuss best use of exempla is in Leglorie di Maria. See O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, vol.10, SantAlfonso, Roma 1936; E. GRIMM (ed.) The Glories of Mary, in The CompleteWorks of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol.s. 7-8, Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati,

and St. Louis, 1887.

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that he now desires to see them banished from the whole world, at the expense,

as he says, even of his own blood.57

It is interesting to note that the only other place in the Pious Reflections

where Alphonsus uses an exemplum in a similar way comes in the seventeenthreflection entitled, On Confidence in Jesus Christ. 58 Although the topic of this

exemplum is more diffuse, the conversion of Peter Metastasio (and Alphonsuss

delight in it) is highlighted at a central point. When reading the reflections, it is

clear that Alphonsus added these exempla to provide his readers with concrete

evidence of the movement of Gods grace in their midst. In the present context,

Alphonsus helps his readers see that the science of the saints begins in the

here-and-now and is not simply something to look forward to in the afterlife.

To the readers of this reflection, Metastasio represents someone who has

reached the heights of worldly knowledge, a feat that has brought him a

considerable amount of wealth and public acclaim. The complete turnaround

on his part, displayed even by a willingness to spill his own blood to have his

profane poetry destroyed, presents the readers with a concrete example of what

57 Mi si permetta qui di manifestare una grande consolazione che pochi giorni sono mi recuna certa notizia la quale cade a proposito della materia di sopra considerata dellascienza desanti. Mi fa assicurato per cosa certa, che il celebre abate signor PietroMetastasio dopo tante lodi ricevute da tutta Europa per le sue composizioni poetiche datealle stampe, che quanto pi belle, tanto sono state pi nocive (intendo di quelle cose chetrattano damor profano); poich le sue espressioni quanto sono state pi tenere e vive,tanto pi han potuto accendere necuori depoveri giovani fiamme perniciose daffettiimpuri; al presente ha dato fuori un libretto in prosa, ove detesta queste sue fatiche e siprotesta che se potesse ritirarle tutte e fare che pi non comparissero al mondo lo farebbead ogni suo costo, anche del suo sangue. Ed in effetto mi dicono che ora non componepi in versi se non alcuni drammi spirituali o morali costretto dallincombenza che tiene dipoeta della corte cesarea, e che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita divota e di orazione.Io no ho intesa una consolazione indicibile, perch questa sua pubblica dichiarazione equesto suo lodevolissimo esempio giover a far ravvedere molti giovanni ingannati checercano acquistar nome ed onore con simili componenti amorosi. E certo che il signorMetastasio con tal sua dichiarazione merita pi encomio che se avesse dato alla luce millefamosi libri di poesia; mentre con quelli sarebbe lodato dagli uomini ed ora lodato daDio. Quindi ove prima io detestava la di lui vanit in pregarsi di tali suoi componimenti(non parlo dei drammi sacri che sono eccellenti e degni dogni lode), ora non mi sazio dilodarlo, e se mi fosse permesso gli bacerei i piedi, vedendolo fatto da se stesso censore diquelle sue opere, con desiderio di vederle abolite per tutto il mondo a costo (come dice)anche del suo sangue. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote 258; PiousReflections 190-91.

58

See above n. 6.

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Alphonsus has been talking about. Peter Metastasio is no saint like St. Francis

of Assisi, St. Paschal, or St. John of God, but someone who has reached the

heights of worldly knowledge and felt the full weight of its empty promises.

Alphonsus includes this exemplum at the end of his reflection because he wants

his readers to reflect on their own standing before the vain promises of worldlyknowledge---and act accordingly.

IV. THE USEOF TIME

Alphonsuss use of these three different types of arguments--- auctoritates,

rationes, and exempla---are important for his presentation of the science of the

saints, because each of them steeps the reader in a particular outlook toward

the meaning and nature of time.59 To understand the deeper connotations of

Alphonsuss reflection, the reader must take all of these perspectives into

account.1. Auctoritates. Alphonsuss arguments from authority are taken either from

the Bible or from the Church fathers. Both sources highlight the role of memory

and retrospection in the readers understanding of time, albeit in different ways.

The numerous citations from Scripture come from both the Old and New

Testaments and convey a sense of the many ways in which God has spoken to

his people through the centuries. This sense of temporal multiplicity comes

through more clearly when one takes into account the many literary genres that

comprise Gods written word.60 Alphonsuss citations represent Gods Word as

spoken through a variety of mediums: proverbs, hymns, letters, and the

sayings of Jesus. Although composed so long ago, all of these words retaintheir significance for the reader today. They are affirmed by the commentaries

of the fathers of the Church such as Augustine and Chrysostom, whose insights

show that Gods Word needs to be listened to and interpreted anew in each

succeeding age. When taken together, the authorities from Scripture and the

fathers of the Church offer an eschatological understanding of time that collects

59 The connection between the three types of argumentation and the portrayal of time comesfrom LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, 78-80. The application to Alphonsussreflection on the science of the saints is my own.

60

The phrase temporal multiplicity comes from LEGOFF, The Medieval Imagination, 79.

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the past into the present as it looks forward toward its future fulfillment. When

applied to the science of the saints, this already-but-not-yet focus orients the

reader toward the future, through the present, and by way of the past. It roots

the reader in the ongoing story of Gods involvement with his people and ignites

confidence to face whatever challenges the future might bring.61

2. Rationes. Alphonsuss rational arguments affirm the eternal nature of

truth and the capacity of the human mind to perceive it. They highlight the

perennial, unchanging foundations of truth in the midst of historical change.

The atemporal character of these assertions expands the readers perception of

time as a limited, imperfect agency. Time does not contain truth, but is

contained by it. Alphonsuss arguments confront the reader through the

medium of the didactic present. Unbounded by time, they enter the readers

awareness through conclusions wrought by syllogism and logical deduction.

The resulting affirmation merges the categories of time and the eternal and

offers the reader the opportunity to embody truth in a moment of reasonedinsight. Although they appear quiet an unobtrusive in a meditation that focuses

largely on the futility of human knowledge, these rationes provide a significant

backdrop against which he conducts his reflection on the science of the saints.

All of the other types of authority introduced by Alphonsus presuppose and, in

some way, utilize an element of reasons capacity for truth. Without it, the

movement of his reflection could not move from one insight to the next or be

able to influence its readers with its powers to persuade.62

3. Exempla. Unlike the other types of authority used by Alphonsus in his

reflection, the exemplum steeps the reader in the diachronic experience of time.

The narrative movement of a recent historical example re-familiarizes the

reader with his or her own, normal day-to-day experience. The purpose of the

exemplum is to draw a bond with the reader so that the insights put forth in

61 For Alphonsuss devotional use of authorities, see O. GREGORIO et al. (eds) S. AlfonsoM. De Liguori Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale (Rome: Edizioni di storia eletteratura, 1960),329-31.

62 Alphonsuss affirmation of the eternal nature of truth comes through even in his firstpublished work, the Massime eterne. See O. GREGORIO (ed.) S. Alfonso M. De Liguori,Opere ascetiche, vol. 9, Edizioni di storia e letteratura, Roma, 1965, 379-95; Maxims ofEternity, in: E. GRIMM (ed.) The Complete Works of Saint Alphonsus de Liguori, vol. 1,

Benzinger Brothers, New York, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, 1886, 387-403.

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other areas of the reflection have more immediate, personal value. The

exemplum puts flesh and bones on the abstract truths developed by the

auctoritates and rationes earlier on in the reflection. It also invites the reader to

consider the possibility of incorporating them into his or her own life. Exempla

often depict an instance of conversion in the life of a historical personage ofrecent memory. In the case of Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the

saints, it focuses on Peter Metastasio, the poet of the imperial court, and his

disavowal of his profane poetry. Alphonsus includes this example in his

reflection for a number of reasons: Metastasios fame, the dramatic quality of

his disavowal, the life of seclusion and prayer that he has embraced, and his

willingness to spill his blood over his newfound convictions. All of these

qualities provide Alphonsus with a unique opportunity. Metastasio is figure, well

known to Alphonsuss readers, who reaches the pinnacle of worldly science

and rejects it in favor of the heavenly. By including it in his reflection, he invites

his readers to follow a similar path of repentance and conversion of life.63

In his presentation of the science of the saints, Alphonsus employs

different kinds of arguments to underscore the limitless, multivalent orientation

of the quest for holiness. Through these arguments, past, present, and future

confront the reader with the opportunity to reflect on his or her own life and to

respond to the call to fundamental conversion. Only in such a way will one ever

come to know the love of God in an intimate, life affirming way.

The Prayer

Given the above exposition of Alphonsuss use of time, it should come as nosurprise that the prayer to Jesus at the end of the reflection proper contains

specific references to the past, present and future. It reads thus:

O Thou who art my true and perfect lover, where shall I find one who has

loved me as Thou hast! During my life that is past, I have lost my time in

attaining the knowledge of many things which have profited my soul nothing,

and I have thought nothing of knowing how to love Thee. I see that my life has

63 For Alphonsuss general use ofexempla, see O. GREGORIO et al. (eds) S. Alfonso M.

De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, Introduzione generale, 285-90. See also above n. 24.

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been lost. I perceive that Thou callest me to Thy holy lover; behold, I leave all;

from this day forth, my one thought shall be to please Thee, my highest good. I

give myself wholly to Thee; accept me; give me help to be faithful to Thee; I

desire to be no longer my own, but all, all Thine. O mother of God! Do thou

also help me with thy prayers.64

In this heartfelt prayer to Jesus, Alphonsus begins with the future tense and

then moves respectively to the past and the present. The future affirmation

confirms the Jesus roles as the true and perfect lover, the likes of whom will

be found nowhere else. This strong affirmation of Jesus love moves Alphonsus

to look at his past and to recognize the time he has needlessly wasted with

occupations and then to humbly admit this to his Lord. In doing so, he initiates

a process of repentance that ultimately leads to a desire for change. The

prayer then moves from these past tense affirmations continues with a variety

in the present tense that reflect a deep desire to undergo a process of

conversion right then and there: I see that my life has been lostI perceive

that Thou callestI leave allI give myself wholly to Thee.

This desire to want to undergo the entire process of conversion in a single

moment of intense purification is later offset by the recognition of the need for

Gods help to remain faithful. The implication here is that process of conversion

involves more than a momentary change of heart. The real test will come in the

days ahead when ones resolve will be tested through the trials and temptations

of everyday life. For this reason, the petition for help parallels the future

orientation of the prayers beginning. Alphonsus wishes to be a true andperfect lover like Jesus, his Lord and Redeemer. The prayer for help directed

to Mary confirms this desire and expands the prayer from a person conversation

with the Lord to one that makes room for (and wholeheartedly welcomes) the

intercession of the saints.

64 O mio vero e perfetto amatore, dove trover io chi mabbia amato quanto mavete amatovoi? Io per lo passato ho perduto il tempo in sapere pi cose che niente mi han giovatoallanima e poco ho pensato a sapere amarvi. Vedo la mia vita perduta. Sento che michiamate al vostro amore: eccomi, lascio tutto: da ogginnanzi lunico mio pensiero sardi darvi gusto, mio somme bene. Io tutto a voi mi dono, accettatemi voi, datemi aiuto adesservi fedele; io non voglio esser pi mio, ma tutto vostro, tutto, tutto. O Madre di Dio,soccorretemi ancora voi colle vostre preghiere. See ALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI,

Riflessioni divote 258; Pious Reflections 190.

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Alphonsus offers this prayer in this reflection on the science of the saints

primarily for the benefit of his readers. Its power and spontaneity demonstrate

that it could have come from nowhere else than straight from his heart and he

hopes that it will prove to be a useful guide for his readers in their own prayerful

conversations with the Lord. More importantly, it moves the main point of thereflection further by inviting its readers not merely to reflect on the meaning of

the science of the saints for their lives, but also to do something about it.

When seen from this perspective, the prayer is an integral part of the

meditation. It brings together the diverse temporal dimensions laid out in the

rest of the meditation as it seeks to lead its readers into a person experience of

the science of the saints.

Observations

Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints allows for a number of

remarks about his guiding assumptions and his understanding of the spiritual

moral life. Listed below is a limited list of the most prominent concerns.

1.One way of understanding Alphonsus teaching is to interpret it in the

context of his overall understanding of growth in the spiritual moral life. The

journey to God, for Alphonsus, involves an ongoing process of detachment

(distacco) from worldly values so that a growing union (unione) with God might

occur.65 In describing spiritual moral growth in this way, he does not mean to

denigrate the goodness of the created order, but to merely to uproot any

inordinate attachments that have resulted from or might lead to sin.

Alphonsuss reflection on the science of the saints makes sense only whenviewed against the backdrop of a worldview where the consequences of the fall,

though eventually to be wiped out, still have considerable sway over the hearts

and minds of men. Because of that influence, care must be taken to uproot

whatever inordinate attachments stand in the way of ones intimate knowledge

of the divine.

65 For a brief presentation of the role of detachment (distacco) and union (unione) inAlphonsuss spiritual moral vision, see M. Vidal, Moral y spiritualidad: De la separacina

la convergencia, PS Editorial, Madrid 1997, 90-91.

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2. As a work of spiritual reading, Alphonsuss Pious Reflections offers a

series of meditations with a primary purpose of drawing others closer to God.

To achieve that aim, it author presents his readers with an antagonistic

relationship between knowledge of God and the world and then challenges

them to make a choice between one or the other. This underlying framework ofchoice is a part of a rhetoric of conversion that permeates the entire reflection.

What Alphonsus says about the science of the saints cannot be separated

from this underlying pastoral intention. When seen in this light, the choice that

Alphonsus himself made and which he presents his readers is not to rejection of

human knowledge as such, but to use it for the glory of God rather than for

ones own self-centered ends. To choose and to act otherwise effectively

excludes one from growing in an intimate knowledge of the divine.

3. Alphonsuss tacit affirmation of human knowledge can be seen in his use

of three different types of arguments--- auctoritates, rationes, and exempla---to

further his ends. These ways of supporting ones position were a mainstay ofpopular preaching during Alphonsuss day, but could just as easily be found in a

wide variety of secular works. There is nothing especially sacred about the

use of authority, rational argument, or examples in making ones point. Secular

authors could very easily use similar ways of arguing as a way of finding

support for their own positions. By using these means, Alphonsus is implicitly

affirming the goodness of human knowledge and its use for higher ends. At the

same time, he is absolutely against the use of such knowledge for anything that

would distract or, worse yet, even impede a person from moving into a deeper,

more intimate knowledge of the divine.

4. Alphonsus use of these three types of argumentation demonstrates his

sensitivity to the difficulty of communicating to his readers the true nature of the

science of the saints. His decision to add the exemplum of Peter Metastasio

at the end of the reflection suggests that Alphonsus himself felt the need in this

particular entry to provide his readers with an actual historical example of

someone who has rejected the world and embraced the knowledge and love of

God. Although this argument by way of example is by far the most effective of

the three, it too ultimately falls short of its aim. Extrinsic starting points such as

Scripture, an argument from reason, or a recent historical personage ultimately

prevent any of the arguments from leading the reader into the kind of personal

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experience of the divine upon which the true science of the saints is based.

To possess such intimate knowledge, one must follow the lead of the saints in

prayer and turn ones life over entirely to Christ.

5. Alphonsuss use of time in his treatment of the science of the saints

also reflects a profound sensitivity to the limitations of the historical time tocapture the full implications of Christs redeeming activity. This diachronic

activity has concrete ramifications both in and out of time for the lives of

believers. To understand what these consequences might be, Alphonsus

encourages his readers to look beyond the limitations that time places on their

earthly existence. Alphonsus counsels meditation on death as an especially

helpful way of bringing one face-to-face with the vanity of worldly knowledge.

Contemplating the end of life helps one to live ones life mindful of ones

ultimate end in God. To this end, the sepulchers are great schools of truth:66

they move a person to evaluate his or her priorities; they invite him or her to

remember the divine source from which all good things come.

6. Similarly, Alphonsuss reflection emphasizes the close bond between the

science of the saints and the life of prayer. One can come to know God

personally only through intimate conversation with him. Prayer, for Alphonsus,

is easy to perform and reaps great benefits: He who prays is certainly saved.

He who prays not is certainly damned.67 The fluid, spontaneous way in which

his reflection on the science of the saints turns into a prayer suggests the ease

and frequency with which it should be practiced. Merely thinking about God is

not enough. One comes to know and to love him only by engaging him in

conversation. It is not insignificant that Peter Metastasio, the hero of

Alphonsuss exemplum, is described as leading a life of prayer. 68 As the great

means of salvation, prayer is a sine qua non for leading a person into a

relationship of intimacy with the divine.

66 Oh che belle scuole di verit sono le sepolture per conoscere le vanit del mondo! SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 257; Pious Reflections 188.

67 ...chi prega, certamente si salva; chi non prega, certamente si danna. SeeALPHONSUS DE LIGUORI, Del gran mezzo della preghiera, in: G. CACCIATORE (ed.)Alfonso M. De Liguori, Opere ascetiche, vol. 2, Rome: Edizioni di storia e letteratura,Roma 1962, 32; The Great Means of Salvation 49.

68 ...che sta sempre ritirato in casa a far vita divota e di orazione. See ALPHONSUS DE

LIGUORI, Riflessioni divote, 258; Pious Reflections 190.

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7. There are different degrees of intimacy, however, and not all attain to the

level of the mystical. Following the teaching St. Teresa of Avila, Alphonsus

recognizes a great variety of stages in spiritual moral growth. 69 At any one

moment, a person can be in right relationship with God and enjoy a deep level

of intimacy with him, while not experiencing those intense degrees of divinepossession exhibited in the higher stages of spiritual betrothal or spiritual

marriage. Just as it is possible to have, close, intimate friends outside the

context of marriage, so too is it possible to have a deep, intimate relationship

with God without having the extraordinary ecstatic experiences that define the

later stages of the mystical relationship. For this reason, Alphonsuss teaching

on prayer focuses on the lower grades of prayer such as mental and affective

prayer. For him, all people are called to intimacy with God and to participate in

some degree on the science of the saints.70

8. Finally, Alphonsuss aim in his presentation of the science of the saints

is to bring his readers a little further along the way of conversion. Writing in thefirst person plural, he establishes a bond with his readers and is able to lead

them to a consciousness of their need for change. Alphonsus can write in this

way because he is deeply aware of the need for change in his own life. As the

reflection itself becomes act of prayer, he shifts from the first person plural to

the first person singular.71 This subtle change highlights Alphonsuss own

awareness of his need for change and, hopefully, will intensify that awareness

among his readers. Alphonsus knows that his writing can only serve as an

instrument of change by providing a context within which the process of

conversion takes place. As his prayer itself suggests, only the response to the

69 For Alphonsuss teaching, see his Pratica del confessore per ben esercitare il suoministero, nos. 99-122, Tipografia Pontificia ed Arcivescovile Immacolata Concezione,Modena 1948), 160-89; Praxis confessarii ad bene excipiendas confessiones , chap. 9, inOpera moralia Sancti Alphonsi Mariae de Ligorio , vol. 4, Typis Polyglottis Vaticania, Roma1912, 596-608. For an English translation of the latter, see F: M. JONES, ed., Alphonsusde Liguori: SelectedWritings, The Classics of W

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