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A paradoxA paradox is a self contradictory statement
or situation.e.g. - you can save money by spending it.
- Im a liar. How do you know if Im
telling the truth?
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Speech events, genres, andperformance
A speech event is the situation calling forth
particular way of speaking
(Gordon and Lakoff 1975).Genre refers to the form of speaking, such as
joke, narrative, promise, riddle, prayer, even
greeting or farewell.
Performancewill refer specifically to ones
ability to carry out the requirement of a speech
event in a given social situation.
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The example of speech events,
genres, and performances
Church service are speech event, include
prayers, responsive, reading, hymn singing,
and announcement.
Sermons are genres, belonging to church, but
sermons do not cover the entire speech event.
Everyday discourse routines are as muchperformances as are preaching, joke-telling,
and lecturing.
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Intention
In all interaction, the parties assume that eachperson means what he or she says and is
speaking with a purpose.
Intention are not perceived correctly, it can
cause misunderstanding.
e.g. Consider a man who in front of his slightly
plump wife, looks admiringly at a model.
Wow! What a body on that one.The wife immediately says :
I know Im too fat
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Speech acts
People usually think of speech as a way ofstarting propositions and conveying
information.
Austin (1962) also stressed the function ofspeech as a way of doing things with words.
e.g. speaking a language in performing speech
acts, acts such as making statements, giving
commands, asking questions, making
promises, etc.
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A case in point: the telephone
(Schegloff 1968) stated that the ritual nature of
conversation as well as the role
of social conversation in
determining meaning is easily.
e.g. In the United States, the conversation is that
the answerer speak first. (when he/she is
answering the phone in his/her home, the
usual utterance is Hello
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e.g. In places of business or in a doctors
wherever the secretary or operator answerthe phone Hello is not proper. Rather the
name of thee business or offices is given, as
in E. B. Marshall Company or Dr.Sloans Office.
e.g. It was appropriate for the servants in a
household or even neighbors or friends whohappened to pick up the phone to answer
Jones residence, rather than Hello.
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Compulsion in discourse routines
In term of social rules, perhaps what in most
interesting is that the person who answer the
phone feels compelled to go get the one the
caller wants.e.g. John called Andy to go bowling, and Andy's
sister answered the phone, she informed
John that Andy was cutting logs.
Yes Andy is here, but I dont see him. Call back
later.
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Meaning in discourse routines
If the one called on the phone is not at home ordoes not live there any more or never lived
there at all, the semantically appropriate
response to Is Danny there? should be No
e.g. If Danny one lived there, but does not now,
an appropriate answer is:
- Danny doesnt live here any more.
- Danny has moved.
- Danny lives at .. now.
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e.g. If Danny has never lived there, one may
answer :
- There is no Danny here.
- What number are you calling?
- You must have the wrong number.
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Preconditions
Precondition for speech acts are much a part oftheir meaning as actual words are.
e.g. Sometimes people answer ., if there is
someone ask where something is in thestore.
I dont work here, but the tomatoes are in
the next aisle.(the giveaway here is the but, because it is seen as
a response to preconditions)
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Presupposition
Presupposition refers to meaning that is neverovertly stated but is always presupposed if certain
phrases are used.
e.g. if one says: Even Oscar is going.
(Evenhere is possible only if one
presupposes that Oscar usually does not go,
so the fact of his going means that everyone
is going.)
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Questions and answers
Goody (1978) points out that questions being
incomplete, are powerful in forcing
responses, at least in our society but
not, recall.
There are two kinds of overt questions in
English:
1.yes-noquestions
2.wh- questions
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Indirect request and conflict with thesocial values
All indirect request do not arise from such hostilesituation, although most are used when
individual desires conflict with other social rules
or values.
e.g. X : Oh, chocolates
Y : What are those, Cigars?
(Assume that X and Y are spoken by adult who
have long known what chocolate denotes and arefamiliar with cigars, these observations are
perceived as request. This is shown by the usual
responses to either.)
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CommandsCommands share virtually the same
preconditions as questions
I. The speaker who commands has the right
and/or duty to command.
II. The recipient of the command has the
responsibility and/or obligation to carry out
the command.
e.g. Direct commandingMother : Pick those toys up right away.
(Parents normally command young children
directly.)
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Compliments
Compliments are another utterance pair type
that create conflict.
The problem is that to accept the compliment
is very close to bragging. Hence, one typicalresponse to a compliment is a disclaimer.
e.g. X : This old rag?Y : I got it on sale.
X : My mother got it for me.
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Presequences and saving face
An interesting class of discourse rules is what
Harvey Sacks called. Presequences (lecture,
November 2, 1967), particularly preinvitations.
Typically, someone wishing to issue an oral
invitation.e.g. X : What are you doing Saturday night?
(if the response include words like only
or Just, like :
Y : Im just washing my hair.
or
Y : Im only studying.
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The inviter can then issue an invitation for
Saturday night. But if the response is :
Y : Im washing my hair.
or
Y : Im studying.
The potential inviter knows not to issue the
invitation. The inviter signals a change inconversation by saying uh..
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Collapsing sequences
Sometimes utterance pairs are collapsed (Sacks,November 2, 1967)
e.g. A : Do you smoke?B : I left them in my other jacket.
(Such collapsing sequences speed up socialinteraction by forestalling unnecessary
explanations.)
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Repairs
Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks (1977) collectedsamples of self-correction in discourse, people
repairing their own errors. Sometimes this takes
the form of obvious correction to a slip of the
tongue, as in:A : What're you so haerun unhappy about?
(sometimes speakers make a repair when
they have made no overt errors, as in:B : Sure enough the minutes later the bell rthe
door bell rang.
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New rules of discourseNew situation may involve learning new
discourse. Anthony Wooton (1975, p.70) gives anexample from psychotherapy. Psychiatrists
typically do not tell patients what to do. Rather,
by asking questions, they try to lead the patient
into understanding.
e.g. Patient : Im a nurse, but my husband
wont let me work.
Therapist :How old are you?
Patient : Thirty-one this December.
Therapist : What do you mean, he wont let
you work?
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Topic in normal and psychoticspeech
The first half of an utterance pair strongly limitswhat can come next. It limits both form and
subject matter. In normal conversation,
everything has to be subordinated to topic,
whatever is being talked about (see VanDijk1977). Schegloff (1971) likens this to co-occurance
restrictions such as we saw in style. The signals
that change topic are. oooh, that reminds me
Not to change the subject but the oooh
in itself is a wearing that an announcement about
topic change is coming.
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Conclusion
This chapter is concern with the use of
language in social context. The ability to
use the language effectively to
communicate in particular context and for
particular purposes. Language chains us
socially because there are social rules that
often force us into responding in certainways.
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