Un Tiempo de Rupturas Hobsbawm-Eric

7/26/2019 Un Tiempo de Rupturas Hobsbawm-Eric

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ÍndicePORTADA

AGRADECIMIENTOS

PREFACIO

CAPÍTULO 1. MANIFIESTOS

PARTE I. LOS APUROS DE LA «ALTA CULTURA» EN LA ACTUALIDADCAPÍTULO 2. ¿ADÓNDE VAN LAS ARTES?CAPÍTULO 3. ¿UN SIGLO DE SIMBIOSIS CULTURAL?CAPÍTULO 4. ¿POR QU CELEBRAR FESTIVALES EN EL SIGLO !!I?CAPÍTULO ". POLÍTICA # CULTURA EN EL NUEVO SIGLO

PARTE II. LA CULTURA DEL MUNDO BURGUSCAPÍTULO $. ILUSTRACIÓN # LOGROS% LA EMANCIPACIÓN DEL TALENTO &UDÍO DESDE 1'((CAPÍTULO ). LOS &UDÍOS # ALEMANIACAPÍTULO '. DESTINOS DE LA MITTELEUROPACAPÍTULO *. CULTURA # «GNERO» EN LA SOCIEDAD BURGUESA EUROPEA + 1')(,1*14CAPÍTULO 1(. ART NOUVEAU

CAPÍTULO 11. LOS -LTIMOS DÍAS DE LA UMANIDADCAPÍTULO 12. PATRIMONIOPARTE III. INCERTIDUMBRES+ CIENCIA+ RELIGIÓNCAPÍTULO 13. INQUIETUD POR EL FUTUROCAPÍTULO 14. CIENCIA% FUNCIÓN SOCIAL # CAMBIO MUNDIALCAPÍTULO 1". UN MANDARÍN CON GORRO FRIGIO% &OSEP NEEDAMCAPÍTULO 1$. LOS INTELECTUALES% PAPEL+ FUNCIÓN # PARADO&ACAPÍTULO 1). PERSPECTIVAS DE LA RELIGIÓN P-BLICACAPÍTULO 1'. ARTE # REVOLUCIÓNCAPÍTULO 1*. ARTE # PODERCAPÍTULO 2(. DECADENCIA # FRACASO DE LAS VANGUARDIAS DEL SIGLO !!

PARTE IV. DEL ARTE AL MITOCAPÍTULO 21. /POP0 EL ESTALLIDO DEL ARTISTA # DE NUESTRA CULTURACAPÍTULO 22. EL «VAQUERO» DE ESTADOS UNIDOS% ¿UN MITO INTERNACIONAL?

FECAS # FUENTES DE PUBLICACIÓN ORIGINAL

NOTAS

CRDITOS



AGRADECIMIENTOS

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=:6 R6@=,S;6<=5+ 6= 855 5 F5+ < =6 U>5<6< < S6=@5: 6 =6 London

Review of Books+ << 68655 5:6=9; >65 < = 68H;= 6 R6=< ==+ LDJ K S;5=6<+ =6@565 =6 >;:6+ 5> < < ; =@5 6

C5; S;;=J5;+ 85 7=; ;56<. T69@ 5 8<5 <=86 6 M65=+

85 6@59 ;56< 9 < = <@5H6 = ;56@6 < ; =@5.



PREFACIO

Y estamos aquí como en oscura llanura barrida por confuso estrépito de lucha y fuga donde ignaros ejércitos combaten en la noche.

MATTE ARNOLD+ «P=66 < D>5»

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;59 58;69;+ 8656 = '( 85 1(( <= :=@ ;55+ =6 <6<6 < 1*"(+ 66 =

6 ;6+ 6< = :@5 =6 > 6@H6 5:< =6 5=6 966

<:6;6@6 6 >;6 ;<6 865;. E; =@5+ 85 = ;6;+ ;56;6 ;69@ @5 6 56 < =6

;56 6 85<< = 5; + = 8595 6 <= > 9=+ 956 66 <=6;

:H6 9686+ 66 ;5 55@=+ 9 858=<6< ;< < = 55<

9 =65:6 ><6. T56 6@5 6< 5; < > 6<+ << 9 858;>6 <

;56<5+ @5 =6 56 ;57 < =6 56=<6< 6= = 65;+ = =;9 6 <=

:= 866< 9 >;65 6 6@=65 @5 == = 8;9 = 5:66<5

<= ;>6= 66= < S6=@5: ;>6= ;6@= >;: < l mundo de ayer + < S;6

KJ:+ ;H6 5; >H= =. E;6 56 < S6=@5: 585;6 = 8; <

865;<6 <= 85; =@5+ 5; ;5 1*$4 2(12. M < =6 9;6< <= ;< 69 6@H6

8@=6< 6;+ 6= 9 :=.

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6 " 5=7 56=;6 @5 =6 ;6 < =6 65; 6= 858 <= > 9=. N

8<59 985<5= 6 9 59;9 6= 9< 85<< <= 65. L 68H;= $ 6

12 ;56;65 < ; 9<+ 9<=6< = 6= =6 E586 <96+ 5 = =

6 <69;6= < = «=» @5 ;< 6; 55 6 =6 96+ =6 856+ = @6==;

= ;6;5 ;69@+ 9 86H+ = =:6 <69;6= < =6 =;56;56 9<56.

;96< = 98=+ 6; ;<+ < =6 5: 596 9 858 @6:6 =;56=

::569;+ =6 E586 ;56= =:WH;69;+ = 6=9+ 85 ;69@ = 6

5=66< =6 56= «<6< < 8=6;6» belle époque < 6==6 =;56 =6 =;96 <6<6

85>6 6 1*14. E;6 865; = 6 5=7 656 < =:6<.

P6 8:6 9 <6 <H6 =6 85;6 <58 65= M657 < =6



6 6= 96 < =6 <;56=6 68;6=;6 <;6=. P5 6< =

:= !I! = 68;6=9 58 ;6@= <9 @5 9< ;6@6 <;6< 6

;565965 85 =6 >H6 < =6 ;6+ =6 855<6< ;6 =6 :=@6=6 96+ ;69@

==> : 6 8;; 85;:6 65:6 < >6=5 56 + 6;56=9;+ < 85

;6< 56 855 6 ;5. L ==69659 =6 «>=6 @5:6 586»+ 69

585 < =6 85956 :556 9<6=. P656 ;6 > <= 9<+ 8=6 66 H



996+ =6 65; =6 6 5 ;6 ;56= 9 =6 = 85:5 =6 <6 <

+ 5 = = 85;6= 598=6 6 =6 5=: ;56<6=. # 6H 9 5 ;6

«>=6 @5:6»+ 585;6<6 < 596 98; 85 = :56 6== < < 8@= <

9<6< < := 5<6@6 = 6;: ;5 9856= 9<>6= < V6% =6 B=6+ =6

U>5<6<+ = B5:;6;5+ = 99;6= A;69;+ = P65=69; =+ = ;;

9 < ;56 <= A5; ;56 N6;56=+ 5; 6 ;5 + 85 8;+ = 56 < ;<6<6< @5:6 <96 856% = G56 T6;5 < =6 Ó856. E; 56 = =:65

<< =6 :; «=;6» 856;6@6 6<56 = 6=;65 < =6 =;56 =6 65;. S 6= <

66< 6 :=6 <= := !I!+ = 9 6 ;65<H6 6= >H= ;5 =6 I:=6 =

9856<5.

E;6 ><6 6 =;56=+ 9@65:+ <H6 56H =6 6;:6 =;56

8586+ 5:6 =;6 6;55 6 =6 R>= F566 <5+ = 9< <=

8<5 =6 56 7;596+ = 86;5 85 7=6 <= 65; =6 78 < 85;:. A

@5>> :56 9<<6 :566 6 ;6 66 < 85;: ;56<6= 8<5 65+

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@5>>< 6 5=6;> <=> E586 6 :< < =6 785 85 6;966+ =

9<+ < 6 =;56 9@6 8<5 :6; =@5 =>6< 85;: 6=. 6;6 ;

8;+ = :56 65; : < 5;5+ 9 = champagne+ = 9< :=@6=6<.

E;6 865; <= =@5 = 6=:6 5=7 @5 = 86;59 < ; 85H< =

85@=96 6 = 5;6.

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>6=5 =6 96;H6 <6? E; 5 = ;96 < = 68H;= < =6 ;556 865; < ;

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;5:6<6 ;>56 6= 85:5+ 8<H6 985<5=6 >H6 6>6<6 85 ==6 =6 56

<6=;6 < =6 5=: 8@=6 6 56 < =656 6=56<6 6 65; 6@H6

85<< 6;: 5; =:565 <65 ;5+ 6 ;56> < @<6 «9<5;6»

«>6:65<;6» <= 85:5+ 98; =6 ;=:H6+ 6 ;56> < =6 6=66 = 8<5+

;698+ 6=9;+ 85 =6 >H6 < 9;5+ <= 5;9;+ 6= 956<.

¿Q = 6== 6 =6 >=6 @5:6? A @66@6 9< < 85< ;<

= <;5 ;< = ;56596+ < 6;6+ ;; ;96 8=H; <

>6=5 ;6@6 86< 85 8656 6 95H6 6 56 6 95H6 8<H6 786<5+

6H = . E56 X : <Y 95;5;6+ = :6 56 :6=;656

<95;6. 6;6 6= <= := !I!+ =6 «@5:H6»+ =6 9<6 6=;6+ 585;6@6 6 6 :58

< 856 9 5<<. E 1')"+ = 6 A=966 9 =656<6+ = 1((.(((

6<H6 6 = gymnasia 96;6 X;;; < 66 <656Y 6 < ;+ 9

8 ==:6@6 6 = 79 6=+ = !bitur . E =6 >5<6< ;<6@6 9 <

1$.((( 6=9. I= 6 =6 85;6 < =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ A=966+ F566 G56



B5;66 ;5 < = 86H 9 :56<+ <655==6< =;+ 6 8@=6 ;;6= < 1"(

9== < 6@;6; ;6@6 979+ ;5 ;<+ < 1"(.((( ;<6;

>5;65% =6 <96 865; <= 1 85 1(( < 8@=6 ;6. L6 8;6=65 786 <

=6 <6 <656 + @5 ;<+ >5;656 <8 < 1*4" 6 9=;8=6< = 95 <



856 596 =;6+ <5+ 856 596<6 6; 6<6 =6 =;56

<96 6@6 =6 =6 85 6569; = 95 ;

9< ;6 =;56.

O@>69;+ = 8=:5 8656 ; ;96 ;H6 85>5 < =6 :56 965H6 <6@6

56 < =6 =;. Q 66@6 6 <6< 85:5;6+ 85 :6=;656 <95;6+ =

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=;56=9;+ = @; < =6 9=;66 6=<956;6 «8=H;69; ;» 56 55 6=

;56@66<5 6 =@5 6 ; >6=5 =6 6;5<6< 6=;6 =6= = <5.

P656<69;+ =6 >5<6<56 >6 < =6 =;56 @6=;56 < =6 86+ 9 = 9<

<= ;@= 856= 8@=+ ;<H6 6 ;98=65 9 <>5 8=H;69;

55=>6; 96<56. P5 = + =6 6= 86 85 = ;@= <= 85=;656< > =6

V6 < 9 66 <6@6 85 ;6<6+ 85 65H6 < ;< >H= =6 :6=9; 6866<6

6<58 < >;6; 6= P65;< S6=<956;6.

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6 <6< 6 ;; :@56<6 85 6 =; 95;656 85:5;6+ ;=56<6 X

= 685@6<6Y 85 =6 965H6 6= 9+ 985 = ;96 :656;656 =6 ;6@=<6<+

=6 86 = 5< 8@=+ 6<9 < =6 9<;6 78;6;>6 < = 8@5. N 8< 5;5 =

;58= :=8 9@6< < =6 5>= ;H6 ;=:6 <= := !! ;5659 =6

>6 596 < :665 =6 ><6+ 6; < <;55=6+ < =6 <6< < 9 < 966

:56<6 85 =6 78= = 8;6= < =6 9H6 <;6= + 85 =;9+ = <>

:5 < =6 966 =6 6 8=H;6+ 9 =; 9 >;6;. E= := !! + 8656 5

9 76;+ :<6 9;6< = <= 9@5 <;6= 596= 55; 95 9<<6+;69@ = < =6 95. E= := !!I 6 :=@6=6< = 9. T69@ 6 <9;56< =6

<6 < = ;96 8=H; <;6 =6 <9566 = 56: >56= ;>

= :@5 585;6;>+ @5 ;< <6< =6 8=H;6 =6 ;5;56 < :@5 6

8596< 9 6 =6 :=@6=6 + < + 6 >; 556<6 85 =6 ;56596

6 >56= <= 9< 6 = < «6 ;6<» @566. A<9+ =6 =;

:@56; 6= 9 :96+ 6;:6 9<56+ ; <6 < 65

6596 6@5=+ 65 < =6 56 856 8656 6;65.

C=;56=9;+ = := <= 9@5 =6 95 < =6 6== 6 < 9 9 8;>+ 85 9

66 5<< = 8@= < =6 6=;6 =;56 @5:6 =6 6 8656 = 5 66+

@ 6 < 85;:. E 1*$(+ =6 96 =6 8H6 686 2 85 1(( < =6

:56@6 < <+ = 6= < @56 98;6 6; <= := !!+ 6 =6 >6:65<6

96= 69 6=6 8@= :6;>. D + =6 9@6 < =6 >6 ;=:H6 =

9 < 966 = 6 56< = 865696 < =;56 :56= = >>9+

;69@ 6 :56< =:5 65;H; 965 9 5:6=% =6 96: 9>9;. D 6H =6

:9H6 < = <956;6< E;6< U< = ;55 < =6 6=<6 < =6 96



:=@6=+ 5:6=<6< =6 >6 596 < 56 65;H;6 = ;= < 5;56+ 96=+

;6;56=+ 9=6 =6 ;56< =;6 @6=;56 <= 99;+ 85 ;69@ =6 6=6 <

8<5 558;5. E= <655== < <6< =6 6 9H6 ;,<;56=6<6 6

@66< ;56 ><6 7856 < 596 85< =;56= < <+ 96:+

86=6@56+ 9956 H9@= 985;+ ;6; >56= 65 85 98=; <

85<; ;5. 6 ;56596< ;;6=9; ;56 596 < 685<5 =6 56=<6< =6



1

85< 65;H;6+ @5 ;< 6= 85 6 =6 < ;56<6=9; 85>=:6<6 < «=6

65;» =6 6;:6 <6< @5:6+ <5+ 9 9<<6 < = @ = 96=+

9 85;6<56 < >6=5% < >5<6<+ @==6 6;65.

Q 6 ; >:5 8656 = 8@= <= :95 6== =<+ 85 986;@=

= 858 @ < 6 <6< < 956< <=6<6+ 6 6@5% = @; <

7856 «9 6;6»+ =:5 9 =:5. P5 <5= =6 86=6@56 < &59B;69 X 9 @+ =6 < & S;65; M==Y+ «= push"pin ;6 @ 9 =6 8H6». S6=;6 6 =6

>;6 6H+ 6 = 6 85 @;96 6;6 8; = =89 < =6 <6< <

9 6 6< = 5;6= < 7@9 865;86 =;>6+ 6= +

6 66@6< 85 656;565 ;5 ;6< ;56 <6< >= <= 9< <=

8;=. S6=> = =68 < ;98 =6 <6< @5:6 5 6@5 < @6 =6 =;56

X =6 59=6 < T. S. E=;% « = 6=+ =6 95 >6 > Z 6@=6< < M:=

[:=»Y+ 6 <89 < =6 86=6@56 = 8; 85 8656 = 65;5 ;6 <;; <

;6 <9 < ;56 7856. I= =6 85:;6 < «¿E; 65;?» 85@6@=

59= = @6 < 6== 8< 68;65 = = 8; @5: < «=665;»+ 85 9 <6<69; 855>6< ; 96=+ 6 ; >>. L=: 6= 6=

< 69 6 =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ D6<+ = 565 < M65= D698 =

6<56< :5 < M6=>. P5 8;+ = 65; ;59 ;+ 9 8H6 @6 6

555. N ;698 ;59+ 85 <:566+ =6 <6< < =6 «=6 65;» 56 6 865; ;:56=.

S 9@65:+ ;5 6 985<9 6@9 9 =<65 =6 6;6= <6

56;>6 6:6 = :=@ 9:+ < 86=6@56+ 6 ;<6 5;6 5

;5=6@= ;6; = 86 9 = @586.

CH = 85; =@5 8<5 ;5@5 6 =6565 ; <@6;.



1

C68H;= 1

MANIFIESTOS

L6 965H6 < 6; 865;86 6H 6 5; 96;. # ;: 96;

8585 5 69 66 @6< 56 <9; < ;6= 9@5+ 6

@6< ;7; >6=;. N @;6;+ ==> =< ;7; ==696< «96;» <56;

6 := 96: 9 ;5:6 5;6 5<@=<6< 9 9;65;6+ 6 9656; <

96;. M ><6 ;=;6= =65 6:5 B5=H+ 6 = 6+ 96;%

= M6; C9;6 < M657 E:=. # ;: 6 ;:56H6 < 856 << 6865+ =

;6 6 98=<+ =< = 85< ;6=6 #l $anifesto+ + : 5+ = =;9 <65

58 <96 6 H 99 9;6. C9 9 86<5 665 =6 K5 < =6

85956 :556 9<6=+ ;5 L = <6<6H;6 <= C6@65; V=;65+ 9 :;65H6 865 96; < = <6<6H;6 855 5 8< = 99; < 9 8 85 85

<:566+ = 8595 96; <6<6H;6 5; ;5 9 6; < ; 8<56 <5.

E 56=<6<+ = =;5 ;9; < 96; 6 8 <= := !!. E :=

6;55 6 < 6@<6; <=656 =;>6 < 6 6;56=6+ @5 ;<

5=:6 8=H;6+ 85 5@5 ;56 ;;6% 8;+ 65;6 ;;+

==6969;+ ;. E7;5 =6 :56< <=656 =6 D=656 < I<8<6 <

E;6< U< < A956+ =6 D=656 < = D5 <= 9@5+ 85 85 = :56=

;7; < :@5 5:66 < = 9 6=+ 9 =6 D=656 U>56= < D5

96+ < 1*4'. L6 965H6 < = 96; <= := 866<.¿C9 @5>>5 = 96; = := !!I? L 9>9; 865;< 8=H;

+ <8 < ;<+ 5 < = < 965 < 85< < 96; 6

= 56 = := 6;55. E= ;5 5 =6 65;. D >+ = 6 < =6 <6<

985656= =6 5:6 < = 9;5 <5 < 9856+ 6 >; ;;<

965H6 85 86; >; < =6 «<=656 < 9». N:6 < =6 <=656 «<

9» =6 9 ;56< <H6 6<6 9556 =6 86+ 6 9 6

;6;6 < =6 85:5==6<6 96= 5;6. E 98@= 6965 9;5 ;5 =6 96=6 < =6

=;56 9856 ;5865 6=: 98=+ < ;9; 6 >;6@=9; 5+

< 6=: 865< 6 «Q ;:6 @ <H6» «N 985;6 ==69».A 6H+ = «96;» ; 98;< @6;6; 7; =6 <=656 <

@;>. G:= 5 6 >; 9== < 5=;6< 8656 6 @<6+ = 9H9

X6 7=< 6 =6 <:56 M6; R5< <>5 85<;Y. N 8< 65965

;< == 6 =6 < < <65% «<=656 8@=6 < 858

;+ 86=9; < 6;56=6 8=H;6». O < 6=5 ;5 ;8. 6==65 85 98=

96; @5 =6 =6;66 96;56+ ;5 @5 65<5H6 =>;5+ 96; «85 =6 =6»



1

X ;56;6 @5 = :66< =6 ;556 6=;6 6Y 96; @6;6; ;;6<5 @5 6

>6 =;56 <= 86+ @56 < 5:; \ S;+ 8=6:6< < 556 6 = <6<6H;6+ =



1

;6;6+ A<5 B5; B5; 85+ 8 585<;9;+ :6 9 6=

698 < = 866; 5@6+ 6=;5 B69. #+ 85 8;+ 6==65 ;69@ ;< =

96; < ;6 9656;.

N ;< 6 < 65 @6 865; < = 96; < ; < 966+ 85 6

6 6 9 ==696 =6 6;% 9 858;6 <><6= =:65 < 5+ 9 <H6

6 985 = 866<+ <=656 < :58+ =6 585;6 < 6=: «;5»=;>+ 596=9; 5:66< . S <<6+ ;< = 96; 8=H; 55<

< ;6 6;56=6. S985 6@=6 8=56= 85;< :665 865;<65 X;69@ 8=56=Y.

T69@ ; = 6 6@;6= < = 96; 65;H;+ 88=6565 <8 < =

;5;6 ;5<56 =6 86=6@56 = 9< <= 65; 1*(*+ :566 6= < < =6 >5@556 <=

;6=6 M65;;. C ==+ 6<=6;65 6; 6 6 = 56. E; >< <

6 = @;6 = 6@5H6 :;6< >;65 =6 86=6@56 < 96556+ 85 6= 99;

;6@6 9 85 =6 8=H;6 = <6@6 95 865 ;59 8;5 =:WH;. P5

8;+ ; 6@=6< < >6:65<6 5H6 9 ;6= 6= 99;+ <

;;6 =6 56<6 a posteriori X9 = «8;9859»Y 5; < =6 > <= 5H; + 6<6 > 9+ < = 9656; X9 = «7859 6@;56;»Y. E; 86<

6;; :58 < 856 X6 > 596< ;5 6 <><+ 6 8@=6

85<6+ 85 9 5;6 ><6Y+ ; < ;56 =6@6+ 6H 9 < =

;H6 9% <6<6H;6+ 556=;6+ D S;=+ LEF = G58 I<8<; ;5 6= 6=

5: = P8 A5; G56 B5;66+ =6 <6<6 < 1*"(. O+ 8656 = 6+ =6 85956 856;>6 <

;:56+ M6:9. P5 <5= 6H+ ;< == :58 69866.

N ; :5 < 8656 5> = 96; 8569; <><6=+ 9 6== < 785

= 9< < 6 856 656 <= 85; 8566 @5 = ;5+ 8< X Y

8565 ;5 9865;6 ==. ¿C9 >6 6 ==>65 ; 6 6@? ¿S ;56;6 8586=9; <==;> < 99 6 7856 9865;<6+ : 6596 V> ;J< 6;56;>

96;? L ;5;6 5 = 8595 665 6 H 99. Q =6 8@=<6< =

9< 6 = 8595 = > 6 =6 6@6 6 8;6= 96;6;+ 6; =6

;56<6= 596 < 6 =;>6+ : < ;56 <6< 6;6 ;6< <

<;:56. P5 8;+ 6 856+ <><6=9;+ ;69@ 8< ;=65 96;

8656 665 + < ;6 596+ 5=6965 5;6 855<6< 8656 5;6 >6 856=+

9 = 6 <= «M6; =;565» < & N+ < 2((1 X%he &uardian+ 1( < 5 <

2((1Y. T69@ 7; =6 =6 < 96; ;555;6 < =6 85 «U6@9@5» 1**"

66 ;; <><6= < 69@65 =6 <6<+ 6+ 96<6< 65;6 @9@6 6 9:

:<. P5 ; :5 < ; 85; 6= 9@; < =6 8=H;6 <= 65; 8;6=.

A56 @+ 7; 6 ;5 96; 8569; <><6= X >6 6= :Y ; 6 6<

9;+ 6=> 6= =8;6 = 9;. E= 98= 9 7;59 <9; 7;565<65+ =

$anifiesto del 'otel (helsea < #> =+ 1*$1. = 65<65 ;< 6@H6

56< 65556 8;6< = =5+ 6= 5 5 < 9<6;. N6<6

9% @5 = 6<56< 6=65:6<+ @5 6=5 6 ;5<96= 8586=9;+



1

86+ 85 ;69@ 9<= 6 =6 6H6 5<65 @5 =6 8;56. E= 96; 78=6

<@H6 6 = = 6= = 85:H6+ 6 = 6= < = = 9 5= >; 6.

T9@6< =6 8=66+ N6+ <% «E98 6 <65 6 = 865 >=6@6 6<=6; 6;5

6;56>6< 9 = 6= <86<+ 85 ;;6@6 6@55 6:5 9 @56 9 :56<

9 596. 6 =965 6 = 865».



1

N 65 6=;6 = <:6 = ;5 6 5H; 78=6 85<<6<

9656; = ><56 6 = =;. L6 G6=5H6 G6:6 6 55>6< = <5

< 86 <= 96; = 6 << =6 =6 < 95;6=<6< 95H6.

E; 9 ==>6 6= ;< < = 96; 85=696< 6 = =65: < 9 ><6. L 8595

9 ==696 =6 6;+ 6= 65 =6 >;6 6;5+ = >5<6<5 ;5 < <9;

; 6== 5=696. E; = 5 @>+ 965H6+ = ;8 @6;65H6 8656;55 :56< >5;<5 5@6; ; <;6< 6 6 58<6 @=6. AH = <

= 6= :56 856<5 M6; C9;6+ : ;6 >> + = =;9 < 6+

6 < 5<@5; 85 = 858 68;6=;6+ 6; =6 66 O<; < 6 5<6

>5<6<56 5=>66 8=H;6. L6 56 85 =6 = =9 =6 996 9 = =5

6< ;H6 6% 8595+ = 9656>== 55;@= ;= @5H <= ;7;. P5

8586=9; =6 96:H6 > 66=H;6 < 9 ;56596 = 9<+ 5:<6 =6

85956 8:6. B6 865; < = 66@6 56=9; = 96; < ;5 8569;

;5+ 965H6 = =;5 = 6=;6 6;6 = ; < 5@6; <= 6=% = 6596

= ;56@66<5 ; 6<6 85<5+ 6=> 6<6+ ; 9< 85 :665.T56@66<5 <= 9<+ H. P5 <:566+ ;69@ ; 6 856< 5 6 <

6<<6<.

S <<6+ ; = 85@=96 < 6=5 5; ;56; @5 = ;5% 8<9

5=. S6@9 <:;6 <= 85; 85 <:;6 85 + =

@56= ;< = 96; =6 <6. E = 6;6 6= ;5+ = 8<9 ;5 =6

:5<6< < = 6:69 ;<5 6 >=;656.

S ;< ; 5; ;7; ;6 85<56@= 9 = M6; C9;6+ 6 = 9

8656 = 96; < =6 65; 56;>6. P656 9 65;;6+ ;6= 9 9 < 6 6

9 < 6 =@ ;5+ «=6 86=6@56 9 ;59;». 6;6 6< = +9 < = 8;6+ = = 95+ =6 56 : =6 <6 <= «8

=: 5@»+ 6 9 9 ;5=6@=. E; = 85@=96+ 9 859; <5= 6H+

<= 65; 8;6=. D< =6 858;>6 ;=;6=+ = 8; <= 65; 8;6= = 655

< ;5+ 6 9 8<6 =5 9 @596+ 6= ;= <= 565 < D698 =6 @56

6 9 + 9 9 <>5;<6 < P6= =.

P5 = ;6;+ =5 =6 965H6 < = 96; 65;H; 85 = :6< 85;< 6

7856 5;56; 6=>+ + 9 performance. E = ; 6+ 95 9

;7; < : 95 = 9< 56;5. P5 + 85@6@=9;+ D6< ;= <

9<6 >> : < = 55 6@;6= < ;6; 96; 6;6=% 95 6=

;98 <>5;< :5+ 9 = 556=9+ 8< 6 ;585;6+ = :

96:6;>+ = 6= + 6 < ;6+ =6 @6 < ;< ;56@6 56;>. # 6=5 6+ =6

>6=56 < =6 6 <8< < =6 7856 >>69 ==6+ < 9 =6 <5@6.

P5 = 56<5 < 65; 6 6=66< 7; 965 96;. E 9 !ge of

)tremes 5@H% «P5 = @5==6; <6<5 < 9<6+ 6 566 ;56 85 5 66=H;6+

6 6;86 95 =6 596 < =6 6 85 >5 = 856= < =6 85<



1

6 < =6 ; 9 56 < =6 ;56 + 8656 = ;56<5 < =6 65;+ 6 < =6 9

<69;6=». A =6 58;6. A= 76965 =6 65; < =6 <6<6 6;55 6 1*14+ 8<9

@5>65 6@H6 ==6 96 6 6;86@6 =6 6H<6 < =6 >=6 @5:6 <8

< 6 6. E= P8 A5; < =6 <6<6 < 1*"( 1*$( 5H6 =6 6 =6 9H6

5<;6 =6 <6< < 9 < 966 98=6 + < ; 9<+ =6 6@<6 < =6 6;:6

@56 < 65; >6=. ¿Q 6@? Q ;56<5 5@6 < 6H 6 ;6 6 <:6 =



1

99 < = < =6 65;+ = 6 @6 = 9@5 < 65;+ ;5 99; <

5 68;6=;6+ 5;5 6 =6 56 >=6 < O<;. I:6= =6 7;565<656

8=H=6 6 <9;6= $an on *ire+ 6 96 965 ;<+ =6 65; 696

@5 =6 5<6 =6 ;5 = 6=96 = 956<+ ;5 =6 56 <><6= =6 =;>6+ =

;5 = 85<; 56;> 5@= <;6@= 9 96 = 66=; 6 5<

85 865; < =6 ;=:H6 = 5< 985; < ;5;. E ;+ = 68;6=9 ;65<H6 85856< 6 @6 ><6 6 9 856 56;>6 6+ 85 85 5; 6

;6 6;6 ;6 =6 <6<. ¿Q 6;86 =5 =

;56<5 < 2($( =6 85< =;56= < = =;9 ;5;6 6? N = 8<

6@5=+ 85 9;56 ;6; 6@5 85=696< 6; 96;.



1

P65; I

LOS APUROS DE LA «ALTA CULTURA» EN LA ACTUALIDAD



1

C68H;= 2

¿ADÓNDE VAN LAS ARTES?

S <<6+ 68586< 85:;65= 6 ;56<5 9 5 =6 =;56 = 8579

9=% = ;56<5 9 = 785; <= 866<. N 869 <= ;5 + 9 6+

<= ;5 < =6 65;+ ; 7859;6< =6 56 9 5>=656 < =65:6 ;56;56.

A56 @+ 9 8<9 65 = 85;6 856= 8 6 =6 =6= 96 <

<5 = :@5 =6 9856 :6;6 85;+ ;56<5 ;69@

8<6 6>;565 = ;55 < =6 ;5=:H6. A < ;6+ 6 865 < ;<6 =6

>=+ 866<+ 85; ;5 596 ; 6 ;<6< 8656@=.L6 65;+ ;5 :=+ 656;56 85 <8<5 < 6 5>= ;=:6 6

<< = 8; < >;6 ;5+ 5>= 6<9 =6 6 ;56596<+ 86=9; 85

9< < =6 ;=:H6 < =6 96 =6 585<. P5 =6 :<6 56 6

5>=6< =6 =;56 9 55 6 =6 <6< < 9 < 966 986@= =6

5>= ;=:6 = + 85 98=+ =6 56<+ =6 ;=>+ = 585<;5 <

96 85;;=. P5 8569; ; = 859; 8 85; :56= @5 = ;5

<= 65; 9 ;6=. L6 6;:6 65; >6=+ 9 =6 8;56 =6 =;56+ 6@H6 5>6<

6;6 6 @ 8 9 596 < 65;6H6 856 98=9;+ 6@H6 <;56=6< <

6H+ 85 5;+ =6 5 =6 6==6 9<6 . L6 =;56;56+ 69@+ 6<68; 6 =6585< 96 6 9< 9=+ = <H6 < G;@5:. E= 896 6 @

8656 =6 585;6 8@=6 X9 <H6 =6 86+ 6 <6865 ;56 =6

> < =6 985;6Y+ ;698 X9 = 6+ 85 98=+ < =6 =;56;56 =6 6Y

9 6 @56 6=:56. S ;56;6+ ==69;+ < 6 98=6 96 < H9@=

6=6@;. D<+ < 9 5@9 5=;6< @5 868=+ 6 86;6==6 6=5

;5 85; ; 656 < ;<6 985;66+ 85 H <656.

P5 ;5 =6<+ = := !!+ 85 85956 > =6 ;56+ =6 96 6 56< = 95 <

=6 96 8569; H6 ;5 = ;59; = H<. L6 :56 965H6 < <

5< H9 6 9< < 7856 =;56= ==:6 < 596 <5;6% 585<<969; ;569;< 6 <;66. D 9< 6<6 6 < =6 96 6 ;< 6

7856 <;;6 < =6 «56 < =6 585<» : = 8; < 6=;5 B69

656 = ;5 < 9< <5;.

I65+ 8+ =6 65=6 @5> 586 < =6 <;;6 56 < =6 =;56. C9 5;5

+ = 5: 9 859;6 965 85 =6 =;56;56.

E989 85 ;965 6 < + ;56; = 865696 < 858 <= :=



2

!!+ =6 96<6< <= := !!I 6 ;65 596<6 8586=9; 85 66=6@;. 6 =

<6 < 865; <= 9< =6 66 6 965H6 66=6@;6% = 5 < A6 X=6 I<6+ P6];

=6 5: =<6;Y [56. U6 <6 596= 98=6 =@5 =;5. T6 =

=6 6=6@;6 59; " 85 1((+ 6865 ;6 9== < 8@= =;5 X<

=@5 < ;7;+ 6= 9Y. L 9+ << 9<6< <= := !!+ 6 ;<6 =6 8@=6 < =6

6 <56 «<655==6<6» 8< ;65 5@5 <6 <656 + =



2

=;9 ;5 < =6 ;56+ <;66< 85;6 < = :58 < <6< 5=>6; 5@

<6 855 X=6 8585+ =6 I:=6;556 6;6=+ 5<6 =6 ;556 865;Y. P5 = ;6;+ 6

9=;8=6< = 8@=+ 8656 ;< = ;8 < =;56;56. # ;+ 85 5;+ = ; <=

«8@= =;» 6= 6 <5:< ;<6 =6 65; < =6 6=;6 =;56 <;6= << = := !VIII.

E; > 8@= < =;5 : 69;6< =6569;+ 56 6@=;6. I= = 6;6=

9< < 96 < 966 68;6 66 ==.L6 8=H=6 l paciente inglés+ 85 98=+ 85; 6 5 =;5 < 5<; <

9<6;+ 9; < @5; ;6<< 9856 =@5 < 6;: ;56<5

:5: 6= 6;+ 6 = 9+ 6@H6 H< 9@565.

C9 6 < = := !I!+ ;6 <956;6 <= 96;56= 5; <

6569; 6 6 56:9;6+ 85 = 6 < =6 6;:6 >6 =;56;56 >5=6

< > 9 = := !I! ;69@ 6 6 <6< <56<6 < =6 ;56<. P5 ¿9+

6 ;56> < =6 ;56<+ 8<5 S6]865 D]+ B6=6 = :56< 6;5 5

8665 6 5 858<6< 9 < =6 =;56 @5:6 ;566=? E 6 ;6 6 >:;+

865;+ <H6. U & = C655 8< >5;5 7; < >;6 85 = ;56< < 5965:=65 6 ;5 ;5;6 ;6 =:6. P5 6 < 68; <69;6= <;:

;5 99; 6;6=.

E 8595 =:65+ 9 6@<+ =6 86=6@56 ==>6 ;98 < 5;56<6 98656 =6

96: =6 86=6@56 5;6 9856 85< ;55 5; 6 =6 6@=6<6 =6 86;6==6. + =6 ;56

96 = =@9 =;56< ;7; 9H9 : 6 <5: 6 = 6 =

8595 =;5 96 6 <=;565. S 9@65:+ = 9 985;6; 9 =6 ;6

9856 < 6; =6 6@=6<6 =;56<6. L6 856+ = 9< 8586= < =6 «56 8@=6» <

6@596 = := !I! 6;6 @ ;56< = !!+ 686 8<5 96;5 ;6 ;6 = :=

!!I. P5+ :< =:65+ =6 9H6 :=@6= =6 =;56 :=@6= < ;5 ;98 ;6 =:6 :6=9; :=@6= 98=9; 6= =6=+ = 8656 6 =; :6; X

6; 6= 95 55Y+ 8656 ;56; 9 698= < =6 8@=6. E ;5 <H6+ =6

=:6 :=@6= = := 6H :5 <+ 85@6@=9;+ 6 = =65: <= := !!I. #6 ;

6865< 6 =:6 6 =;56;56 86=6<6 ;566=. E; > «6:=856;»

:65<6 8 865< = := =;565 = 99 865<+ < + = =6;H =;

9<>6= ;H6 =6 =:6 < V5:= C5.

P5 ;< ; 8< <;5 = 6 6;;6;> < =6 =;56;56+ ; % < =6 86=6@56

;8 < 985;6 56 = < =6 belles lettres. D + 6 9 6;5>5H6 6 ;5

8 6 ;< = 85; 89;6 = 6 < ;56<6=9; = 8586= 9< <

< < =6 =;56;56+ = =@5 985+ 96;<5 8; :56> <=;6<+ 6=>6<

= 6=:6 78 9 =6 :56< @56 < 556+ = >6@=65+ <65+ ;.

96+ = 996< < ;5;. E 8595 =:65 85 6 =6 56 < =5+ 6 6<6 9

85; = = 8 =@5 < @===+ 85;;= < 985 =656+ >;6< 85 A=<

M6 =6 V6 <= := !VI 9 9 = 85; =6 985 < 5<6<5+

6 > < =;56 98656@=9; 9 9<6 ;7; 86586<6 6 86;6==6.



2

P656 5965=+ @6;6 8665 6 56 =< = 99 ;7;+ 8595 985 =:

86;6==6. D + ;6 56 = <8;> < =@5 <:;6= 8@=;6 68=6< 6 6

=:@=<6< 855+ 6 ; 965 686<6< < 6=966 >;6 8665 =6 8:6.

E :< =:65+ = 868= 985 + 6;6 =6 6+ 9 <56<5 = 9< ;=:

9 6>66<. L6 85956 < < Las desventuras del joven *erther ;<6>H6 8< =5 +

85 < 6569; = 99 = ;7; 59; < 6 ;5;6 6+ 6 6



2

85 :6= =6 ;86 8=H=6 >6 ; 6 ><6 =9;6<6 85 =6 ;=:H6

<6 6;566<6 ;6;6 =5<6< = =;9 5<6<5 8<+ ==69;+ :5

=< 6= 596;. E= 85:5 ;56= < = 5<6<5 66@65 = =@5+ :6=

= :5 = + =6 56<+ =6 ;=> ;56 >6 ;=:6.

L6 :<6 < =6 :56< 65; 6 =6 = >6 @ =6 6;6=<6< =6 65;;56+ 6H

:5 < = := !!I+ 85 =6 96<6< 8< >>5 <% =6 8;56 =+85 =6 66 6 <6<. P5@6@=9; 85<6 69@ < ;56

= <+ << = 6:6+ 9+ 96;56= ;=+ 65;;+ :5

5<6<5 85 =6 <6< < =>6;65 < 69@65. D + 8<5H69 =

65965 + = ;565 <= := !!+ = 65;; 86=+ < = :56< <

8@= 6 >5;< = @56 <= 9< < =6 @==6 65;. = 8 85 = :56=

: < él + 6 ella 6@ 78565 < =6 596 9 6<6<6 X <5+ =6 9 656

9856;Y =6 9:6=96H6 < =6 56 = 8<5+ 6H 9 =6 < = 66=9. XN

>6+ = P6H V6 66@6 < 65:65 6 6 ;5==6 ;566= ;56 B=@6

H9@= 66= 9 < =6 65; >6= 6=65 ;5 H9@= 66=+ =&uernica < P6+ 6 56=<6< P6 8;6 6 @56 9 98= <= 65; 5:6=

>6.Y

A86 6@ <<6 < =6 ;<6 96;<5 <56; = := !!I. + 6=6 L985

S6: 6 ; <9;56< 6856 6 ;6; 9 < >= 9<6= = >

55< < 6=;56 < 566= =6 A=966 56<6 ; ;56596< >6 68;6=

::6; 98= < <. P5 ¿ ;8 < < >5;5 H9@= <= :=

!!I? A=: H ; =65% 5 :56<. E =6 56 < =6 966+ 9 85@6@= 6 =6 <

< = :@5+ 56 =6 < =6 :56< 9856 ;566=+ 6 :6 85;6<

9@5 6 = 566=. E 6 :5 ;56;65 < < X 98= < <Y6@5; 6= 8@=. A; < =6 56 @5:6+ 6< 9 O<;+ ; 8; = 86@6 =6

:=6. E = := !I! 5 85 = :56=+ 9 9H9 =6 <6<+ = ;6;5 < =6 856

6;<56= < =6 @5:H6 =6 ;6 < 55655= 6;<56= <= 85:5 ;=:

. XV6=<5H6 =6 86 ;<65 6=:6 > 85 + <56; =6 :<6 9;6< <= := !!+ =6

99;6=<6< < < 5 56: 656;5H; < =6 ;6 < ;5 = 86 =6

<5+ = 6585;. Q = ;5 585.Y A 8; < ;5965 = 9=+ 6 ;5

;8 < < 98= 66 9 > H9@= < =6 56 8@=6% 8595

=:65+ = ;6< :56< 5; < 8;= <85; :< =:65+ = ;=

;566= 85 =;9+ =6 9 5; < ;6 >6+ =6 =6= <6

556<6 < = > ;5 956= < . S ;>56 68;65 85 < ==+ 9

<6;65H6 85 = ;6< 5; 8656 8;=. P5 9 85:;6 ; <565 =6 9<6

< <65 ; < 596 856<6 6;;6 6 9<6 <56<6 <<

5: =6 Ó856 < SH<+ 6@5H6 <65= 6 58;6.

¿Q 8<9 <5 < =6 96? A 6= <= := !!+ >>9 9< 6;56< <

96. E= < 69866 85 ;<6 865;+ @5 ;< 9;56 8569 86



2

556<+ 6 6 6= ;=+ 6> =6 8=5H6. A= 8655+ =6 <6< < 9

<56 = = 9 6=: <=;>. P5 = ;6;+ =6 96 ; 6<6 ;95 = :=

!!I. 6 55 65 6=: <;;6+ 98656 =6 <= := !!. 6 5< 6

5>= 56= =6 =;56+ = 98=6 656 @6;6; 9 <8<; <=

;6=; 56<5 =6 856 ;6 < 6<6 < = 65;;6. L6 96 <= := !!I 85<5+

8586=9;+ 96 685;6 966 6H ==:65 ;69@ 6 ;5 H<.



2

P5 ¿ 659? L6 96 =6 >>+ = 6=+ < 585;5 95;. D =6

56 < ;6 856 585;65 =6 Ó856 E;6;6= < V6 <56; =6 ;9856<6 1**$,

1**)+ = 6 56 < 98;5 6< = := !!+ = 6<;5 ;698 956

9 =6 6. D@9 66<5 = 8@= 8;6= < ;6 585;6 6 6

<6< < 9 < 9== < 6@;6; ;6+ = 95 < = 6+ >; 9= 56

5 < 6>66<6 <6< 686 5>6. N <565 <<69;. D + 9;56 =585;5 :6 :=6< = ;98+ ;6 56 = ;5< 8@= > < ;

<5; < 96 8<5 56;65 = : < =6 96 =6. ¿C;6 :56@6 < =6

H6 +,piter + <= -iaje de invierno < S@5; < =6 $issa solemnis 8< 695 = 956<?

D< =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ ; 956< 6 6=>6< ;5 > :566 6 =6 >6

;=:6% 85 = 86 > 6 = LP+ = 6; =: = CD. L6 5>= ;=:6

;6+ 85 = 5<6<5 ;5; ; <;5< 6 85 98=; = <5 < 86+

6H 9 = 98= <= 85<;5+ 85@6@= ; 5<< :6;>69; =6 >;6.

T< ; :6+ 9< 6=:+ =6 96 =6 >66 6 <68655 85 ;

>< < + 5;6 9<<6+ H 98=65 69@ = 868= ;585;6 <;5 < =6 ><6=;56= + :6 <<6+ ;565965 ;5;56 6=.

E =6 6;6=<6< 8<9 68565 ;69@ 5; 6:;69; = =6 96 956=

8656 =6 966+ 698 6 < 9 6;>+ <9 56;> 6 = =65: < ; :=.

O55 = 68;. E =+ 85 98=+ ;< 56=6< 85 66< 785;

=6 96 5] = + < = «95 ;96 <= 5] < ;< = ;98»+ 6

;< 85;H6 6 =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ 85;69; :+ 6 = =;9 >; 6. P5 6;6

=6 6+ =6 96 88 6 85>>< 6 ;< = 69@ 6@ 8565 = 8579 :=

8<6 ;65 =:5<=.

D ; 9<+ = := !!I :5 6@< 6 9656+ 9 =6 @ = !!+6 6 > ==: @6 6 596 856<6.

E = 6;6 6 =6 65; >6=+ =6 6 > 6 < ;5 9<. L6 =;56 >> 6

7;6 ;5; =6 5;56 < = =;56=+ 85 6 6H< = 6@6< 6 = =65: < ;

:=+ ;6; =6 ><6 8@=6 9 =6 85>6<6+ 9 596 < 65 =6 56=<6< < 9@=9

6;5895. S= 6 986565 = 9;5 6;6= = <= := !I!+ 8=6:6< <

99;. E =6 <6<6 < 1')(+ =6 T556 R8@=6+ 5:5 9 < 21( 99;

P65H+ = :6 6 9<6 < ;5 6= 6. U6 ;556 865; < ;<6 ;6 ;6;6 <6865

<56; =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ X9 @ 6@<Y =6 9665 < ; @; ;

6=:59;+ 555< 6 ; ;;6+ ;98 < A<5 M6=567. A<9+ ;56 =6

:<6 :556 9<6=+ 6= 9 56 <= ;55;5 >;+ =>6;65 8 99;

@=+ 865; 85 = 9@5 < = > 95; @ 8<H6 5@5 =6 @6 <

= 99; < =6 85956 :556 9<6=. L6 6;:6 6=:5H6 H9@= ;69@ 6

<>6<. E 59+ =6 =;56 6 85<< 8586= 956<. 6 ;56;6< < 6=>65 6 H

996+ 85 66=:H6 =6 65;;56+ 9<6; = ::6;9 = 86 8@= =

:56< 9856+ ;:6 =6 596 ;:6 =6 6<6 < 6; 6;; :



2

7;+ :65 95 2("(.

L6 @6 < =6 65; >6= < O<; 98656+ 85 98=+ =6 =96

=6 585;6 < =6 56=<6<. E 6+ = 65; :56;> 6 5< @5 ;< <<

9<6< <= := !I! 85 =6 98;6 < =6 ;:56H6+ 6=66@6 8586= 9;<

;56<6= 585;65 =6 985 < = ;< @5 = 96 965 6=<6<+

95 85 96 9 85. A 9 ;<5+ ; 78=6 = 6 < =6 >6:65<6+



2

<5+ < 6 8;56 686 6 =6 8@=<6< < =6 9656+ 6 865;5 <= 9859% 6 6

85 9< < >6 ;6 < 585;6+ <= 7859+ < =6 6;6H6 =6 > + 85

=;9+ < =6 6@;56+ = 56 <= 65;5 585;6;>. E;6 @<6 < 6=;56;>6 =6

9< = = < =6 9<6+ = < 5: 6 6 @<6 ;6 < = > + 9 6@H6

8565+ 85 66=:H6 =6 6 =6 ;=:H6 <56@6 95+ 9 85:5;6

9<5. E;6 «9 < = >» XR@5; :Y 6 85<< =:;9<6< 65;H;6 <<=6 <6<6 < 1*"(+ 85 56 656 6 ;98 < <;6==65 6H. A<9+ =6 ;=:H6

9<56 ;69@ 85< <H6 65; 6@;56;+ 6= 9 8569; <56;>+ 76;69;

:6= =6 65;6H6 966=. L6 8;56 6==6+ 6 9 + = 8<9 ==6965 6 5

<856<6 == : =6 <6865 < @ 8;5+ 56 < =

7;565<65. P5@6@=9; 6 66=<6< = P59 T55+ << 6 = 95

65;;6 @5; > <= 6+ 66 =6< 6<6 > 6 9 8;5 ;5 = 6<<6;+

<56; = =;9 < 6. E; 6 X1**)Y 6@H6 : ;5 = 6;5 6<<6; < =6

=96;56 6=. L6 8;56 ;698 5@ 86= 6; =6 B6= < V6.

¿Q 6+ 8+ = 65;;6? 6 «;6=6» >H<+ 6 ;6 858;6 5>;9 ;5 =6 @56 < = :56 = 86=;6 8@=<6<. T56@66 objets

trouvés 6 9< 6<6=. T <6+ 6 > 96=6. L6 65; >6= < =6

=;96 <6<6 <= := ; 5;5<< <= 65; 6 =6 <6% = = 96 ;9 <6+ 6

<56 < =6 =; = 5<6<5. E= 65; 6 = 8< 65 85<5 < 596

56;>6+ = ; 86<. E= «65; 8;6=» <5>6+ =;96 ;66+ < M65=

D698. #+ 9 D698 >6<56 78 < 565 8@= 9 65; «ready"

made»+ ; ;8 < 9<6 85;< 698=65 = 698 < =6 @==6 65;+ <;55=. S

<=656 < :556 6 =6 @==6 65;+ 95 6 =6 «@56 < 65;»+ 6 =6 56 < =

65;;6+ H9@= @6 =6 6<956 =6 5>56 <= @5>6<5 <@ 5 :6<85 = 5H; 6;<< 6 = 5;5 ;; < @==6. E 56=<6< ¿ 6 <H6

5H; < 65;? ¿Q ;=6 6 =6 86=6@56 «@==6» <5 5H;+ ;

56? S= = 96;9;+ = 6<5;6+ = 85<;6 <85;>+ = 6<956<5 < =6

@==6 966+ 6 6 85 856 >+ 686 < ==:65 85@=96 6

@5 =6 «@==6» 66. L 5H; < 65; 8< 65=.

L 656 9 865 985;6; + ;5655< ;5 65; < :=+ = 65;;6

>6= ; 5856< = ;6< < 9 < =6 86 <6<6H;6+ <5+ = < =6 >6:65<6

686=H8;6 < 66 1*1),1*23+ 85;<H6 9<565 = 65; 9 ;6= =965=.

C5 + 5; 9<+ 6 5< ;5 8; ;56<6= < 65; 6 95;. A

68=6 6= 6;: 65; < 56 966=+ 6 =6< 596 =6;6. P5 6 5>

8656 = 9< < = ;9; =6 985 56= <6 =6 96<6<.

# ; < 85 < 56. E 8595 =:65+ 85 ;6 <6 6 8< :5

66=6< 9 6 5 76 < 56 65;H;6 856=. N 56 =6 6=;6 ;56

8< 985<5 9 = < < 56<5 <><6= @56=; B6=6:6+

D5+ G6 V56 6 :56< @56+ 65:6<6 9 86 7=>6 85 86;5



2

5+ 856 85 = ;6; <96 =6 9<6 < =6 966. L :56< 9@5 6 >5;<

5=69 8@=;65 8656 =6 9856 9<6= =6 <;56 <= 9@==9; :56=

<= 58 96. L6 66 D5 >> < = 56 8656 =6 56 56+ <= 59

>=9 < >;6 < 9; 586 pr.t"/"porter @=<6 9@5. E;6 <;56+

9 ;< 6== 5> 6 6 96<6< 6 ;56 66<6 85 =6 956

@;6+ 8 =9; 56;> 85 ; 8< ;5 = :6< =



2

6;5@H69 6 «56» = 6;: >6@=65 <= <>< 65;H; <8<; 6856 6

=6 :6=<6<. D + = > =7 < =6 5;6 =6@56=+ «56;>» 686 :6 6=:

9 ;56@6 <= ;< 5;65.

E :< =:65+ >>9 = 9< < =6 >=6 9;6+ =6 8 =6

;5;56 < ><6 <;596 85 =6 6 5 8@=+ 9<6;6 < ;< = <

96. ¿E7; 6 565H6 ;5 =6 8@=<6< < 98=5 <? ¿P< 7;5? ¿T6=: ;< 6=65 6 ;56 ; < ; 8=65 76965=6 85 8656<? L6 <5:6 =6

96 5]+ 85 = 6@9+ >6 < =6 96 << =6 <6<6 < 1*$(. L6 7856 < =6

>;< :=6 =6 ;6 <6 9 «raves» ;6 85 8656< < 96+ @6=+

@@<6+ <5:6+ 7 =6 596 < >;5 < 6<6 = 6<5 <= 58 6= =;9 :5; < =6

9<6 5; 6 =6 596 6<8;6 =6 966 < = ;5 ; ;>6= 5+ ;6

< ;< ; ;+ ; 99; ;5. # 8569; ;6 7 =6

+ 8656 =6 965H6 < 856+ 596 =6 7856 =;56= ;H86.

L6 6;:6 <6< @5:6 =6 56 <= 8656;9 =6 65; =6 6=;6 =;56. C9

<56 6;6 =6 5=:+ = 65; 56 6=: «9 =>6<»+ 8=<6 66 6=: 855% =6«=;56». G65 <= 65; :6@6 66 6 856 85;6= 56 6 8 < 85;6 <>;6+

6 56 85>6<6 9 =6 =;56 8@=6 ;6;5+ 6=6 < 5;+ 9

98=669; 69 <= 9< =;56=+ 9 85 98= =6 859< = P6;. S4

<;:H6 9656<69; < =6 ><6 ;<66 <= 95 «;5;9;»+ 6= 9 6;6 = <H6

= «;5;9;» 6< 6= >= < =6 =;56 85 98=+ &6 S;56 <5:< 85

C65= =@5+ =:65 < &6 S;56 ;585;6< 6 ;6@56 >6+ 6< = 5H;

< P65H =>65 6 =6 < < 65; =6 8=H=6 < ==J< < 5 B. P5 <;6<

6 7; ; ;8 < 7856 65;H;6+ 9 <9;56+ 5 9 =+ ;6 865;86

;56 = F;>6= < S6=@5:. P5+ 8656 9865+ =;56=9; ; 6= 6=6 < ;< =9< + 85 ;56 865;+ 6 585;6 =6 7856 =;56= 85;;H86+ 6= 9 8656 =6

> :56. E= 95 ;5 =;56 ><6+ ;5 5>56 9+ ;5 ;56@6

8=65+ ;5 58 8H5;+ ; < <55@6<. D < ;5 9<% =6 «=;56»+ = ;<

@5: 5H;69; >6=56;> <= ;59+ ; <6< 86 6 =6 «=;56» = ;<

6;58=: 8569; <58;>.

A 6= <= := !!+ =6 @56 < 65; = 85< =6 6>6=66 < 86=6@56+ <

9: <6 = @;6; >56= 6; 6@5H6 ==696< «65;»+ 6<9

<>6 ;6 <= < =6 7856 ;;6 6 56 =6 98@=

<;:5 ;5 = ;9; 6 <655==6< ;5 ;55 = 6 ==:6< <

56. E ;6 5;66+ ¿ 8< 6@=65 < 65;?

¿C;6 86 < =6 <85;6 6 86 96= 6 8;56 85> < =6

66? N < =6 6 6 @;6+ < 6 «;56 6». N = 6@9

8<59 <;5965 = 868= < =6 65; >>6 < ;6<56 = := !!I 6;6

;59 =6 58;6.



3

C68H;= 3

¿UN SIGLO DE SIMBIOSIS CULTURAL?

E= ;56<5 <6 =6 ;5=:H6 8656 ;5. P5 ; 6 >;66 @5 ==% =6 ;56 =

6<6+ 6 85<5 = ;5+ H 6 55 = 85; = > << = 8; < >;6

;5 + 6 865;5 < 6H+ 6 65565 5;6 = @5 = ;5. P5 ;6;+ 9865 9

;5@ 6 = D=: <= F;>6= 6< >;6 6= 866<.

¿A=: 55<6 = > <% «C6< 6=: >6 < >6+ ; 6 ;56

;65»? V < 6 86 =6 >665 6 56 @6;6; 5;. E 1*3"+ 6< 9 69:+

= 6<956@= =;6 &6,P55 V56;+ ;H6 >; 6 <@5 G56 85 > 85956

6 9=6 < :H6+ = 6=<6 :5: 6H6 65 =6 69866 6; >H6 ==:65 6=

7;565 5=>H6 ;5 ;< = 55H6 8;6=<6<. P5 =6 ==:6<6 < 7;56 6= 6= 6@+ 9 5656 ;56H6 ><6< 56@6 6= 8@=.1 ¿C= = 865696 6;6=? A

9<6< < =6 <6<6 < 1**(+ >;65 G56 ;5 > < 9== < 7;565+ =

:6 + = 85H< < >66+ 6@H6 6==H ;6; 7;565 9 :5:. D< ;@5

< 1***+ : =6 56 6=+ ;5 :=@ 6 ;< 6 9 < $.((( 9== < 6@;6;.

S 6 6==6< 566<69; = 95 ;;6= < ;5;6+ = 86H = 7;565+ 85

1**' = ".((( 9== < 856. XQ 96 < ==6 >66 9 < 6 > 6= 6 @566

6 9 =6 9>=<6< ::56 85<; < ; 9< ;5.Y D9 <65= 6 56

9 @5 =6 9>=<6< < =6 96<6< 6;6=. N 98@= = < =6 8@=6

;6<< < ; 6 <;59 9 < =6 9;6< < = ;5;6 6;5 9== <6@;6; <= ;6< < C6=56 85> < E;6< U<+ < A956 L6;6+ A6

[56. # ; = 6+ = 5 <<6 = 6 ><5.

¿Q 98=6 ;6 9>=<6< 8656 = 9< <= := !!I+ + < 596 <;66<6+ 8656 =6 =;56?

E; 5 9 ;96 < . Q5 8<5= 5=7 @5 ;6 ;. P5 <:566+

85@=96 7=> < = 66<9+ = 56<5 < =;56 =6 9+

;69@ 6 ; ;5>5;<6 6 8<5H69 <5 78=>6 8656 = 8=H;. T69@

8656 = 8=H; < ; @== 86H+ 6 = 8656 ==+ 9 9. P5 ; =

9= < 9== < >65+ ;69@ =6 8<96 >66 85 ;<6 865; << = <6 6 =6

[email protected]; ;5 596 @6 < 9>=<6< 856=. E 8595 =:65 ; = ;5 66=

;566= 55;+ <5+ = >6 56=6 85 : 85 8=65 <6 56

< = <8=669; 6@;6=. E= :< =:65 = 86 =6 9:56+ 6 6 >=;656

56. P5 = ;55 9 98=;69; > 7; << 6= <= := !!+

6= 8<5H69 <965 «;5666=<6<»% = 9>9; < 856 8656

565 5;56 5>; 6 :6 985;66+ 8; ><6 ; =:6<6 6 : =:65



3

86H 86=. 6 6 86 <6<6+ 6@H6 8 9 <6 < 856

;5666=+ 85@6@=9; ;<6 ==6 696 S6=@5: 85 965H6 56 ;5==6



3

< =6 96+ =6 9 ;566= < ;<6 =6 65;. ;6+ 6= 9+ 85 <6 <

9==65+ = > := =6 6@5 85 9==. E 85@6@= @6 865; < = >6 <

: 6 < <;5 <= <9 < =6 ;5666=<6<.

A 8656 96 856+ = 8656 =6 965H6 < = ;5;6+ =6 7856

=;56= 9;> < 985;66 8656 65 >6 85 6;6 D=6<6 = 7;9

< = ;58 865; < =6 =;56+ ;6 ; 685;6 8 < ;5+ = ;6; 6 9 ;96.E= ;59 6<6 <H6 9 985;6; =6 9H6 :=@6= 6 6= < :=+ 96@6 6 = 12

85 1(( <= 98= ;;6=+ 85 =;56=9; 6 :56< 96 ><6<. E586 6

6;9@56< 599; 6= ;59 < 966. D + 6 6= <= := !!+ ;6 ;<6

6@H6 6>66< ;6; ;965 9<<6 8656 ;5=65 5;5:5 = 6 6 = :56<

98=669; 6;9; =;56= ;56;6 < 6 85;6 9+ 85 98=+ =6

78 65;H;6 ;566= 9 <;66<6.

E= > := <@5 ;565 :+ 6569;+ 9 ;5= 9 5;5+ 6

= 6 85 5=;6 96;56=9; 98@= 9665 ;6= 966 < >;6; =:65+

<< F=56 V6 6;6 =6 8;6 < H =6 96 < =6 9;66. A= ;565 < = < = 85@=96 9<69@;6= 6 >= 9<6=+ ;6 8= =6=6<6 8<

;5=65 9 9 =9;+ 98656. # = =:65 6 6 6;9@56< 6

;98 6 =6 966 < ;5;6. C9 :58+ = ;5;6 85; 6 ;56 ><6 56=+ 85 9

;56 9H6 <8<6 < ==. N <6 9 ;98. N 69 < ==+ 85

= 9 8<9 65= < = 6;< ;<6 6 <6< < 966% < =6 6>6=66 <

69 =6 6;8;6+ < =6 <=;6< 8656 ;565 686569;+ < = == >6 = 9;5.

P5 <;6<+ 7; ;8 < ;59 6< 55H6+ 9 = < = hooligans <= @;=

:= <6< 6<6 <H6 9 = 5555 :56< <;66+ <:566<69; 85@6@=

+ ; :=+ 6=: <; 9 I@6 ; 6<6 <H6 9 @6< 85 = @5@65 X 965H6+ 9 >Y. P5 ; ;698 ;56 6<6 >% =6 :56< <6< 85;656 ==>6

:= <8< R85@6 ;5 @655 9655 8656 ; ;8 < >6.

P5 ;5 =6<+ 7; 6= 9 6 =6 < ;59 = <6 <5 6 =6 8@=6 =6=+

;69@ ;5 ;8 < >;66+ 85 == = 9;6 ;69+ @5 ;< =6 6

=;56=9; 59;6 86=9; << ; 6<6 > 9 =6<6 85 :<6

5<6 < 69=6 < =6 9<6. D 6H = 59; 8;6=65 = ;59

8H69; =;56= 6 >>< =6 =;96 <6<6 + <<6+ :5 >>< = 8579

:=. 6 7;+ 9 9H9+ 1.3(( ;>6= =;56= E586. M 69=6 8 6

6;6 =6 6 5;56 ;5 I:=6;556 G6=. A = =65: <= >56 ;9 6 ;5 6=6+

6 86 <6 < ]=9;5 6 =6 5<<6+ 8 ;>6= < 96 =6+

985;6; ;>6= =;565 ;>6= < 6 @6;6; 69+ 6;56 6 =6 6 6 8@=

;566= X 6= 9+ := ;6<<Y. E; >;6; <@5+ ;5 ;56

8@=<6<+ >65 5;656; ;5==6 M= 8@=; ;5 56. E

85@6@= ; 86;5 9=;8= 6 = =65: <= 8579 :=+ 85 96 5856. P5

;6;+ 8 ;9 66<5 656 < = ; =;56= <= ;59 = := !!I.



3

L6 >6 8 < >66 85 ;< = 9< 85 56 < : 85@6@=9; 6

9 ;56;+ 85 6<;56 = 9< > < =6 :=@6=6. P; ; 698

= 6 >65 ;65 < 9= < 856+ 6 6 <6< 8 6 < <5 =;56= @6;6;

5:6=% 6 6@5+ = 85< >56= X 6 7=>69; 6:=Y ; 86< =

'erald %ribune = 8=65 = < 85:5696 < ;=> < = ;= ;566=. L

5 < ; 9< < 96 ;6 = <5: 6 8@= :=@6= + 6<



3

9+ 6 58;5 8< ;65 M 9666 M7 + 85 = ;6;+

;6 @=; @5 = ;98 65 = 9< 8< 5@5 6> @5 =6 5;6

=;56= < 6=5 5 X9 =6 5: 966=9;+ 85 98=+ = 0inancial %imesY.

C9 ;< 8< < ;= 6@+ 585;6 6 9=6 < 596 =6=+ 66= 9<6=+

9 = 85:5696 < ;=>+ 8;= < ;5;9; :< 856=9; X=

6= :6+ @5 ;<+ 8=H=6Y. L6 =;56;56 85;69; 6865 = 5; < 65; >6== 6 6865 =6 6 9 965:6= + 6=> = ;7; < =6 8=H=6+ =

;= ;566= =6 96 5< @69; 6 =6 69@;6= X =6 6Y. #6 ;;

56: ;H8 < ;56 7856 96= < =6 6 ;569

65 85<5 96 9 6;5 6 5; 6;65 =6 <6 = 585;

6 H96 56 < =6 6;<6< < 96 6@5@9 6<6 <H6. A<9+ 6 =6 7856

96= =6 965H6 >> 85 9< < =6 ;=:H6 9<56 + :5 9 85;+ <

;5; 6< 6 85 98=; < 596 85>6<6 + 85 = ;6;+ <8< < = 9< <

< 8@=.

P5@6@=9;+ =6 =;56 9<6= <= 8< < = ;= ;566= 686 8<<85;65 ;69. P5 5 >66 6 68<565 < =6 =;56 9<6= <= := !!I. P5

6 865;+ ; =65 =6 CNN 6 <5: <69;6=9; 6 8@= 6;H8% 8@=

: < 6 7=>69; 96=+ = ;> < : 6<=; >66 =. +

; ; 596 865; < ;= < ><6 856=+ :=@6=+ 69566< <><6=+

6;6 6 = :+ =6 =;56 = =6 =:6. L6 =;56 < =6 CNN+ 85 = ;6;+ =

585;6 6 56 < =6 >6 =;56 9<6=.

P5 ;56 865;+ = 9< < 96 6==6 ;6< ;=: ;59< +

6+ 9 =6 <;56 =6 86 < 5 F5< X < 6 < 86+ =6 < MD6=<^Y+

;56 6 6 56 < ;6<656% =6 686<6< < = 9 =9;6<6 ;<;596<6 85 95 6 95 < 9856 >56= X; + << = 8; < >;6

=;56=+ 69566<6Y. L 5+ 6 = 6 85 56 ;=:6+

95 9 <96<5 < 96 =;56 <;;6. # ; = 6 865; 9 5<<6 6

>+ H96 < =6 ><6 =;56=. E 8 6+ :566 6 =6 ;=:H6 <:;6= 6 ;5;+ =

865696 ;<5 68; ;6@=9; <;;.

P5 6 6@9 =6 :=@6=6 65566 98=9; =6 =;56 5:6=+

66= < ;5 ;8+ =6 9@6 < 6 596 8=65. P:69 865 < 98=.

E 5 < E6<5 >> 6 9<6< < < + < 6=: 9<+ 6 ;:56< =6

9H6 :=@6= 9<56 9 ;<5 956; < ;<. 6 6 <6<6 = 8<H6

>5 85 ;<6 865; =6 <6< < A956 L6;6+ 65:6< 86; 6

==:6@6 = 6;6 N>6 #5]. L ;6>6= 56 = < 55+ = : <% =6

95 >;<6 6=<6 6= 5+ = 9@5 8+ = 8= =65: ;56<.

E =6 =;96 <6<6+ 6 5<. E; ;5 = 8@= 9 5 < E6<5+ =

:6 8< 859;5 = 85<; 5 =6 <6< < 9 <= 9<

<;6=. P5 = 7;565<65 6 69566< 6 << 6= ;565+ 85



3

<5= < 6=: 9<% 6 «;6>6=6<» =6 =6 < E;6< U<. L 6<=; ==>6

86;6= ;6 <85;>6 R@] 9 = 6<=; < C6=56 6= 99 ;98

= 9@55 < 6;866< =6 ;56<6= ;56 =65:6. L6 95 <

;<;55 C5] >;<6 ;56 ;56<6=. E ; 6+ =6 :=@6=6 6

985;6< =6 69=6 6= 9 ;6 >6 @5:H6 <6 >6 6 <

56=65 = 56: 8H < =6 6;:6 =;56+ 9 = ;56 =6 =:6.



3

E= :< 98= < ;6 596 < 5;9 85< < 59 = 5;5

@5; I6 B596 5@ @5 L66+ =6 68;6= <= =6 TH@;. L66 6 <6<+ :

B596+ 6 @6<6 56 ; <96<6 85 =6 96 88 6 <6 = :=8; < =6

69;56==6<56 < = >H< ;6<< ; 9656>==6< 6 = > ;@;6 =6

6=6 < ><:. B596 <5@ 6H =6= ;5 ;@;6%

L6 <56 ; 68; 9 @ ;@;6+ < 5;6 @=66 566 56+ 6= >5<. L6 6 ;6;

;@;66 9 6 ... 6=: < = 65;;6 >; = 6;< ;56<6= ;@;6 ... E =6 86;6==6 9;56 56:9; <

8=H=6 < ==J<+ =<6 6 < %itanic < =6 <;5 < A;=6;6 Lo que el vieto se llev1+ 6<9 < =6

6 6@;6= <= TH@;+ 85@6@=9; ;96<6 < >H< < 859 ;5H;6% <66 ;5<6=+ 6] 86+

9 6 65 ;5986 _ 6;><6< 9=65 . E 6 865< =:6 =6 $ona Lisa ;6 6 6@6 < 8=; <

bodhisattva.2

S=9 <65 85 @ =6 :=@6=6 98=6 =6 69=6 <= 9< 6 = 9<=

85<96;% =6 85;6+ 9<= <;6= + 8656 5 9 76;+ ;6<<.

P5@6@=9; 6 >5<6< = 9@; < =6 ><6 <96< 85 =6 ;=:H6% = 6585;+ =

< < =6 6 9<56 = ;6< < ;@=. S 9@65:+ 6 ;6 6=;56 6 8<9

65965 + << = 8; < >;6 =;56=+ :56 9< ;5: <

7;6 < =;56+ = 9< < 5;9. ¿P<9 6;865 + 6

:56< 56:+ = ;5 5 9 8 8@= < E6<5 =6= ;5

< L66? ¿P5 ?

# ; 9 ==>6 6 =6 ; < =6 59 9:56 < 966 <6 ;<6 =6

5: <= 9< =6 < = 5; 9 =6 U E586+ C6 &68

;56;6 < 69=65=6 9 = 6 < N5;6956 A;56=6. C6; 965 =6

@56 8656 =6 ;556 < 56 96:6@= 86 =6 ;556 < =6 8@56+ 9 5 =6

56<6 < 856 = < =6< 6= ;5. #+ 6= ;565 < = <H6 6; < =6

6;;5 9<6= <= := !! 6< = 8 8@=+ 6 985 58+

6@H6 ;56< < 6@H6 86H << X: ;6@6Y 66=;6@6 =6 6== 5+

<H6 6 =:65 = @6;6; 59; 8656 86 ;. ¿Q 6 =;56= ;<5 ;6

5<;5@ < =6 96<6<?E 5; ;<+ ;6 9:56 < 966 @6;6; >6 85 ; =:65 6 86

=6 96<6< 6 >> =9;6<6 85 = ;98 =6 <;66. D < ;5 9<+ =

9:56; 6 5;6 6 « ; = ;5»+ 6 6 8656 85=:6<6 =

<;>6 < 66+ 9 < 6;6 6= <= := !!. E ;56 86+ 6;6 = >6 9

=65: 9< 56+ <H6+ 9 9 966 9 = ;= =6

96 56= 85< ; < 9; =6 96 5;6 >H6 55



3

=;5 ;65<6 = :<. D ; 9<+ = 9:56; 8< 96;5 ;6;

;6; 66+ 5:56 5:=65<6< + < + <655==6 6<6 > 9 6 <@=

><6% 6 86H < 5: ;56 > 86H. T< 6@9 < 6 6H. P5 8;+

858 6 <56 ;5 ;6 =6 < <@= ><6 ;566= 6 <@= ><6 9=65+

85 <655==6<6 <;5 <= 99 86H X8:69 85 6+ = 855 ;6=6 >> T5H

;56@66 N8=Y. S 9@65:+ 6H 9 ;56 ;6 ><6 ==>6 6 6@ 6= 9 < =6< < =6 5;56+ = ;6<+ =6 =:6+ =6 =;56 ;69@ < =6< < =6 =6. AH

8+ ¿= =6 :6 < ;6 ><6 9=;6 9H9 < < =;56 <;;6?

E 8595 =:65+ ; <@=;6 =6 < < =6 =;56 :96 <96;

86= << = 99; ;6+ ;56 =6 <6865 <= 66=6@;9+ 85< = 98=

@5 =6 =:6 5;6 8@=6. L6 6;:6 9:56 < 966 :6@6+ =6 85;6+ 6



3

85956 :56 7859;6@6 6 69=6 9H96 6 =6 :<6 :56

69@6 =;56 7;H6 6 >= 85; =6 8566 < 6=665 6 69=6 98=;6

=6 =;56 :96 = 86H < <;. D6< ; 6 =6<+ 69@6 =;56 686 =H6 =6

6 =6 ;56. E= 98= = = < ==J<+ 6 56+ 9 @ 6@<+ <@

6 85 ;5 6 9:56; <H < =6 E586 ;56= 5;6=+ 85 66=<6< <655==65

N>6 #5] 6 6=;6 =;56 8586 <96 =6 85956 85< ;6<< <I@ 56=65 H<. S 9@65:+ =6 8=H=6 < =6 <6< <56<6 < ==J<

6856 :6 =6 <;66@= < = <H+ 9 ;698 < =6 9:56 < 966

X =6 78 < =6 5=6<6Y. O5 6 96: < E;6< U< :=6 6= 1((

85 1((. D + 6:=65 85 ;96+ ;< = 8@=+ 6;6 = 99 9@5 < =

6;5 X6=> = 6 < 86=<6< 7;6Y. P5 = ;565+ = 9== < ;6=6

5< E;6< U< 6 5:56< 6 I;6=6 6 5< 9 86 =6+ :6+

@5 =6 =;56 ;6=66. A<9+ =6 =;56 < = 9:56; >> <@=9; 6=6<6+ 6 + 85

=6 8656 8596; 58; 6 6;: :65+ 65H6 < ;6; >>

> 9<. L ==696< «66=9 6 <;66» < =6 <856 66= 9<56 :>><+ 965H6+ 866< 6 7;. L6 =6 < =6 R8@=6 I5=6<6 85

6=665 =6 <8<6 <= R U< 66@ 6 ;6 6+ 85 = 5=6< <

E;6< U< ;>5 == 6;6 = =;9 99; 586=<65 :56 ;69 6=

IRA. L6 ;6 > 6 9 =656 = 9:56; 56;6+ 566+ =;+ ;.+ 6

<56; 9 ;98 = 859; ;6; 6=: ;556 6;6=.

<H6+ 9@65:+ = 9:56; >> ;5 9<% = 858+ = <= 86H 6=

6 9:56< = 9< :=@6=+ 6 >5;< 858<6< 9 < =6 96<6< :566

6 =6 ;=:H6 =6 9<56 <6< < 9 68;6=;6 < = 9< < 96. P5

= 6;> < = 86H 58;5+ =<6 =6 :<6 ;556 :56 < 9:56;+;69@ >> 9< < >65<6< ;6% 86H << = 6@=6; < =6 ;56 >;6

=:6 8< H5 656 =6 =6 859656 < L<5 596 865; < ><6

;<66+ @5 ;< =6 :56< <6<.

E;6 69;5H6 ; =6 56H < 6 ; 9 8=;6<6 =6 6;6=<6< X@5 ;< =

9< 6:=Y% =6 < = 6 <6< ==6965 «9=;=;56=<6<»+ <5+ = 59;

p,blico < todos = :58 =;56= <6 6 5 6 H 99 9 ;6=. P5 6 6<6

:58 = 8586 = 858 ;5. M;56 = E;6< 8:6 @;= 6= =69+ =6

;6 < = <H+ <+ 6;= @<;6 < G56 B5;66 5=;6 55=>6; 8656 =

9=96 @5;. P5 < = 99 = 855 < =6 =6 :=6

6: 6 < N:56+ = C65@+ =6 I<6+ = C85 :5: ;5+ B6:=6<+ >

V;69 ;698 = 8=66<5 < =6 85:5696 < =6 BBC. A56 @+ 6H 8555H6

6<;5659 9 =6 856 < =6 <;<6< =;56=. N :6 ><6< ;<6

;6 =;56 ; =6 < =6 =;56 :=6. L H > =6 <>56 =;56

+ :566 6 =6 9:56 < 966+ 7; ;< = 86H ;69@ 8 6 =6

;H9= 8656 =6 =;56 <= 86H 58;5+ = =9; < =6 =;56 :=@6= 8596 ;<



3

= <9.

E; 9 @5>6 86= 6=<6< =6 96 88 < @6=+ 6 ;

9@;+ 6= ;565 =6 96 =6+ 6<6 <=;6 =6 69=6 < =9; 8

5;<7 <<. E; 86< 6H =6 ;5@ < = 9:56;

=6;6956 65@+ 6; ;< E;6< U<. P5 9 ;56; =6 >6

58 < =6 >6 =;56 9:56; = 7; < ;6==6 <= ;6<<+



4

<5: 6= < 956< < = 9:56;+ 6= 8@= < ==J< :56=.

P:69 = 98=% =6 8=H=6 8;6 6 M66 65:6<6 < glamour 9865

6<6<56 6 865;5 < =6 <6<6 < 1*)( 6; 6@5H6 < 986@=. XP5 5; = H;6=,

;6<< =6 6@5H6 566< == < <:6+ 6= ;5 <696<.Y E =

@5;+ =6 9:56 ><6 <= 5 < A6 585;6 868= 865< 6 <@9

55+ 6= 9 6;6 656+ 6 ; 58; 6@=69 @69; < <5:< 6 =;=;6=.

¿P<9 ;565 6 9@6 865<6 =6 6=;6 =;56 ;56<6=? S <<6+ =6

=;56;56 H+ @5 ;< =6 >=6. P5 = :56=+ = 9:56; 9 6;: = 8595

;5 > 8586% 985;6; 98; < =6 =;56;56 5;69566 6;6= = :5 <

=6 >=6 ;9; <H,69566 XS6= B==J+ P=8 R;Y. P5 =6 ><6 ;6<<

< = =;9 9:56;+ ==:6< << A6 = <H <= := !!I+ 6 ; 6<

6865 =6 =;56;56 < E;6< U<.

S 9@65:+ = 95 98= 6;6= < ;6 7;6 < = 9< <6 =6

6+ ; ;566=6< ;< = 86H. S: B596+ = 5;656; < =659;6 L66 8<9 65:65 6;6 6 pi22a. L6 6 <H:6 85; 6+ 85

9;> < @=:6 5=:6+ 85 ;6; =6 9:56 9 = >6 >666= 85 ;<

= 9< >5; <>5<6< 6 7856 ;<66. D + ;6 =6 @6 8656 6

=6 <65J;6 85 =6 85>>6 :6;596+ =6 865 6;6 =6 6 ;9 <

><5% =6 6 ;6=66 6 596 :=@6=6<6 < =6 6 6. E ;59 =;56=+ =6

85 ;56= <= espresso =6 pi22a X6<6< 85 = scampiY = 8< 986565 =6

:9H6 < =6 856 @6556 ;6=66. A<9+ =6 ;=:H6 9<56 <;5@ 96: 86866

85 ;< = 85956< ;6 85< :=@6=6<6 56 85956< = 8<9

;565 ;6 =6 < 85<; 6 <65 :566 6 =6 :9H6 96 < E;6< U<+ ;< = 9< 9 C6,C=6+ 69@5:6 fried chicken.

A56 @+ ;56 86 656;56 86=9; 85 =6 =6 :=65 5;

:58 < 9:56; ; = 86H 58;5 < 85 :5 < 6H 6 =

=65: <= 8579 :=. A=: < = 6H 85; ;65 86< = ;5 < A=966

= 5;656 < F566. S< :=+ 8 = 5 < A6. D< = 8; < >;6

=65+ << =6 6H<6 <= I985 B5;+ =6 I<6 6 ;6< I:=6;556 85 9< < =6

9:56 56;6. L6 6;<6< < 5;656; < X569;+ 98=6< @6

865; 85 9:56; 5:65 < 6 85>6 5;6 < B6:=6<Y 6 69;6< <

8 ;65 6 ;5 ;6 ;6 9= <5+ = 858 := 6 >>< 6

>5. D + 6 ==:6< 6 >;65 > 9 9 6;6< 6= :; :=+ =

5 < A6 <. N 7; 85;69; : @5;+ 85 7@ 6+ 6

86=6@56 9 samosa+ vindaloo = 8== tikka masala = 5=; 9 69=65 = fish and

chips < + = 6 9 6==6+ << = 86< 6 >5;<

8=6; < =. A=: 865< 866 E;6< U< =6 ==696<6 «6 9766»+ 6 6

6=: ;98 5+ 6=: ;6< <= 5;+ =6 9;6 6 <6< =:65 6= 69



4

«T7,M7».

P5 ;6;+ =6 6 ;698 >>9 9<+ >65 6 =6 >. P5 =6

96=< < =6 T55 < B6@= 6 + 6;6 =6 6+ 6 98@= >>5 9< 6

=6 =;56. P5 ;56 865;+ = 85:5 < =6 56 =6 <6 66<96 :56=6<6

6:6 ;69@6=65 = 98= :=@6= ; =6 =:6 :=6. + 85@6@=9;+ = *( 85

1(( < ;< = 5; ;5; ; :=+ = 85 =6 5;H96 585;6 < =



4

;6<< = @5; ;5 = 65 < =6 5<. P5 6< ;= =6 5< = 1.1((

9== < 6@=6; < + = "(( 9== < 6@=6; < < = 3"( 9== <

6@=6; < 86= >> 56 < E;6< U< 6 = = 6:6 =6 9;6<+ ;

<68655 = 98= >5;6= = < =6 =:6 :=6+ ;69@ <= 6=6@; < =6

E586 <;6=.

# 6 6H+ =6 =;56 :5 < 9 85956< = 6@6;5 :;5 :; 856=. E 8595 =:65+ =6 =;56 :=@6= 5;6 < =6 9<56 <6< <

9 =6 <;56 <= + 85@6@=9;+ 6 596 865; < ;56 ><6. P5+ 85 ;5

=6<+ =6 56 8;<;56= < =6 596+ =6 <6 ; + =6 <6 <656+

>5;656 8;55 9 <>6 6 596 =9; 6<5+ ;6; 6

>= 66= 9 9<6=+ = = 698 < =6 ;=:H6 ;69@ = < =6

596 < =6. E = 956< 5;56 < ;5;+ =6 @=;56 :586=9; 8H6+

6 =6 9 86+ 8< 565 9< 6 6 =;56= ;5 6 ;56 856

<:69+ :58 < 6 ;5676=+ < 6<956<5 =9 < C6865 D6><

F5<5 85 ;96 <6;> << :5 =6 56 = 8<5 >= =6<6< 8< >5 <;596< 85 @596 89<56. L ;6 85:5696

<6;> ;= <56 6 =6 9<6< < = > <6<+ = <;5 < 86H

H5= =;56=+ ;69@ ;< = 9<. E; :656;6 6= 9+ = < 56

865;=65 < =;56 ;=;6= 5;6 >56=<6< ;6; < =6 596 9 < = >6=5

=;56= 6 8 < =;6 @6 < 6 6 «856 =;6» <@5H6 6@5. P5 = ;6;+

@6;6; 985@6@= = 9@5 < B;>+ P6 =6 $ona Lisa <68656 < =6 =;6

< 9; :56= = := !!I. A= 99 ;98+ 85 8;+ ;6 =;6 @6 <

«9; :56=» 6 5H6 5:6=+ 9 <H6 6 ;6 6. V665 6 M6

P+ A:]5 6;+ I6 =6 <6<,;98= <= 5 < =6 I<6 5965 865; < =6 <6;6; 9 =6 >;6 6 V6 F=56. A <6 =6 85:;6 < =6 >6 65;

=;56;56+ 8;56 96 ;65 6 85 < > = 9<6=+ 656

8< 7;<59 6= 58;.

P5 ; > 9<+ 98=6< 9=;<96=+ 985 9>9;

9@6 ;6;+ ¿;565 =6 8566 < 6 965 56;5<6< ;5 = 5 96? E

;6 86 < 7@6+ 8659 ;65 9 = < 6 56;56. N = . P5 8

;6= > ;59 =6 58;6 = ;6< < ;@= <= 9<. P5 = 9 >56= <

;< = <85; + 6= 99 ;98+ = 9 66=. <H6+ 8656 6 ;<6 =6 96<6<+

> @5 698 = 585;6 6 «=6 6»+ = E;6<+ «;5 8@=»+

=:65 < = 8=H;+ =6 ;; = <8=: 9=;65. A 85956 >;6+ ; 8

66= ; 596< 85 <6<6 <= 86H. P5 ;< 6@9 ; 9==65 <=

<85; = 6865 ;7; 66= 8 <H6 6= 6. E 8586= 86

9565 ;5666=+ =< 6=;H9+ ;56;6< 6 ;< 56 < 86H <

5:. L 8 6 = 8@= 66= 6=696 <H6 ;56 <H6 56=<6< >658;

; < D 6@ ;6 6 566 < < ;5 9<+ < = :6<5 9



4

5< =; < ;< = 9<. E = =@ 66= < 9 7;+ 6 > 686 ;

6 9 < < ;5 :6<5 6;>. # =:+ = 8656 = 66< 9 56;6+ 85

;69@ == 5 =@ :66<5+ 6 66 <6< < 5 < 856 566.

F= =6 ;556 + 9 F566+ 6 6@5; 6 =6 9:56 ;6 =6 <;<6<

;6 < <6<6. F= =6 ;556 ; 5:==6 < 8<5 :5 8

66= 6 656+ 6565@+ @5@5+ =;6+ >6 6 = < 9:56; @5



4

< =6 E586 <= E;. F=+ = 85 ; = 6 859;< :665 =6 C86 M<6=+

85 = 56 = ;=;6= = 8586= 8; <= 569+ =6 966+

=6 6 < ;6 >; =6 86=6@56 «>9» : 65<=6 6 <=656<

K< K<6+ 95 :6<5+ < 9:56; 9=96 < A=:56+ 98=9;

«= 95 < = 56». C5;69;+ ; ; 9 = <= > <6= < =6 596<6< ;5

;<6 =6 6+ 85 H = ; 9 <= 8; < >;6 < = 96; 6 <A=966 <= :@56<5 < C65;6. # 6 =6 856 =6 :6 85 =5 < 8=+ 85

=:6+ 5=: ;56 6 85 = ;=+ 85 ;6=; =:5+ ; 6 56

8656 =6 8566. # >5<6< 6 56 8656 =6 8566+ 85 = 5 < = 6;9;

;5 ==>6 =6 <5 < K<6 =6 < &5: 6<5.



4

C68H;= 4

¿POR QU CELEBRAR FESTIVALES EN EL SIGLO !!I?

L6 85:;6 «¿P5 =@565 ;>6= = := !!I?» <@ <5 ;6 ;56

85:;6% «¿T ;5 = ;>6= = := !!I?». P5+ 6 ;<6 =+ H = ;. L

;>6= ; 9=;8=6< 9 . D< =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ 6 6<6 > 9 6<6

<6 ; 59; 66 ==:6< 6 . S= N5;6956 6+ 6= 8655+ 2."(( 6= 6.

E 33 86H =@56 6= 9 2"( ;>6= < 6. # 6<6 6 9. E G56 B5;66+ =

86H <= 95 596< ;+ ; 6 X2(($Y 6 221 ;>6= < 96+ 9;56 6

;5 6 6@H6 = 12(. # ; 7=> < = ;>6= 96=+ <

:6=9; ;5 6;9; =;56= 65;H;+ =< 6=: :5 6

7;H6 =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ 9 = ;>6= < = =;565 <= =@5+ 6 <5< = =;9 6 + 66=9;+ ;69@ = ;5 6 >5;; 96=. =

;>6= ; ;6 :=@6=6< 9 =6 98; < ;@=.

E H 99+ ; 585;6 :6 5856. L ;>6= 6 >5;< 59

98; <= 98= < =6 <;56 <= 6<6 > 9 985;6;+ << 8; < >;6

9 86=9; <= ;59 =;56=+ 786< 568<+ 6= 9 =6

<6< 85856 <= 9< «<655==6<». A56 6 6<6 9 = 65 >6

=65:. C5=6 9 <5+ 98656 = 8595 ;6 6 <= F;>6= <

S6=@5:+ 7; ;69@ 8@= =;56= =6< 85 =6 59 786 < =6 <6

855. E; 6+ 6 6:6 < >6 @5;6+ 86=6<6 ;59 =;56=+ 5H6 6 =; 56 < 1"( >6 < ;6 =6+ 6 3$ 86H+ ;5 = 6= 6@H6 2) <;6<

8H69; 6 ;>6= < 96.

S 9@65:+ = :6< < ;6 ;6<H;6 @>+ 9< 6=:. N = + 85

=6 56 65;H;6 <8< <= 9 < =5. E ;59 9+ = ;>6= 85

9 ; 95 ;96 9 965 9856 8569; 566= =

99 < =6 856+ 85 98=. N 8< 96;5 = 85 =6 >;6 < ;56<6+ 85

656 6+ 9 ;698 8< 65= = &: O=H98 =6 C86 M<6= < ;@=.

I:6= =6 856+ = ;>6= = 65+ 6 9 686 8<5H6 =@565

@> 8@=6 85>6<6 86;5 956=. P5 5; ;69@ <56 858 < = :56< ;>6= <85;> < + = 85 ; 656 < 6

>5;; =;56= ; >6 «6= 9@6; < 655 = 6;»+ 9 = 896 <

S==5 «L6 :5==6 < Í@»+ ;69@ 85 6== 98; =6

66 :66<5 85<<5.

E= 6= 9+ 85 = ;6;+ ==>6 9 =. C5 <@5H69 65 =6

; << ;56 858;>6% ::56+ 85 98=. E989 = 98=669; 6<6



4

> 9 ><;9; =6= < ; ;>6= =;56= 58; 5:=65<6<+ 6 ;<

6;6 =6 6 ;6< 56 < = ;5 56= < =6 85< =;56= = 68;6=9

;65<H+ <5+ =6 <6< =6 68;6= 66=. E =6 =;6 < = ;>6= 9<5 9

69 6865 L<5+ N>6 #5]+ 6:;+ L [:=+ P65H+ R96 M. U



4

<9 98565 < 9H+ <6<5 < ;>6= =;565 < 7; 6,,

8569 85>6 < G56 B5;66+ ; 6 = < ;>6= < ; ;8+ <<

M6;6 X I;6=6Y 6 S:>6 X E866Y+ < P656; X B56=Y 6 C65;6:6 X C=9@6Y. S

9@65:+ 6< ;; 785;65 =6 996 59=6 6 L<5+ 566. L ;>6= 85856

@5 ;< =6 <6< 9<66 86+ = = 698+ 9 6=: < = ;>6=

< 96 88 < 9 7; = ;>6= 85H; < G=995:=6 X C85;J+ N>6 #5]Y.P5 =6 6;>6 =;56=+ 9 6 = ;>6=+ 55 5; 8H5; < 9<6<+ =

= 98=6 85@5 ;5 6 9865;<+ ;69@ 9 =

;>6= 88 =6 785 < 99 < 596 =;>6 8@=6+ 6=: + =6

<9 @5966 < =6 9:6=8=+ = 8< <65 5;66 9 86=.

P5 <5;65 <= 65; 6 7856 8569; 85>6<6+ 6= 6 > =

8=H;6+ @5 ;< = 6 < 585;6 8@=6 858656<6 65 5:< 6

858;+ 9 = ;6;5. P5 ;6 56+ =6 =;56 = >5<6<5 65 <= 85

<6;> < =6 >6 =; =;56= H>6 =6 ;556 < =6 965H6 65;5;6. F 6

«56 8@=6» = ;< =;56= < ;6 86=6@56+ = = < 6@596+ @ 6 ;6@6 = 59; ;;6=+ 9 = 86H @5: 6 6H+ :H6 <

;>6 85 = 98= < + 85 6H <5+ 96@6 << <;5 =6 6;5<6< < =

:@56; < = <5 85 69;+ 5;65 6; 6 == 8=6 8=H;. N

66=<6< = ;6;5 =6 856 <= := !I! =6 585;6 <56 =:65 6

96;6 8=H;6 = 9 < B=:6 1'3( 6 5>= =

;55 < =6 96 <655==6 =6 < 65;5 ;9; 66=% 86;5;6+

<< = 8; < >;6 8=H;.

L6 :6=:H6 < = ;>6= < 6:56 = <@59; <= 65 9

785 6= 8=H;,=;56= < 6 >6 =; :56 < H 996 @5:6+ 5=;6<6 >5;< < <6 686<6<+ =:65 < 85 69;. I;6=6 +

85@6@=9;+ = 98= = < ;6 >=. E :6 865; > 9 =65 = 86H

<<+ 9 < V5<+ «= ;6;5 =6 >5<6<56 < < =6 96 ;6=66»+ << 5:5 6=

9 $13 ;6;5 = ;6 6 :; 6 1'1" ; + ;5 < ;5 6= 6. E ;6

@5 < =6 ;5+ = 98565 85>6< 686 585;65 : 868=. A ;6

6>6=66 < ;6;5 > ;5=6<6 6= 99 ;98 + 85 >656 56+ 686<6 85 =6

6;5<6< 85 98=+ =6 965H6 < = 6@@5: L9@65<H6 = V; 6<8; =6

;56< 5;66 = =6 65;;56 996 < = ;6;5+ :H6 < 8;6=9;

@>5>6. # = 85 =6 5; 8586 ;6=66 586=<656 =6 =;56 95 9<<6

=6 5; 6=966 X9 9 956+ 85 5;Y. E I;6=6+ =6 6;>6 85> @5

;< < H5= :58 < <6<6 86;5 < <6< 98;H6+ =6 ;5 <

;6;5+ ;56 <6< < =6 5:. E =6 >6 96: 5@66+ = <+ <=@56<69;

5:< 8656 = 8=<5+ 9 ;98= 9<6 < =6 ;=:6+ =H6 65 = ;98=

<> < =6 I:=6. # =6 =;56 8586: 98=;69; 66=. A; < =6 5>= <

1'4'+ 6 6@H6 5:66< =6 8H=6 6 ;6 85< 85H;6+



4

85;69; ;<6 <= =696; 585;5 ;6=6 < = 98;5 >. S96@6 = <@=

=6 585;6<6 = >; 6 6;55. L <6<6 < V;5@ S:6==6+ <

A6 < P6596+ 685<5 6 5 ;6=6 6 ;56> < = 65 ;+ I;6=6+ 5

<5 =6 856.



4

¿Q ; >5 ;6 <:5 ;56 <@ 6 =6 ;56<56 C65=;;6 S5@6

= ;5 < = ;>6=? T69@ = ;>6= 9<5 6 56< 6 9< 6 865;5 <

6;>6 9=65 6 =6 9;>6 6;6= 85@6@=9; 6 9 96+ ;698 ;

6; 85 98=; = 86;5;9 =6=% = F;>6= < Ó856 R+ P65+ 85 98=+

= F;>6= < A=<@5:+ 6 @6 =6 @6<56 < B69 B5;;. P5 9 ;>6=+

86= = < 59@5 ;566= 9 = < S6=@5:+ <8< = 6 9<<6 95<= 8@= =6= ;6@= ;6 @5 ;< 6 >;6; >+ = 95 < = 6 + 9

=6 6;:6 6 < >56+ 6 = >=> 6<6 6. AH ;585;6 5; 868= = 6;56;>

<= =:65 = 866+ S6=@5: 6 78=;6< @5==6; << = 858+ =

65 =6 $o2artkugeln. P5 <H6+ 865;=65 << = 6: < =6 =;56 >=+

9 ;>6= =@56 =6=6<6 5:66<6 85 = 696; < ;= 96=

<;596<+ 9 = heavy metal < ;59;+ 9 =6 :;6556+ < =6 ;=:H6+ 9

< = ;>6= < 96 =;56. S =6 785 < 6 9<6< < ;5

85<=+ 5; 6= ;98 >56=+ 99@5 <5;6 < >5 656 6 656 <

> 6<.S ;56;6 < 9 86=9; 985;6; =6 65; 6=6<6 =6 =;56 >=+

9 = 5]. E ; 6+ =6 7856 ; :56 9<<6 = 865;86;

9865;6 =6 785 8586 =;>6+ = 68; ;56;> <= ;>6= < < ;5 9<+

= ;96 <66 ;6@= ;5 = 65;;6 = 8@= < 966 5=;6 =6>. E =

;>6= < =6 6;:6 =6 >6 =;56 < =;+ ; 56: ; 9 985;66. 6 96 <

9656 = 585;5 = < 6+ 85 = 8] = heavy metal .

O;56 ; 9 >=6 ;6 >6 =6 < ;>6= =6 78= 85H;6 ;6=66 <=

:= !I!% 6;6 ;+ 65 < =. C9 866 = =6 6 956=+

= ;6;5 =6 6=6 < 5; 856@6 6=:6 ><6<+ ;>56 585;6<6 8565;;6 6<956< < 59@5. E 5;+ << =:+ 6 = =65: <= ;98 ;<6 65; >>6

56 @56 =6 6 65;;6 =+ ;56 = 585;5 6@;6=+ 9 =6 ;5

6;5 856 < D;; 6 585;6 X;5 =6 56 < ;;6 98Y

=6 8=H=6 =6 <;6<6 DVD. L 99 < = 5]. L6 ;6+ 9@65:+

;56 98=6<6 = 99; ;= :5 6:;6 85< = ;6; =

8@= 9 698=+ =69; <6 @ 585;5 556< < =+ 6 >6:65<6

66 6 =6 966. D< =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ ;6 6 < =6 ;6 < =6 96 =6

<;6=+ << =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ =6 <= 6. E= ;; < 5;65 69@ :5 9<6;

5>=65 6=69; < =6 ;56< 6 5666<. E= 8@= < 85>65+ 85

>5;5. E; 6+ = 85:5696 <= F;>6= < M6 < V5@5 X S6Y+ <69 6 =6<

= 5; < 6+ = @56 < ;6 98;5 <; 6 = 9 9<6

<6 < 9 >> X 6 < ; =;9+ 6 86 =65:6 98=;6Y ;+

<;69 6 = 5+ 686 6 @56 < =6 :<6 9;6< <= := 866<. A;5 6 ;>6=

< 96 59@56< ==>6 :6 78;6;>6 6>;556.

P5 ;56 865;+ ; 6 =6 56 < 1((.((( 856 6;5 6 = 6;5 <H6 <= F;>6=



5

< R]=< @69;+ < 5] 88 8<5 65 6 1)( @6<6 < ;< = 9<+

696 <<6+ 85 6 ;<6 >6+ 856<6 5:6=. E; H >6 <

<@59;. Q ;:6 =6 5<6< 8< 66@65 <@5< = « F56] K6886+

V>6=< & C=;56 ; 6=: 9» ; 6 6 @6<6 6 ==6965 A65;

E>: E;5;69;. AH + 9;56 =6 596 =6 < =6 96 ;66+ =6 =6

985< <6 >6.



5

AH+ =6 56 < =6 :=@6=6+ =6 F<6 OMAD X:=6 :6 «M< <

M6+ A5; B6=»Y+ 5: 6 6;>6 < < > :=+ <<6 < 596

;9;6 6 =6 ==696<6 «96 <= 9<»+ <5+ 6= >H= ;5 =6 <>56 ;56<

96= <= :=@. E; 6+ 6 ;>6= < 96 OMAD I:=6;556+ A;56=6+ N>6

K=6<6+ S=6+ =6 E866 ;;6=+ =6 =6 C6656+ C56 <= S5 S5 L6]6 85 ;65

= = 85:5696 <= 6;: 6;6;5 < T6596 6;6 65;;6 < B5<+ &6966+S<56+ C56+ S=6+ C6+ =6 =6 < C6@ V5<+ G56 B5;66 I5=6<6. C9 55 6

9<+ <;5 < ; >6 < <@59; >> 98= =;56= @>5>+ =

8=H;. P<9 >5 85@6 >; < == = 6:+ 6 865;5 < =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ < =6

96 @56=6+ 85 8; 656 6 @56< 696 9<6=. P5 ; <6 56 < ;5

;96 < .

C ; ;8 < 6;>6+ =6 85:;6 < «85 » 58< =6. V>9 6 86 <

786 6=;56 =;56=. L > ;>6= 656;56 ;6; 85 =6 >6 =6

58;56 = 866<+ 9+ @5 ;<+ 85 = <@59; < 596 < 96 65;H;6

<655==+ 6H 9 85 =6 7856 ;;6+ 56 :566 6 =6 6865 < >:58 < 8@=+ 5:66< 85 ;6. N ;69 ;6 < 85<5 ;

>5;5 98; 5:=65 < = >6=5 =;56= :56=6< 8656 = 8@= =;.

L 985;6; =6 6=;6 =;56 5<6+ =6 =;56 «6=»+ 85 6H <5 + < 6 <

86+ ; 596<6 6 7=>6 85 9<= 58+ <@5H6 6=65 ;;6=9;

< =6 ;<6 >=;>6 =6 65; =6 6 5<6 6;6 =6 6. E = := !!I+

= ;>6= > 6;: : 6@5; 6 > 69 8< 585;65

868= =6 ><6 =;56= < ;5 9< >H6 < :=@6=6+ ;6< < 6:;6

;6;+ 9 985;6; = ;>5 <56; = := 866<. D + 6< 86569

6 865 = ;>6= = 6 986< 6 85=565+ 85;69;+ 6 865;5 < =6 :<6:556 9<6=+ = := !!I 8< <565 9 = >5<6<5 68: < ;6 596 <

7856 =;56=. S <<6+ = ;>6= 585;65 868= 9 9<; ; 698

;5;+ 85 =6 5< : < 6 9 > < 6+ 9 9 6 8<

85>5 =6 ;<5 = <655== < =6 65; = := !!I.

P5 =6 7856 65;H;6+ 9 ;<6 =6 596 < 96 966+ 9

«>5;6=». P5 = ;6;+ :5 6@< ;+ <<6+ 8656 6;><6< 56= =:65 56=

<< 6=: 8<6+ < 6=: 9<+ :5 6< =6 < =6 9<6<+ = 65; =

genius loci+ <= 8@= = 65;;6. # <<+ 85 99;+ = 65 56=<6<.

P5 ¿ 8<9 <5 < = ;>6= < 96 =6 ;6;5 ;56<6=? ¿L

;69 6? E <5+ ¿ 65 8656 =6 85>>6 < =6 96 =6 <;6= <

= := !VII 6= !!? D@9 855>65 ; 9656>== =:6<. S5H6 6 ;56:<6 85<5= <

>5<6<+ =9;656 6= 5: < 6 86 6=;6< >5;656+ 9 =6 :56 ;56< <

=6 8H6 86. S <<6+ ;6 < 596 < 65; >> 96= ;98. D< =:+ = 59;

985 98=6 8585<6< 8656 =6 65; ;. L6 85=56 < = ;>6= <

96 =6 + ;5 ;56 6+ 6 96;6 < =6 5 < ;6 96 +



5

585;5 =6< 8@= ><+ 6 96; 6 =; = 95 85:5

;=: < <;56. E= 6 >> 6 ;6 865<6% 9 ==>6 9 ;98

<8<< <= = < = ;>6=. ¿C9 << ; ;5 < =6 6H<6 < = :5? E=

8@= 5:=65 < =6 :56< <6< =6 :56 < 5; 596= 6 ;. S= 6

6 H96 865; < =6 >6 :56+ = < =6 :; > =;6+ = <85;6 ;69

=6 H6. 6 <65 6 59=6 56 6 =6 95H6 <856 85 = 9< 8656



5

5965 966 =>;+ 6 >= 65. E =6 56 < =6 :=@6=6+ = ;>6= 585;6

6 59=6. E 6; 6 =6 96 =6 55+ ;6 85@6@=9; =6 58;6 9

>; 6 =6 85:;6% «¿P5 =@565 ;>6= = := !!I?».

P5 ;69@ 8<5H69 85:;65% ¿; 685;6 6 =6 856 < 56;? 6;6 =6

6+ ; 6<6 =65. E 98656 = 8;6= < ;5;+ 85@6@=9; =6 6 6 6

;5@ 9<;6. # 6 6H+ <@5H69 5 56<% ¿ ><5H6 6@6 =6 =;56 :=@6= = 8579 6+ 8:69 85 6+ 85:5696 = 65 <= 9< =6 9;6<

< 6 6;55 < La %raviata+ !ída3 %osca3 La Boh4me = 0ígaro La

flauta m5gica?

P5 8;+ = ;>6= 9 69 :5 =5< 6; 6 < 85;:

<; <= ;59 < = 85+ 65;6<69;+ =6 ;56< < =6 =;56 =6 < O<;

: >6=56< ;56 865; <= 9< 9 : < 9<56 + 6= :6= =

<696; =6 95+ 9 H9@= < ;6; 6 =6 ><6 985656= < + @5 ;<

6< 7=>6. L6 :56< 5856 985656= ; >5;< 96 <

=6 65;+ 9 = 85H8 < 6;6+ 9 < = 6=+ 85 5;+ 6@H6 986< <@65 ;6= = 6 < = M<+ 85 98=.

D + 85@6@= = <= 99 66 5;6=< ;6 65;+ 85 = ;6<

6=;6 = =;9 @;6; 8585 < =6 96 =6 6 =@56< 6 9656 < ;6=;

<;66<+ 6 O<; = 6= @656;+ ;69 ;6 <=65+ =6 9<6

;566=. E859 8<5 85 ;69@ ;5 = > 5 5 66 <

;6@=5 O<; 6@5 9=;9==65 < < 665 = ;56= 6>6 66

O<; < =6 =;56 = 65;;6 < 86H. N ;< = 9=;9==65 9>;6

86=6 =6 9856 < ;@=;6. # ¿ 6@?+ = 9==65 < = 6

696 85 =6 <6 ;6; 6 ;5==6< = 68.E 6+ <@5H69 85865 <966< 85 = ;5 96;56= < S6=@5:

;5 ;>6= 9=65. P5 ¿ 5 < ;5 9 69; =;56= 6;>

=:569 5;65 6>6 >6 = 965; ;6== < =6 ;56< 96= < O<;? ¿C6@ =6

8@=<6< < = F;>6= < S6=@5: ;59 >5;< 6 8 < S86

5;=+ 5+ =6 6;6=<6<+ 686 = ;< 6< = ;56 6 6

86 856+ 85 6 7@ 8@=69; 9 7;9 < =6 ;56? P5@6@=9; +

6= 9 = ;5 9<6;. P5 ¿<56; ; ;98 8<59 6@5:65 6 =6 8566 <

855>65 =6 86 856 + 58;<6 6;6 = ;+ 6 :656;6 =6 ;6==6+ 85 =6 >H6 <

5555 6 =6 7;5<6< 6<6 > 9 <856<6 < <5;5 :56?

L 5:+ 85 6>5+ <=8 ;6 86=6@56 < 8;9+ 856<6 9 85=<

6 ; ;>6=. #+ 85 6>5+ =>< = >;H@= <= ;>6=+ 6= 9 <56; <H6+ =6

;< 85 = ;5+ 9 99 8 65. D56; = 8579 <H6+ = 9656>==

85; <= F;>6= < S6=@5: 2(($ 5 ; 8656 ;< ;5.



5

C68H;= "

POLÍTICA # CULTURA EN EL NUEVO SIGLO

P59H;69 9 5=6;<= <; =;56 =6 ;6; 85 6 9<

56 5=6 ;5 =6 8=H;6 =6 =;56 < <H6. E 5; 99; < 6@5= < 2((2+

= < 6 9856 566+ :56< 69@6+ 98 9 9;56<56 < 6:6

8;6@= 8656 >5;5 ::6; ;566= < =6 <;56 <= + =6 96 = 9<

< 96 @6 9@5 <=@56<69; >6H 9 = < V><+ <8< 6= 85<;

< 66= < ;=> < 86: 56+ C66= a. C9 F566+ =6 = 85<6=

;6@6 6= 65+ ;< = 6<<6; 965 6 =6 756. L 99 6 =65:6 9;

= < 6;5+ 85<;5 <5;5 :6=. P5 M. M5+ 9 98565 =:+

:6@6 85 = @6=6 6= C66= a ;6@6 85<< <5. P5 <:566 8656 =+ C66= a

<5;6@6 < =6 566 F566 6 < < 85;6 < :5 >5;56

8656 @>65 = 56. S ;6 6<6+ F566 6@5H6 6 85< 96;:56

9 66. #+ << = 8; < >;6 < 6 =;56 8H69; 566 + 6= 9+ < =6

85< =;56= =:6 566 =6 ; 5>; 5;6 985;66. D < ;5 9<+

6 9 =6 6 =;56 >6 6 85<5 6 =6 5=;6 >6@= 6;<< 6 = 5;5

<= 956< ; + <H6+ 956< 9 :=@6=6<+ ; 7;5 ;56 596

< 6:565 =6 85< < = + < ;5 9<+ 8< 98;5 ; 956<. # =6

96656 < 5<;5@ 9 @>6 + <<6+ =6 8=H;6 6 =6 6.A 858 <= := !!I+ ;569 6H < 6:; = : < =6 «=;56» =6

8=H;6% =6 8=H;6 = 956<. E== << 9 665 = 5> 85<;

=;56= 6; ;<+ 85 =6 >H6 <= 956< 85 =6 @>. L6 8=H;6 ;585;6 868=

><; 6 =6 56 < <5 5665 =6 @>. P5 6 ;55 :6<5 <<

8<+ <@5H6 <@5H6 85<5. L ==69659 «= 969 956=»+ ;6; =

;< :6;> < 969 < 8 5 6 = 859@=+ 9 = 8;> <

6;5 98 = <6@=. S ;56;6+ = 6=+ < 6 ; 8=H;6 X; + < 8<5

8=H;Y. P5+ 858+ = 956< = << 5;6 <5 = 5;6+ 85 =

<@5H6 ><5. # <5 6 6<6 @5 =6 55 8=H;6 956=+ 6 56 =9;6 6 = ;6< 6;5;65+ =6 :=6 ;56 ;; 98 6 5;<76

5H:<6 7=>6. P5 5;6+ <H6 ;6 6@<6 9 <56; @6 865; <= :=

866<. P5@6@=9; 669 <6< 6;5 = 7;59 < =6 5;<76+ 8 6 < =

98= 9 <6< 66@6 < <68655 6;6 656 99 9 55 6 = ;6=@6

6:6+ 85@5 + << ;> 96+ <;55 ;6; 96 9 9:

=65. N @;6;+ 96;65 8 «8=H;69; 55;6» 656 < 6 5 <



5

; 8=H;6 6; 69 ; =@5 < 5: >65 = ;96 6 <6

;;6=9; 56 <= <@6; 8@= >65 86H 9 <95;.

S ;5+ 85 ;6;+ = 865;86 ;5 :% = 956<+ = 8<5 8=H; =

9856;> 956=. «P:69 6<6 6 ;7;»+ 9 < 985 = 8=H; 6<

6596 86=6@56 6 < ;5:>56<6.



5

E= 95 9< < 65= 986565 =6 5=6 < =6 8=H;6 =6 =;56 85 «=;56»

;<6+ 8656 = 858; < =6 85; 56+ =6 65; =6 96<6< =6 5=6

< =6 8=H;6 =6 6 6;56=. E7; < <56. E 8595 =:65+ = 6 < =6

>;:6 ;H6 <69;6=+ = 956< 6 < 6 6 6=;56;>6 >6@= 6 =6

66 9 < =5 56 = . N = 85 6=: < = 8586=

698 < =6 >;:6 ;H6 = := !! 56 ;6 65 : < 85>6< 6@5H68<< <565= 9 8;6= 85<;5 < @ =6 H6 =65+ 85 98=+

85 =6 <H69 6= <= 85:5 6 < =6 >;:6 pura+ =6 68=6<6. # =

5=;6< < =6 >;:6 856+ 9 6 5=;6< 65+ 8< 865

85 6;86<. E; :6 =6 >;:6 856+ 985<<6 85 9;> 6 6 =6

@<6 < @+ 8<6 66@65 5;6< 6 @6 :666 85 ;6 6 ; 9

<;;6.

E :< =:65+ =6 6 6;56= <@ ;56@665 56 55 8=H;6+ =

5=;6 98@= 6>665. N: :@5 6 6 >;:6 =65 8< 859;5

= = < 85865 85 = = C5+ = M66@656;6 = 96579,=9 ;:6 <5 @5 =6 6;56=6 < =6 96;56+ 85 = < = 3( 85 1(( < = >;6;

;6<< 8<6 55 = 9< 5 ; <H6. ¿# 85 8< 859;5

=? P 85 << 858 <= := !!+ =6 >;:6 <69;6= =6 6

6;56= 6 5=;6< 56= 8656 ;;6@6 = 8<5 8=H; =6 65; =6

96<6< 6 55< 6<6 9=65. B69;+ ;6@6 =6 6 8656 =6 :556. P5

595= < 9< @5;6=% ;=5 685<+ 85 =6 96=6+ 6@H6 85<< 8 6= 78=65 6 =

9 = 6;5 <H. S 9@65:+ 5=; 6;6= 8656 = 6@5 78=6< 6 = 96;9;

H <H.

A6<5 ;6 = 6 @5>6 9. E= < 5 <86@= ;5:6 6 = ;H6;56= : 8<5 86= 96;56 8=H;6. A = 8<5 8< :65 6 86:65=+

= =6 U S>;6 ;> <5= 9 =@5;6< < 6;6 6 6=5 ;5+ =

;H 6;9+ ;6; E;6< U< 9 =6 URSS+ <@55 = :@5

85;6@6 ;6 86 6; 6 < 9 == 6 = < < = 8;5 = <5;5 <

5;6.

AH 8+ <H6+ ¿ 8 86 56=9; =6 =;56 =6 65; 5=6 ;6;

=6 8=H;6 9 = 956<? E =6 6;6=<6<+ =6 8586= ; : ;5 ==+ 6=

9 = 86H <95;+ =6 66% <5+ =6 66 < 6;><6<

;6 @656;6 9 8656 ;65 = <+ ;6 ><@= 9 8656 8<5 65=6 6 =

== 985656= <= 956<. E= 85@=96 56<6 6=: 8; <= 86 ;59< ;5

< :58 55 @>% = < = 8;6 = ;6 6=: < 868=

H6 :665 =6 ><6 =6 >;6 < @56 = < = 9 88

=;569==65. L6 ; 865;=659; @>6 << = ; < 85< =>6< =

858; 956= 9 < =6 ;5 < > 9 :56< :6=5H6

< 65; 6 6 <96<6 <= 956< =9;6<6 8656 85<; 65+ 9 =6 856 =



5

;6;5 5. D + = 9< <;6= 6 5< ;6; <56; =6 =;96 <6<6

=6 ; < @>+ 8@=6 85>6<6+ 6 <8656< 89 = <5 < =6

=;5H6+ 5 9 = 6= 99 ;98 =6 5986 < = 956< ;69@ 6

5< @59656. L6 8585<6< :56=6<6 ;69@ 6 8@=;6< = <

956< =;56= =56 9<;69;+ 68< = ;5 < 95H6 9+ 85

98=+ =6 <6 5;6= < 96 @6556 ;585;6<6 5:5 ;5.



5

P5 ;56 865;+ = 85@=96 >=> 9 5:; 6< =6 78;6;>6 856 6 =6 56=<6<+

@ <@ 5<5 8656 6 =6 56=<6<. F9 B5=H+ ;5 :56<

;6;5 < =6 856+ ;56 9< := < @> 98;;>6 =6 6 <;6= =6 5;6=%

= 9; 66= = :@5 < B <;6@6 6 =;56 = B5=H O<;6= 6; < =6

56 < A=966 6<H6 6 ""( 9== < 965 6=96. E9 >;6 6=

865696 < =6 96 =6 6=5 ;56 865;. D56; <6<6+ 6 96;< @69<<6 :566 6 =6 5; 8585<6< :56=+ 85 @5 ;< :566 6 =6 ;=:H6% 9<6;

=6 6< < > 9<+ 9 = ;96 < 96 8656 = 6;9>= = walkman+ 85 =6

<6< 85<6 < 6;6=65 =6 = 856= 85 = LP+ =6 ;6 = CD. L6 5

6;6= < =6 <;56 < ; ;5 6 55<65 = 6 8@= ; =6 96

=6 >> = 6 < N>6 #5]+ 6==6 6@5 9 < >; 9= 856.

¿C9 ;56;6+ ;+ =6 =;56+ = 956< =6 8=H;6? 6;6 =6 6+ = 6 =

586@= 8=H; 55+ 6= 9 = ;6< <95;+ =6 =;56 98=9;

6 ; < 95 985;66 = 6; 66=+ 9 <6 <9;56< 6 865;5 <=

:6; = :@5 <56= < E;6< U< 56= 65; 96<6<+ 5; 6= <<6 =6 6. S 9@65:+ 6 >= ;566=+ =6 =;56 8< ;565965 6=: 9 5+

@5 ;< 6< >5; H9@= < 6 <;<6< 66= ;6;6=% < 6H =6 69866+

=@56<6 5<6 69@ @6<+ 6 6>5 ;56 <= 5:5 < = M59= < E=:

;56 =6 >;6 6= 7;565 < <;596< 65> 65;6; <;:< 9 ;5

66=. E= 6 56 <9;56 = 9< 8656 =6 96 < =6 =;56 +

85@6@=9;+ = 9 78=> 6 >= 8=H; 86= = =:6+ = 6=6@; + 9 +

=6 ;; <6;>6 85 9< < =6 6= = <6<6 ==:6 6 5 =6 65;

;6@=<6. E;6 =6 6 =6 9 85@6@= =6 <56 8=H;6

5; 6 =6 56 <= 956<+ 6< 6865 ; 5=6;>6 6= 65;.P 6 ;<+ 6 =6 =;56 ;6 9 =6 8=H;6 66=+ 6=:6 985;66 H

;. L 8=H; 8< 5 @= 6 =6 > < = >;6; ; < :;

956=<6< 85+ << = 8; < >;6 66=+ 656 9 9 < = = 6@5H6 < =

866<. #+ 85 8;+ ;56<6=9; =6 65; =6 6=;6 =;56 :6 < :56 85;:. S

<6<5 < 6 =>6<6 < 6=+ 6H 9 ;566=+ :6 <= 685 < =6 =;

;6;6=. E E;6< U<+ 65 < 6 565H6 66= < 5 8@=+

;56<6=9; =6 <6 =;56=+ 9 =6 <6;>6+ =6 6 =>6< 6 =

855 6 =6 96 < =6 859< 6=. F:565 =6 &;6 <= M;58=;6 X6 6 < =6 Ó856

= MY = < >56 5 6 9==65 85;: 6= N>6 #5]. E =6 965H6

< = <9 86H <655==6<+ =6 65; : 5=696<+ 9 6 ;569;+

6<6 p,blicas. D6<6 =6 59 78= <= ;59 =;56=+ 656 =6 65; ;69@ 8<

><5 6 = 8=H; 9 6;> 9+ 66= 5:6=+ = 6= 6=6 =6 @=6 <=

8<5. E = =;9 6+ B65=6 B=@6 6 6=66< 59 7; ;6 9856. L6

=;56 :5 <+ 85 ;6;+ 6=: @5 = 8=H; :@5 ; <6+ 6 =

< 5 8@= = ; <8; 6 :6;65 6=: < <5 < 8556+ =



5

< = ;5@;.

D< = 8; < >;6 <= 956<+ =6 6 =;56 ;56; = 85<; 5>

:56 <5. P5 69 665. E = 9@; =;56=+ = 8; 9<5 <

«956<» 6; @<6 <596<6 :=@6=6<56 <= @ 979 @6;6;

>. 6;6 6 6 86 <6<6+ =6 65; 56 9 = 5; < 85<;+ 56 8656

@;H6 @ < ==6 6=<6< < >55 98565. C9565 65;+



6

8@=65 =@5+ 665 >6 @56 ;6;56= 5:665 =6 :56 ;566= < 6 :56

5;6no 56 ;56@6 <655==656 85 <9;56@6 <6@6 9 @

=6 >;6 < =5H6 96. D> 6J=5+ 8 G6==965< 6@5H6 <<6< 6 =6

55;5H6 85 ;6 @56 < 9 =56;>6 9565 65; 8@=65 =@5. E 9+ =

8; < 6 ;66 >56= < @ 6 =6 ;<6 9856 <@ 6;65 85<;

5; <= 956< =@5 :=@6=6<+ 9 = 8; < =6 6 6=;56;>6 6 5565 =: 59; =9;6<.

P; = < 5@5 =@5 = 698 = 9 :56; + 9 85<65

;9 9 98= < =6 =;56;56. E= =;9 65; < := 6 < ;;: < =6= 85 <

6< ;56. A86 <6 <;56= 6 858<6< < 6=: 9<

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586=<6< 85 698= 6;=:+ 6 ;;6 @;5 @ 9<; 9

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; < 865 < < =». P5 ;5 =6<+ ;5 69: 6 ;; 5@5

85>;6 = 6 < >=6 : = 56 6 8=H=6+ 8< >>5

9<;69; <56; 6 < 5@5 5:=659; 6 5 < >=6 ;=:; 8656

8 9= < =;5 6< 6;6 <H6 <;5 = 56 =6 :; >=6+

65:9;6< 656 ;6@6 6 = 859;56 965 5<9;. D< =:+ ;

6569; 6 < 96= 8656 =6 =;56;56 ;. E= 95 < ;H;= 8@=6

; 86H : 5< 6 56 8656 55 = 85;6 < @ =@5 66

<<<. E 6=: 86H+ ;5 == G56 B5;66+ =6 >;6 < =@5 : 69;6<+ 6 = 9 9.

D65;6<6 9 =6 7856 < 9 69:+ =6 >6 ;6 = 98565 <=

: < =6 =;56 6 <@5; 6@5 9 @ < = 6<+ 6=> = 96:6;

< ==J<+ 96:6@6 9 6 6< =6 >5<6<56 <H69 <= 85:5 9 6

<655==6< 698 56= 8656 =6 65;+ ; % =6 5>= =6 596 < comunicar =6

596+ =6 96: = <. P5 ;56 865;+ = = 98565 < =6 65; ;69@

= 85<;5 85965 6 685<< =6 596 <= : < =6 96796. A = =65: < =6

< ;5 =;96 <6<6+ 6 86 95H6 5=66<6 6=:6 < =6 65;+ 6= :6=

= <85; 856=+ 6 6H< =6 ;6 < 6 9 <5 :665 ==6

9H9. D 6H = 6 <= 6:; 5; 6= <;5+ =6 9856 96;:56 =6

<:56 + 6 9<<6 9 9<;6+ =6 6865 < ;5 < :; < = <5

585:5+ 9 =6 <6< @5;6 ALCS+ 56<6 :5 8656 = 6;5 =;565 <=

99 9< =6 <6< < <5 < 585< ==>6 6< 8656 = 9

<< 6 ;98.

E =6 <6<6 8;55 6 1*)(+ 9;56 =6 56 <= 9< <655==6< 6=66@6 =6



6

;56;56+ = 55 <8@= 8656 665 =6 =;56 =6 65; 55 ;69@ < 596

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:=@6= 6 < 6 86565 6= ;5 85>6<+ 6 @> 59; ;69@ 6 @6<

= :5 8@=. U6 @6 865; < ; 59 59; < =6 56 85>6<6 6

;56< 5<< :9; < = =;5655+ =< >65 6 <9;56< =6

>=;6< < @>65 @6 66 6 >= 6 9+ 9 G5: S5+ B== G6;



6

T< T55. E 5; =6 96 85>6<6 + 98656;>69;+ 8 5; 56 <

E;6< U<+ 6 85>:6 < <6+ 9856 <>< 865;=65 5; ;69@

=6 65; =69; :6 < 6 86 865;+ 78; 6< <6 6 =6 <= 85

8;6=65 = 956< < =6 @==6 65; 6<5 =6 :; 9 56. E 6=5 6+ 6=

9 56 < E;6< U<+ 6 :5 ;5 ;5 ;5@ 9 = < =

5+ 6 85;<5=+ 9 ;;96 =6 <;5@ <= <5 < =6 =;5H6 = R U<.D + ; ;69@ 5; ;5 9@; < =6 <6 <=@56<6. E= ;5 <=

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85 1(( < =6 <6 985656= = ;56; :@569;6= 8 9 <= <@=

=6 96 ;;6= < <6 985656= < <6 < 65<6<. M 6;5>5H6 6 <5 =6

@> 8@=6 6 =6 65; : <+ =6 965H6 < 86H+ 9 9 6;6

=6 85>6<6. E 6; 6= ;5 85>6<+ <6< 6 =6< 6 6 86 856 86=9;

;56<6 =6 65;+ = 8586= 9< 8656 <;5@5+ < 596 <5;6 <5;6+ =6 :666

85>6<6 @ < =6 65; = 59; 59 ;6;+ 6=> =6 86 <

<85 96 < =6 8@=<6<. P5@6@=9;+ = 965 96 85>6< < X=«86;56<5» «85»+ : ==696 =6 5:6Y 6 = 858; 8@=;65 <

=6 :56< 9656 956=+ 66= 9<6=+ 6<9 <+ 85 8;+ =6 <;56 <=

+ = 9< =6 96+ 8< <565 ;<6 =6 56 865; ;:56; <=

: =;56=. P 6 ;<+ 7; = 956< 6 ;59<6 6;<6< < 9<6 86

8< :6;65 86;565 =6 65; + 6= :6= =6 >5<6<+ = 9< <= 65; ;

685<< 6 5:5 8.

P5 = ;6;+ =6 65; <;6 9 < 6==65 6=;6 < 55. S 66+ ;<5H69

6@=65 < = ;565. E = 7;59 55 < =6 6=6 < <;5@+ : 5< 6 5;9

69@5 = 95 =6 96 < = 859 =;56=. E = 7;59 855+85@6@=9; 6@ 65965 + = =;9 ;5;6 6+ 6 <6< 5;656< =

9< <;6= 9 9+ ;6;5 < =6 856 ;5 98=669; =;56= 6 <<

=6 :56 78= < =6 ;5 =;56= = := !I!. E= 85@=96 56<6+ 9 @+ 6

9;5 <;5 < ==. S ;56;6 < 85@=96 <@=+ ;58=. A=:6 < =6 6;><6<

<655==6 < >6 6:;6<+ 9. F9 =6 856+ 9 :5

<;; <= @6==; = 96=+ 6 >>+ 69@ 6. P5;69; :6 856 <=

585;5 6@;6= ; 9 < ;6 6 85;69; :6 5;6 85

98;5 6< <8 < 1*14. #6 6< >> < 5@5 856+ 9 6H6 = :=

!I! : 6< <H6 = :;6. E 96 965H6+ =6 85< 85H;6

9 =6 < =6 @56 < S6]865 ; ;; < 655:=65 ;9@6 =;5

6<5<=6 <;; 569 < =5. A=:6 65; 56;>6 @5 ;< 6=:6 65;

>6=+ << = 9<59 < == 6 866< 6 6 95 ><6. E 6; 6 =

==696 «65; 8;6=»+ := 9< < 96; < 8;5 <9;56 = ;55

;=;6= < = 8; 698 = 6569; <8; 56 =

:56< 65;;6 56;>. E 6=5 6+ = 56<5 6 85;<< <665 6= 8@=



6

;69@ 6 =9;6< =6 <96<6 < @56. P5 <5= ==669;+ 6 ; 65; < 6=;6

=;56+ @5 ;< @56 ;9856+ =6 :; 56 5 6 >5 65 :58 :56<.

P9 =6 T6; M<5. P5 56 ;56+ 98=9; 7; ; 65;

9<5 6 @5; 8656 ==65 >5<6<5 M < A5; M<5 9 = MMA <

N>6 #5] 56=<6<+ 85 = ;6;+ =6 T6; M<5 86 >6H 965 865;.

A5;6<69;+ = ;5 >5<6<569; ;6==5 <= : < =6 :6=5H6 < 65; =6



6

7@ < 78 ;9856=+ ;56;+ 855@=9; :56< 7; ;566=

=6 T6; M<5 986 6 865 =:65 <;66< ; ;8 < 6;. A 6H+ 6 596

;6 < 55 = ;56 >6 < < 78. O 89 ;69@ =6 ;585;6

<5; < =6 96 =6 X<;6=Y+ ;< 6 <5: = 6 5<< :58 < =6

8@=6% 6 865; < = 585;6 = 2 85 1(( < =6 >;6 < <+ ;< = =6

<;56 <:56 < 956< <;6 6 =6 96 =6. C9 6@<+ ; 85 ;5 56 6 ==65 :56< 6=6 < 5; 8656 65 < <966< <;; 6 = 6@<

= 6;55 6 1*14 = = 585;5 < = 68;6@= =9;6<. L6 :56<

5;6 =6596 9 ;56@66+ 6H 9 ;56 5;6 <@=6 6<9 =

< =6 856+ 96; :566 6 =6 H6 = 5;. P 6 = 5 <

S;6]>+ V6:6 ==69 M65;b+ =6 H6 <65 < 6686565 = ;5 8586= <

= 98;5 << =6 G56 G556. C;6 96:65 65H6 =6 :56< 5;6 =6

55>6 < 96 @6 6;56 6= :56 8@= 55>6 596<6+ <5H6 + 85 979

< ;5 <;6 86 < = =;9 < := 9<.

P5 8;+ = :9; < 956<+ 9 85 98= = < =6 96 ;9856>6<56+ 6 <655==6< 969 6=;56;> 98=9;65 8656 @5>>5+ @5

;< 6 865;5 < =6 :<6 :556 9<6= 865;=65 <8 < =6 <6<6 < 1*$(% = 5;

< ;>6= < 96 86=6<. E ; 6 =6 > < 956< 8656 6 95H6 6 9

86 =6 < = 696; < =6 96 =6% = 696; <= 6. P 6 ;<+ 8<9

65965 :5<6< =6 59 56;5;56 ;56<6= 5:<6 8656 =6 65; = := !I!

6<=6; 8@=9;+ =6 78 <= ;6;5 956= 8<5H6 96;5+

9< 6=:+ =6 ;66 @> 8@=6+ = 86;5 85>6< =6 9@6 <

69@6 ;. P9 = 6 << =6 6=6 < 5; < L<5+ = :56

95 < «86=6 <= » X6=6 59+ 85 = :56=Y ;55 G56 B5;66 = 85H< < ;5:556 8656 65; <8<H6 85 98=; < =6 = <= 956<. L6

965H6 < == <65 < 7;5+ 9+ >5;5 ;56 6+ 9 6= < @:

X6< 59; =6 <96<6 < ; :Y. S < 8=H;6 =6 6 ==>6< 6

6@6<65 =6 6 < C55+ 85 5>65 =6 :=6 X59;6Y = 9 <=

99 9< 859; <686556 = =@5 88<59+ 85 5:5 ;6;5

986= =6 85>6.

Q5 56=65 ; 85@=96 < H<= :56=+ 8H < 6=:6 596 <

=6 65; >6= 96=. E ;5 =:65 9 86< < =6 56 < ;< ;

86=9;+ = 68H;= 12 <= 85; =@5+ 6;6 6 =6 =;56;56 =6 65;;56+

<;5 <= ; < =6 65; 6;:6+ 6 =6 65; < 966 <69;6= 5:<6 <56; =

:= 866<+ =6 865;H6 < =6 ;:56H6 9>9; =6 585< 96 <= <.

P 6 ;<+ =6 @> <8 86= < 6<6 8< 5 6= = 8656

==6. S > =65H9 = 6 < = 65;;+ 6 = 86;5 9 < =5 6 < =6

8586= ; < 66 < =6 @56 = 6 ;5:6< 85;: 59@5. P5

;69@ = 6 < =6 <;56 96;:56 5;6<6 = 98= < ==J<+



6

6=5 86H+ 6=> =6 I<6 &68.

A 9859 :56 6;<6< < @6 =;56;56+ @5 ;< =6+ ; 8@=6<

> ;7; < 6=<6< 69 >5H6 =6 = ;< 58<56 = 6= 9@56= < @

6< 85 = 586@= < ;6. E =6 E586 5;6= 89;6+ = ;56@6 66<9

5:5 6 @5>>< :56 9<<6 :566 6= =6= 5 < =6 <6 < G5:

S5. E O<;+ =6 =;6 < =;56 @=:6;56 = =: =6 >5<6< <;596 =6



6

5;6 < = 5;5 65;6< X < = 6;=: < <;5Y. D + 6= 9 =

9< 6:=+ =6 ;; < <6 855+ 6 7;<< @59656+ 6

6;6< 9 6 9 @> <5;6 <= ;6=; 56;> 65; 65H6 <=

; 6;56;> = 956<% = 8;5 @; =6 965 865; < :5 9

855 =6 < 65; = 5;5 =< 85> < =6 =6 < =;56;56 <

«5;56 56;>6» 65;;6 9 8586;;+ 9 9+ 5;5+ 8;6 ;5 8=65 <=6 =;56 866 < ;59;5 «< 5<6». N < 7;5665 + 6 865;5 < =6 <6<6

< 1*"(+ 686556 G56 B5;66 E;6< U< 6 5696 ;569; >6 < =6 6556;>6+ =6

«>=6 < 698»+ >56 @5 =6 5; < = ;<6;+ < = 855

>5;65. La suerte de +im+ < := A9+ 85@6@=9; =6 85956 @56 < ; :5

+ <<6+ =6 9 <>5;<6.

B+ 8. E= 86;5 85>6< =6 @> 8@=6 =9; 6= < =6

6 =;56=+ 85@6@= ; < 6H. #+ 9 = 9< <;6= 6=;6 =

<5 55; = 8=56=9 8 :6 ;<6< << 85 H =6 X 56 <;5 <

86HY @>6 + ¿<@9 66<5 6=: 9 6 ;6 ;? # 5 H+ 85;5 56. E 8595 =:65+ =6 E586 <= E; 9 >; < 6< 59

;96 < @> < =6 65; =6 =;56 <8=96+ 9+ = ;; 6 <6< <

956< + = 95 < = 6+ ;6< <966< 8@5 8656 96;5 8 9 6

865; < =6 6;:6 6<6. P5:; 6 = 8 < =6 :56 856 = @6==; 5+ / 6= M

<= 59;6:0 N 6=: >66 6 <5 = R U<+ 85 6;6 = 86H 8585+

= :@5 @5 ;< = 55;6 98; ; < =9;6< 8656 6:65 6 =6

=;56. D6>< ] D69 5; 66@6 < 8<5 9 9. P5 ¿ 8<9 @665

8656 8<5 855 =6 ;5 < ;5 < ;6 H<=+ 85 <=6; < ;5 5>

8@=? ¿# == << = 99; B=@6 =6 @56 < L@]< <9;56 =6;56;> < = > 9 56<6 = 858 <+ 9 ;<?

E :< =:65+ 9 ;;: < 9 =6 9H6 9<6=+ 85 =6 >H6 <= =@5

95 @=:6;5+ 8< 5565 = <9 < 6 <;56 ;6@=<6 ;< = 9<+

=6 6= 8< 98;5 =6 85< =;56= 66= < ;5 86H. L6 <;56

96;:56 < E586 = 98= 9 @>+ 85 9;56 ; 6H 6@=6<

;<+ 5;69 6 =; 9=65 =6 =;56;56 =:6 :=6. E= 859 B]5

6 866< 6 6 9856 ; + 6 865;5 < 656+ <@5H6 6@55 6 6;5

;6<< X < 6;55 98;H6Y. D;5 < ; 6;5 ; = 9=

< = 9< < 96 = ;5 <;56= < E;6< U<. ¿S:6 ; +

6<=6; 9 6 << =6 <;56 96;:56+ <5:5 =6 956<6 @5 ;< 6=

956< ;55 5;6956+ 6 786 < = 5;5 =6 9<6< 6:=6

95 < G56 B5;66 =6 C99J6=;+ 6;6 =6 6 6@H6 @6< < =6 @6

<8 6 5@5 @56 85 865; <= 8@= @5; 9 85>6? V65 99@5

<= 56< X6;6= 6;55Y <= 859 B]5 ; 8586<. I= 9865;

= ;95 > =656 =6 56. E 9% 9< = = 85;6> < =6 6



6

6;:6 >6+ :56<+ 86 9H96 7: 86 8656 =;56+ = 8=:5

8=H; < =6 @> 56=. E 9 858 698+ = < =6 ;56+ = =;9 ;5;6 6

6 < =6 <6< <56<6 < =6 ;5 < 9 ;5+ ;5 < 86;59+ 865

;9; 8;=+ 85 ;69@ < =6 ;5 8@=6 < ;56 ;6+ 66=

< :58.



6

E7; 6 ;556 56 6 ;5 ;6. 6;6 6= <= := 866<+ = 85:5

;=:+ ;+ 6 5=;6< 8;> 8656 =6 65; 6= 9 8656 =6 + 9 =6

8;56+ <65 6;66<6 6 9H6 8568;6=;6 65;66=+ 85< 6 86

6 :5+ 558;@=+ ><<6 7=>6 >6=56<6 85 5585<;@=<6<. L6

;=:H6 6 56< 6 859;< =6 7;6 < =6 >6 65; 6 < ;56= 8656

;56 >=6+ = : <% =6 9656 9>9; =6 585< <= <. S686<6< < 96865 =6 585;6 58; 6 =6 856 H6 6 8; =6 65; 6=

6=6 < 8@= 9< 85 ;65 < 9==. P 6 = ;95 < = 89;6+

6 85>6< =6 <;5 < =6 65; 6;:6 < =6 >6. L =@5 6 @5>>< 6 =6

> < =6 8=H=6 =6 ;=>+ : =5<. L6 8=H=6 6 @5>>< 6 =6

;5< < = >H< DVD+ 656 585;6 8=65 65 =6 <;56 <= .

I= = ;56<6= 5;56; < 6@6==;+ 6= = = 8595 :5 >> = <6H

;=:+ < =6 96 < =6 ;:56H6+ 6 @5>>< 9 <56 =6 6=6 < ;6

=6 66 865;=65 9 =:6;.

# 8 6 ;<+ =6 56 < =6 @5>=6+ =6 9869 6 ;565 656 99+ ;8<5H6 <65 < 5 5;. P5 85 98= =65+ 865 6>65 = 5; 9 =9;6= <

=6 ;<6< =;56= =6 =;56 < O<; X;56 =;56 > 6;6<6 85 ; =

99 :56<Y% =6 5>6 < 85<; 96;56=. A=: < ;< ; 6>6<

< =6 @6;6==6 6;6= = 9< @@=;65+ 6 6>5 ;56 < + 6;<< 6=

59; 786= <= ;7; 985+ <6 598=665= =6 965 9<<6 < = 8@=

85 ;5 9< 8 9 86. S 9@65:+ 6=: < ; 9< =6 ;:56H6

= 96;56= < = < = ; 6 ><6 @6;6; 9 5;6 = 868=+

6;6=9; = 85:5 ;=: ;6 58< ; 85>6< 8586 @=6. E=

96;56= :56@6< < < 5<6<5 6 < 6 6 85;69; =:@= 8656 =68656; < 2((2 56+ = 65;6; 686 < =5 = =:6 59; =

5@5 <65 < 85<5 ;98 6;5. E; ;69@ 8< 6;65 6 =6 8@=6 < ;7;

8656 9<6< 86= 5<<6 9 ;55+ 6= 9+ 6<6 > 8@=6 9

9:56H6 =H6. A 9 8586< ; = 586@= < = @ <= :

96=+ 6= <@55 =6 @6 < =6 <;56 <:56 865 <9565. L6 ;=:H6

= : 6 8@= 656 6=5 85>; < 5<6<5 <65: 6

6;<6< =9;6<6 < 96 86:65 ;9. D >+ ;5; 6 >5;< 6= 99

;98 66<< ;;; < ;56 6;><6< =;56= 6=: ;< :5 = =;5

9 866 9 56; =< ;7; =H6 =@5 85<. N 5 <5 ;

85@=96 8<6 8565+ ;698 5 85= 6 ;< = 8= < 8;6.

S98=9; 6= =6 >= =6 56 @5;6 9 58<6+ 9 56<6= 9

985>@=+ =6 986569 =6 6;:6 >H6 ;56<6= < :5 66 8656 =6

=;56.

E;6 ; 985;6; = 8656 =6 :; << 9 <;5@5 <5 ;5

=6 65;+ 8656 ;< ;5. V>9 6 <6< 9;<6 6 69@ ;6 58<



6

985<@= 6 6 6<6 < = 5<69 8< <65 85 ;6<. L 66 <

;5 <H6 55 965 =;56= ;5< 85 8656 =6 @5:H6 <96+

< =6 ;; = 5;5+ 8@= 85>6<+ < =6 65; >6=% =

<+ = 8; < = < ;55+ =6 ;56< < 6 856 < «=6

65;» 9 ; 6; ==6+ =6 6;56=6 <= 858 8@=. S <<6+ ; 9<= <

=;56 : >>+ =6 59 786 6;;6;>6 <= ;59 =;56= 865 = 5565=.



7

E 6=5 6+ ;5+ = 6<9 6 ;>6= 9 = A=<@5:+ :9

585;<=. # 6 6H+ ;; = 6 865; < =6 7856 =;56=+ 6 865;

; 9:6< <H6 6 <H6. P; 6H ;< 9 >>< 6 9< := < ;=>

96 5]+ ; <@ =5 85 56 6;6 @6 865; <= 8@=+ 9 @ ;56< 6+ <=

6<956@= :95 6==. # ; <;:56<. ¿C; 8<9 5>65? ¿P656

<@9 5>65=? ¿Q 865; <@9 <65 =; <6+ = 6=>6><6 8@=?N ;: 58;6 8656 ;6 85:;6+ 6=> =6 @5>6 @>6 < 8<9

6@6<65 = ;5 < =6 =;56 96 <= 956< =@5+ 9 8<9 6@6<65 =

;5 < =6 <6<. P5 8< 6==65 58;6 59=65 6; = ;55:6;

85 6@5 ;5@< 6 59=65=.



7

P65; II

LA CULTURA DEL MUNDO BURGUS



7

C68H;= $

ILUSTRACIÓN # LOGROS% LA EMANCIPACIÓN DEL TALENTO &UDÍO DESDE 1'((

E;6 + 6 <56 < = 6 =6 965H6 < = ;56@6 <<6< 6 =6 ;56<H6+ 9 865 <= ; = 9< 7;55 6 >656@=9;+ >6; ; @5

= <H 6 >656@=9;+ 6 86 95H6 < =6 8@=6+ 6 =6 >56% ;56;65

<= 986; < = <H @5 = 5; < =6 96<6<. #+ 865;=65+ < =6 78=>6

;56596 >> ; 986; = := !I! !!+ <5+ 6= 8 < + 6 6= <=

:= !VIII+ 9656 =6 9686 < = <H X5; 6 ;5 + 66<5H6+ 5; 6 H 99Y.

M ;+ = 6=+ ==6 6;6<6. S 6 7856< 9 @ =6 =;96 =H6

<= rfahrungen und rinnerungen X«E7856 55<»Y < A5=< P6]5. C9 =+

«5@ ;6 86=6@56 6 86 =6 6 8; < 9<6 65565 <<6 = @5 =6

!ufkl6rung _I=;56 + <5+ = 85:5 5+ 6 = <H+ 6 ><6 <:6 <

5 96» X;56< 9H6Y. # = 85:5+ 66<5H6 + 8@=; = <H 56=656

:<6 965 ;5@ 6 =6 >=6 9<6= << 6= 99; >;65 =

9;H9 ;5@6=+ < =6 <6 < >56=<6< 6 = <6<5 <= 5;69 = =69. E

;56 86=6@56+ 9 859;% =6 ;56 <= 9<+ ;5 =6 78= < = <H < P6=;6 X

= := I <. C.Y = := !I!+ 6 ;56 < 6;:5:6 6 = <H+ 6= 865 <

:5:6 98;6. V>5 <;5 < =6 <6< < = :;=+ 9 698=6+ 6<8;65 =6

=:6 :;= 9 8586 6<68;65 =6 6 :;= 6 8586 <6< 5;6= 85

= < 596 6= ;59;; 8<5 + = > 9 6= 6+ 5

865;865 =6 ><6 =;56= ;=;6= < 6 <6< 9 698=6. E 6+

685;6 5:6= 6 ;6 ><6 965:6=+ 6 ;5@ 9 ;59<65 ;5

<>56 =;56 ;=;6= @5 ;<+ ;5 = 9< =9 5;6 <;6=+ =6

E<6< M<6 X586Y 56 9 985;6;. F 6H = 698 = + << =6

9686+ =6 ;5@ <H6 6 < <<6@=9; 59.

P9 698 << = =:5 <H 6 < 5% =6 96;9;6. 6;6 <<

+ 6;6 = := !I! 6 =6 96;9;6 9<56 >6 ;6@= 8H69;

66<6 9@5 <H. T698 6==659 6H+ < >+ 6@= 9 =:

68;65 =6 55 85;; 6 96;9; <H + ;56@66< 858 ;5;=;6=+ 56=656 6>6 985;6; = 9< 96;9; 9 :56= <@556

6;6 9 9 ;65< = 85 98= H 55 = 96;9; < < = := !IV 6

!VI+ 6 @56+ 5;6 96=6@65+ 5 6;6 =6 :<6 9;6< <= := !!. A ;

58;+ 89 :6=9; = 6<5 =6 6;5<6< 5=:6 <H6 :56=

865;=65+ M69< = <6 5:69; 85 85 6 <;56 5; 6= ;<

< =6 L. N < 7;5665 = 8595 6<5;6 <H < :56 58;6 56 = 56 A65

A=76<5 X1)$$,1'"(Y+ 6 ><6 < =6 9686.



7

B 8< 5 + ;5 = := !IV !VIII X: = 6=<65 <;6=Y+ <56 =6

=96 < ;6 :5:6 >5 :;+ ;6; 98;6 9 6;98;6+

556<6+ <8 < 14*2+ 85 =6 78= < = <H >5;< < = <9 86=

X=<+ =65 ;+ = < I;6=6 <9 =:65Y. E; 5< =6 8@=<6< < ;6@=5

;6; 6= ;=;6= = <H+ 56 < =6 6 <5>6<6 596=9; < =6

6;><6< 856= = >=6@6 = 9< :;=. D + 6=>6< =6 68@=6 <H6 < 985;66 = O<; 5@6 X=6 9<6< < [9;5<69+ 596<6

965H6 85 9:56; 65<HY+ 5=;6 <H= 865 <H + <56; ; 85H<+

;>56 8 < 96;5 ;6; ;=;6= 596= :;= =;. R5< +

6;6 @ ;56< = := !I!+ @ =6 965H6 < = <H ;6@6 6<6 :;+ @

= 85@H6 6;65 <6< :56<.

S 6 @5>6< 65; + 6== <H6+ «= 9< 7;55 86@6 <966< =

869; <H».1 D + =6 98=6 <6 < =6 85;6 < 5;<76 <6@6

596 6 =6 5=: <H6 = 98< < =6 86 865;=65+ =6 :5:6 556<6

85 = S= A5+ 6H 9 =6 596 ;56<6= < =6 6;><6< ;=;6= <H6% =6 789=;6 < =6 B@=6 = T6=9<+ 68=6 6 =6 ;:6 < =6 ><6 <H6 <6@6 8

965: 8656 6<6 9. A == 96 =6 6;5<6< 56@H6 >;6@6 =6 =H6+ =6 6 ;56

5696 <= 9; 56 < 5: <H+2 =<6+ =6 V=6 9 556<6+ 6;6 =6

=:6 7;5656.3 E= 6@9 ;5 = 9< ;=;6= = =;56 86=9; @ =

< = X565Y 85 < =6 9686 ;5 = <H < O5; ;5 =6 <6< <

;56<5 6= @5 @56 =6569; <8@= 8656 6=5 856 ;5<6 =6 =;56

9856 :;=+ 9 85 98= E=< ;7; < ;5:9;5H6+ 6H 9 =@5 < ::56H6

;:56H6.4

E= ;56; ;5 =6 ;6 6;55 8;55 6 =6 56 < =6 9686 [email protected] 9 := <56; = 6= =6 ;56 =;56= ;=;6= <= 9< 9 6+ =6

8=H;6 8<H6 5@5 66 556 6 =6 ;5@ < : <H 68;6@= 9 ;6=

8656 =6 5;<76 6=> M69<+ ;569 6 < 9<6; =6 56 9<56+ =6

= 9@5 <H ; 585;6< < 596 <85856<6. E 9 @56

;6< =6 ;686 6 6 ==6 6 85 < ;6=;. S 9@65:+ =6 96 6 9<6;6 < ;6=

9@5 + F=7 M<=+ R65<+ M657+ D56= = =5; ;5

9686< < <H =; 66<6=6< 6 86 <6< =;6 86=9;+ B5=H

<@5H6 <5. A= 66@65 =6 :556 68=6+ = :56 :5 < = <H

66H ; ;:565 =6 <6< :;=+ 85@6@=9; 56 A=966+

78; >6 9 5; = ;H6 >5 =6 6<9;56+ 9 @<;

68==< >=. I= 6 =6 69=6 9 56 = 6=;6@6 69 5555% <56; ;<6

><6+ =6 96<5 < 65= M657 ; 8=69; 6 :; = 6=; 6=9+ =6 < 85956

:56 < = R;=< 96;H6 558<6 9;6 +udendeutsch 5;56

@56. L <H < =6 6 ;55 < C;5586+ = 985 6@@5:+ >5

6;6< 85 =6 9686 6;6+ 9 9 85;+ =6 <6<6 < 1'4(+ 6< 98 6 5



7

8@= 9:565 6 =6 <6< = < G6=6 = shtetls < R6+ 6;6 9 9 ;65<. C

58; 6 = <H ;6<<+ 6 < «6;6 @ ;56< = := !!+ =

9:56;+ 965H6+ 8<H6 55<65 6 <6< <H6 ;56<6=+ 6< >H6

<5;69; < ==6»." E= :5 < = 65<H ;69@ ;6@6 = ;6< :5:6<

;56<6=. E 56=<6<+ 78; 8656 =6> 8 ;6= 9 =6 9<6< < 5:6<

< F566 = P6H B6+ =6 9<6< 6;:6 <= 5; < I;6=6 = M<<H6 56+



7

<< 6 8@= ;565+ 6; < =6 R>= F566+ : =:65 = 6= =6 ;;6=<6<

< = <H X =69; =6 =;Y ;>56 ;:56<6 =6 <6< = 5<6@6% 85

98=+ 6@;6=9; 6@=6@6 ;5 H =6 =:6 >5=6 < = :;=.

E= 85 < =6 9686 <H6+ 6+ 865 ;6; 6 6 ; @5;6

< 85; 6 @5@; 9 6 6 55; <9;6 ;56596 568< 5H

<96=. 6:586< 85 6 < 69; = 96;9;+ H H996< = 58;> 65;H= < =6 ncyclopaedia +udaica. S= < ==+ = ;5

:58+ 6 6; < 1'(( 31 65 =6 85956 9;6< <= := !I! 1$2+ =6 :<6

9;6<. XL6 5>6 6=:6 8656 =6 9<6+ 698 ;=;6= = 6 6@H6 <H 6; < =6

9686+ 9 56<6=.Y N 5 85 66<5 + ; ;6<+ 6@=69 9 @6

9<<6 < =6 5696 66H+ 596@6 6 965H6 698=6 X 5;Y < =6 8@=6 <H6

;> >5+ 865;=65+ 5; 9:65@66. AH+ = 95 < <H < V6+

85 98=+ 6< < 9 < 4.((( 1'4' 6 1)".((( >H856 < =6 85956 :556

9<6=.

N <@9 @;965 = «; < <9;56»+ = = 986; 56=+ < =6 86=; 69<6<6 =;6 85 85 98=+ < =6 4(" 69=6 <H6 <= B5=H < 858

<= := !I!.$ L6 <6< =@56= 85<95;6 ;55 8656 ;6= :58. AH+ =

<H ;6=6+ 585;6@6 = = (+1 85 1(( < =6 8@=6+ @6 =6 5;5;>6 =:=6

=;56= <= 86H 8<H6 85 = 1( 85 1(( <= =;56< =6 = < C6>5 = 5 <

S6@6+ 1'"1+ =6 :656;65 = >; < =6 9<6< <H6 < T5H. E; 8<5H6 6<65 6

78=65 =6 58<6 95:6 < = <H =6 6 8@=6 < =6 E586 ;56= <;6=.

6;6 << + = <H 686 ;>5 856 =6 R>= F566 ;5

986;6; 58+ 6=>+ 9 6@5H6 8565+ = 9< @5: < = P6H B6. E

69@+ =6 86 < =6 5>= < 1'3(+ =6 856 < = <H 8=H;6 56 98@=< =665+ ;6; F566 X86=9;+ = M<<H6Y A=966 9 = 5; < I;6=6

X@5 ;<+ ;5 < M6+ 5;65 56 <H+ 6= :6= >65 <

<6= 65Y. P656 1'4'+ =6 985;66 < = <H 6 56+ <<6+

69@56. U <H 9;5 = > :@5 5>=65 56 XC597Y ;5

XD6= M6Y = =H<5 < =6 V6 5>=656. T5 <H 865 8; <;66<

=6 A69@=6 C;;; < P56+ 6;5+ = P65=69; < F55;. F <H + ;56

=6 <= < ; =;9+ 6=> G56 S==+ <>=; 6 =6 R8@=6 F<56= 6

8 6+ 85 9< < <<; @5;. E V6+ 5 ;<6; < =6 >5<6<

<H6 = ==6965 6 =6 5>= < 965 ;5 =6 >;> 596 <= M6; < =

E5;5 < V6+ 56 <H6. E P=6+ ;6 = 8 6 <8 < =6 =;6 <

@>5> < =6 P=6 6;5H66 X@56 < M;;5Y ;>56 9@5 @>69;

<6+ = <H 78565 ;69 85 =6 =@5;6< < P=6+ 56@+ =:< 8656 =

R;6: 9856=+ 6= @6< 8=6. E =6 E586 85<95;6+ =6 8=H;6 = =6

5>=656 56 ; < 8 6<5 < 856 ;5<6.

E = 9 < = 9686<5 6@H6 <<6 < + 8656 = 85 8<56 =965+



7

<@H6 85<5 < 69@ 6=% 55H6 6 965 seculari2aci1n formaci1n =6

=:6 66=+ 6<9+ = uso habitual < ;6 855@=9;+ 6 985<@=9;+

6 =:6 68;6<6 < =6 =;56 5;6. P9+ 85 98=+ =6 ;6;6 96:656 <

= <H < :5H6. C6< 6@= < «=656»+ 9 55 6569; 6= 6@6<

< =6 <H6 X6 ;5 = 9686< @ 6: < =6 >5+ 6 56 56

856:9;6Y+ 6 5<5 =6 5=: <= 6;55 965 >;6= 6@=;+ 985; ;;6=6<5+



7

6 6=: + 6 5>6< 5;6 985;66+ = ==656 6 865; < 965 >;6=. E;6 =6

< =656 <@H6 =5 96;59 66 97;6+ < 95 <H6 =;6

:;=+ 66@ <986< 6 5=6;>69; ;6@= =6 =;56 + 9

6<=6;+ =6 8=H;6 X< 5<6Y. L6 5=6 < =6 9686 < =6 95 =6

9686 < = <H ;96 < :56 5=>66+ 85+ 85 <:566+ 65 <= ;98 X+

8656 5 5+ < = 9;Y 8656 66=65= 6H+ ;6 .L6 <6 859656+ 6569; =:6 >5=6+ ;5 >56= 6;6 =

=;9 ;5 <= := !I!+ 6 698=6 6 < A=966 6@ ;65 6 6 9<6< < :=

6 6=6@;6 6 >56=. C 8;55<6< 6 1'11+ 6 6=5 <H = 6@5H6

5=;6< ;69; <H= >;65 = ;96 <6;> 8@=+ + << =:+ 6@H6 <6< < 5

>5;6=9; @=:6;5 685<5 =6 =;56 @56 6 ;; 5=:6+ 6 <56 < =

6 55H6 = E;. A= ; < =6 5;56 < R6 =6 P=6 6;5H66+ = <5 6

98;H6 =6 =6 =65. S 9@65:+ =6 <6 <656 H ; < 9

5;5:<6 = ;5 = 9H9 < 9<6< < :=+ < 9 <= (+1 85 1(( X I;6=6Y

979 X P56Y 55 6= 2 85 1(( <= :58 < <6< 5=>6; X;5 = < = <>6Y. L6 <6 >5;656 ;6@6 6 9 55;6. A =6 8;5+ ; 9679 =6

85;<6< < = < 9<6< 5<<6 <85856<69; 85856+ ;6=

9 =6 <H6+ @5 ;< ;< ;6 = =>6< 685 ;H6 85 =6 <6

855. P5 ==+ =6 ;6 <H6 =6 <6 855 8566 6=6 979 =6 <6<6

< 1')(. L: <= 85 ;6 66 98 786 :56=.)

6@=65+ =5 5@5 =6 996 =:6 = <H =; 56 6 < 85>6 6 =6

56 < 5 6 =6 >=6 9<56+ 6H 9 = 9< 9 9<6; 8656 9@6;5 =6

:5:6. S 9@65:+ =6 86 < = <H 9686< 85 =6 =;56 =:6 66=

< = :;= < 86H ;6; 9 ;6 85+ :56 95 < 6+ ;6@65856<+ 85 6H <5+ 6 =@ <6< 9 ;98 6;5+ 8<H6 >5 6 H 99

6 9 99@5 <6<5. E;6@6 9686< = 99; < =6 56 < =6 =;56;56

=6 6=966+ :656 8=66+ 6H 9 < =6 <>56 =6 66= < 96. ¿Q

8<H6 5=;65 9 8579 6 =6 >6:65<6 < =6 =;56;56 6=966 = 9< = 9>H6

R6= V656: =6 B5=H < 858 <= := !I!? C9 5@ T<5 F;6 @5

65= E9= F56+ 6866< 9686<5 <H% «S= =6 5: = 6@;6 6==69

;5 : 85 =6 =;56;56 6=966» X«E J5]= I;5 W5 <; L;56;5 6; 5

<_ 65= E9= F56 G:<»Y.' D 9< 9 9=65+ < ;5 :56 9 ;65<+

= ;=;6= <H 9686< R6+ 86=6@56 < &6@;]+ «69565 <

9< <96= >5: < =6 =;56 56». S= = O5; P579 9=;=:W+ <@< 6

=6 66 < =;56 =:WH;,66=+ = 69@ < =:6 <> 9 56=. A==H+

:566 6 =6 >6 A==6 I56=; U>5==+ < 1'$(+ = <H 9<565 5@5

<6 56 6= ;98 :H6 6@=6< X6 6 5@<Y <86=+

56@ ;5.

A56 @+ < ;<6 =6 =:6 < 9686+ = 6=9 9 =6 9 56=+ 85



7

< 56. A = =65: 6 < 9<6 E586 < B5=H 6 = 9 < < =6 G56 R6+ <

E6<6>6 6= A<5; = 9 59; B6=6+ = 69 @6 <= 5;56 6= 85:5+

<= 85>6=9 6= 9< 9 7;+ ;6@6 86>9;6< =6 =;56 6=966. T<9 6

=><65 ;+ ;5 ;98+ 6H% A=966 =6 85;6 < ;56<6 6 =6 9<5<6<. E

6 <= ;65 <= 69; < S==5 X= 8;6 =6 > =6 < =6 =@5;6<

8=H;6 956= 8656 = =;5 9 < 6=9 = := !I!Y+ 65= E9= F56 5@



7

5=6;+ «S==5 B65J»+ =;56 < 9656>==6 ;6 ;. E ; 5=6;+ 8

<;9; 985 >=9 < = 896 < S==5 = 9< 6 ;56> <= 6= 9

<9+ > 96;5 < =6 5; 8@5 <H < shtetl < =6 6 =

6;5 <96+ 659;+ «M< A6» X«6=@,A»Y 6==6 =6 =@56 5H6 =6 >5

<96 < =6 <6 =6 =;56 9<56.* E= 5=6; =96 =6 =;56 < =6 «O<6 6 =6

6=:5H6». E = E; 9 5<;+ 6 S==5 = ;56< = 6= @5. E; 868= 9686<5< =6 =:6 6=966 78=6 85 = 6= <= ;5 9 <H < G6=6+ =6 <6< <

B5< X )$ 85 1(( < 8@=6 <H6Y+ ;5 =6 =:6 < ;5 <

=6 <@H6 5 ;56 = 6=9. E 1''( = <<5 7;

=@56< =6 5; 9856= < V6+ 6= 6=:65 < 596 ;69; >5H9= ;56;6@6

< 6 =:6landes7blich+ <5+ < 9 =6 6.

N = 56. C6 ;< = <H 5;6= 6@=6@6 H<+ = <6=; 6=9 56 5=6

< >H= 866< =6 <6< :56=+ 85 99; 9 = 86=

65<H << 14*2 56 6 6= < 8656 =:WH;6. ! priori+ 6@5H6 856<

= H< 7;56 9 9< 56= =6 =:6 66= 5;6+ :6= 55H6 ;5<6=; X : << =6 6;6=<6< = 8chwy2erd7tsch 6=9 < S6Y 85+ 6

<56 < ;+ 8H6 6 @65556 6 =6 5856 6= 9< 9<5+ 56 85

=965% =:WH;69; + ;6; =:6 < =6 9<6< 9 56;;6+ ;69@

<=:69;. V;5 «6;6 6=966»+ 6H 9 6@=65 8=6 6=9+ 5 6 <

<;<6< <= 8 :58 < = 85 < =6 9686 V65>6.1( A<9+ =6

=6 6=966+ = < <6@=6; 5;6@6 6= >; <

:5696;6= 56 = @6;6; 55; 8656 = H<+ 85 = ==>6@6 6 9;5 555 6=9

5;. E56 6 9 85@6@= = <H 9 69<6<+ 5 ==:6< 6 6 <6< 6

6;6<6+ 6@6<656 =6 ==6 >@= 6<@= < 5H:. P5 ==+ ;H8 + 9er *eg ins 0reie =6 >=6 < A5;5 S;=5 6556+ 85866 6<956@=+ = 96; <

=6 69=6 <H6 =6 V6 fin de si4cle+ = > E5@5:+ 5 9@5 < :+ 6@5

< =6 >6 8566 =@56= 6=966 < = <H > = 6= < 86 6= 565 <

596 <=@56<6+ 856 < =6 «<6<» :;=+ 6 >656; =:WH;6 9H<6% «>5

< &5 9 6 E5@5: 95 9c».11

L6 <> ;5 <H 5;6=+ <6@=6;+ <H <;6=+ 69=6<+ 6<5

65;5 <69;6= @55 6;6 ;5 855 = 99

=6;.12 A <<6 5=;6@6 69=65 =6 >56 ;5<6+ ;6 <> 865

6@5 596=9;+ 85 > 85956+ =6 B>6+ << =6 <6<6 < 1')(+13 << 6

=6 9<6 5:==6+ 7;565<6569; <;:<6 =;6+ ;5 = 8595

865;<65 < <65 6 = <H 6 < 66= 85 9< < =:6 66= 8586% =

H< = <<H6 6H >H6 <= ;< =656 =6 :5966. P656 = <H

9686< < C;5586+ «<H 5;6=» <H6 = 56 <6@6 5% 8@=

;6 @>69; <;; 6 ;;H6 6 8 <5;. T56 65 6 >56 <

6<=;+ < + V6+ 55< 6@5= 85:;6< 6 6 865; 965% «¿Q =6



8

< 9@5 ; <H 5;6=?». P656 ==6 5=; @>69; 9@656+ 8 6@H6

;56 69=6+ = G5W 5;5+ 6@H6 >< 6 V6 <5;69; < =6 P=6 6;5H66+

6= :6= :56 9 56 ;5 = <H 6=96 9 R<= M+ 5 G56;+

E996= L6]5 A5;5 R88 >5 <5;69; < =6 P=6 56.



8

# 9@65:+ =6 9:56 96>6 < = <H 5;6=+ << 6= <= := !I!+ =

965 6< 6 ;565965 = 986; < = <H @5 = 9< 9<5. A 7;

6 ;<6< @>6+ = 986; <H @5 = 9< :;=+ = := !!+ 98656@= 6=

<= := !I!. C6< = := < =6 @5:H6 =@56= <56 = 86 6= !!+ = 65H6 9 «:=

<H»+ 5=6< = ;H;= < =@5 5; 985;6;+ %he +ewish (entury .14 L6 9<6<

<H6 < E;6< U< >5; =6 9 7;6+ 9+ < =6 <856 <;6=. A<56 < 6=5 ;56 <856 66 86H <655==6<+ ;6@6 96 965H6 <

<H 5;6= 8@5+ 56 <966< 6;6 9 8656 665 = 965 <H,6=9 6

7;; 6=;56< E;6< U<. T69@ 8596 6 ;6 < ;6@=

965:6=<6< =;56=+ 6=> =6 585<6+ 6;6 866<6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=.1" L6

9<56 < = <H P=6 R6 85 9< < 6 6 8=H;6 96>6+

556<6 85 =6 R>= R6+ ;5659 =6 6;56=6 < =6 9686 <H6+ =<6 =6

>5 ;6. L 99 =6 59 786 < = ;56@6 =; 966=

865;=65+ =6 :<6 9;6< <= := 866< =6 <6 855. # = 99 5

;69@ = 69+ =6 <6 < I56= = 56<6= < < =6 <596 6;9;6 O<; 8;55<6< 6 1*4". L6 956 6=6 < =6 856= =;56= <H6 6@5H6 <

@@= 6; < =6 85956 = < =6 :<6 :556 9<6=. L 99 6@ <5+

@>69;+ < =6 956 <9 <= 8@= <H + ; < <;<6<+ 9856 =@5

<85856<69;+ = 6= =6569; 6; =6 596 <= 956< =;565 < 966 6;

6 = ;96 <H+ 8595 =6 R8@=6 < 965 =: :56=. P5 ;< ==+ 85

65 6 <; ;5 = < 85H<.

D< = 858+ =6 ;5@ < = <H 9686< 6 =6 <6< = 5@H6

6@H6 < <85856<69; :56< 85+ 85 =6 6;56=6 996 < =6 9686+

=;56=9; 65H6 < 8<6<% 98=9;+ 5H6 5 56+ ;6=6+ 6=96 :=+ 9 6<;>. A =6 >56+ = ;< ;6 = :56=6< < =

;9; 6;9;6+ 6 =@56= ;6 <6< ;69@ <5 =6 @><6 6 6

95H6 85856 =;6 556@6 >6=5 8=H;+ =;56= 66=.1$ V6+ 85

98=+ 6;6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ = 698 < = 8;= 88=65+ = <H

<<6 <96@6% 85;6 96= ;6; E586 9 E;6< U<+ ;6;5 + 9

6<=6;+ = + 6 ; 58;+ =6 6 88=65 956=+ 6 69@ =6< <= A;=;. E =

:= !I!+ O@6 56 56+ S;56 56 6;5H6. I= = := !!+ I5>: B5= 56

;6<<. E = :56 85H< < ==J< ;;6=9; ;5=6< 85 <H+ @659

>6 6<6 6 = K]5+ LJ M65 <56@6 >6=5 1(( 85 1((

;6<<+ ;698 6==659 ;5==6 9@5 6:6 865 ;H6 5H:

=6 9:56. E =6 ><6 8@=6 < =6 I;6=6 <6+ = (+1 85 1(( < <H <98 6

9 965 : ;5 ;6<% <; < == 865 8; = S6<

6<5 6 8 < 8595 9;5+ 9;5 = :56= <= 5;.1) S 9@65:+

56 ;6 <;:@= < = ;5 ;6=6 + 6;6 1*4"+ ;569 ;56<5

==69 =6 6; @5 7;565<65 :56< < 585;6.



8

AH 55 ;69@ =6 65; 9 7=6. L 98;5 <H 565 96

6=966 566. E 5; 9<+ ; : << = 9 ;585; >5;

<H+ 6 ;6 < = < 5;6 6=6 < 5; = 8595 : <

9686 = E;+ 9 :56;. L :56< 86;6 >=;6 <H <= := !!

5565 = 585;5 < =6 96 =6 <;6=+ 6 <56 < = 9<; >=;6

:;6+ = 6 :5 = 9 =6;6956+ 7;<5 6=6. U 86< <



8

5;5 5=6< <= L<5 <9 X=<+ S6J+ #6;Y 6 <6< 6 ==6 9 <6

5@=9; «5=6<6» =6 =;56;56 :=6 =6 9856 85 = 6;5 <H

:6 =;56;56 586 <= := !I!. P5 ;56 865;+ = 85H< «9<5;6»+ =6 ;5@

<H6 6 =6 =;56;56 >5=6 =6 65; >6= >=> 9 9 <;6@=+ 6<9 <

=;. E; <@+ + 6 =6 >6 9<5;6 ; 698 = 9

6;56;> 6; :58 >H6 5;<9@5 ;6 = 9<+ 6H 9 6 =9686< 5 ==:6<+ 865;=65 <= E;. I:6=9;+ <@56 6 =6 5 < =6

<6< <96 <8=6 =6 858 < = :;= 66 =6 ;6 ;6@= < =

<H. E= := !! 9@ =6 =;56 <;6= < <6 <5>6<6 <= 86<5 <= 86=+

;H6 8=6 6 < 5 <H. U <H 86 =:65 ;56= = :lises < &69 & 6=

;98 T96 M6 ;6 85 ; ;96 6]6 5 59 8;9 986;

@5 = := !!. A =6 >56+ 6< 9> = :6< :56=

;6<<+ 85 >56= < $uerte de un viajante+ < A5;5 M==5+ ;6

<65 ;6 < =6 7856 @66+ : 6 55<6< D6>< M69;+

5@=9; <H6.E =6 65; >6=+ 6 < :56 ;6@= < 56 <H6 XL@596+

P655Y <5 86 = := !! 6 6 <856 98=;6 =6 = <H = 56

9 95 : 865+ 55H6 6 <H 56 <= 2( 85 1(( < =6 @:56H6 <

«65;;6» <= 6;=: < =6 :56 7@ B5=HZM 1*((,1*("+ ;69@ 9 9;

XM<:=6+ P6+ M65+ C6:6==+ S;+ E8;+ L8;+ L;]+ K6<]Y +

6+ 9 5@=9; <H. E 6 5;+ =6 =;56 < = 9< <

96 < 966 ;6<< 6 ;5<< 9<9 = H<6 = =

:= 55; < = 85<;6 :;=. S 6 65;6 6 6 : 6:= :;=

985<H6 6 86=6@56 9 «;86»+ =6 ;< =6 965H6.C9 =6 9<56 6 6;56= 686 6 965: 8656 =6 =56 66=

=;56=+ 8<5H6 <65 =6 996 ;6 ; 698 698 + 85 ;5 =6<+ = :=

!! 6=65 6<6 > 9 <= ;< 9 ;565 9 985@= 8656 = =:. L6

;5@ < = <H ;6 56 69; 56<6=9; <8 < 1*14+ : 9;56 =

=;6< < = :6=65<6< = 859 N@= 5=>6; 8656 ;6 96;56. N @;6;+ =

=6 <=:H6 < =6 <56 56<6= 8<5H6 >=65 = = ;5 8656 6@=65 < 6 «6

<H6». L6 6 966 6= 5H6 965: 9 698= < + 85 56

@>6+ =6 6;56=6+ =6 ;5;56 =6 ;56596 < =6 <6< 6 56 < 69@

;5 56<6= 6;565 < 6 596 <85856<6 6 = <H 9686<+ 6 << =

858+ ;6; =6 85;6 9 =6 ;5H6 6=: 986 = 6;96

M657. E; 66 =6 985@= 85=><6< <H6 6 6865 9>9; 865;<65 < 6

;56596 9<6= 5>=656+ ;6 ==696;>6 =6 86 < = 9>9; 9;6

6=;6 < 856 9657;6. D + 6@5H6 <5 = <H <;6= < 858

<= := !I! 5@5 =6 9686 < 6 <=:H6 66<6 ==+ 9;56 =

66H 5;6=+ :56 9<<6+ 96865 6 H 99 9<6; 6 <=:H6



8

5>=656 >56=;6 ;569; 66<6 == 99. E; 5; = =

6 <= 9 5:6=+ ;6 <69; =6< 85 = 96579+ < ;5 =

;6< < I56= 5:6=. E 558<6+ = := !!+ <655==65 5; 698 X;6=

9+ <;596<6 5: < E586+ =6 8=:H6 + 865;=65+ = 86=Y +

6+ 865H6 ;6 <85856<69; 86< 85 <H 9+ <:69+ = =@

;566= < >5; <= >=H. P5 = 656;56@6 ;6 6+ 9 ;<6 =6 ;56 6



8

=6 = <H ;5@5 < 596 ;6 56+ 56 6 66 :;6+ =6 66

< 6 + 85 <+ =6 >6. S 6 6596< 65; + G56 B5;66+ «= 965

986; < = 7=6< _< E586 ;56= ;> 85@6@=9; = 698 9 >

;5<8=65 X;56 <= 65;+ 8=:H6+ =:H6+ 59=:H6+ H6 =65+ @H96Y

=6 85 < 69@ 9 6=56< X+ ;:56H6+ 65;;56+ 56< ;=>Y+

= 698 6 ;6@=< << 6H6 ;98».1' S E; 6 ;56596< = 5;5 9< < =6 6 <= := !! 85 56 <H+ 85 8< >5;5

< 6 6 5>= := < ;6; >= ;=;6=.

E; 9 ==>6 6 6 ; 6=+ ; 586 «6 >;6 < 865» < =6 685;6 < =

<H 6= 9< :56= <= 6@5 =6 =;56 <;6=. ¿P5 6 ;5@ 6 < 9

9 9656<6 6=:6 5: ;56? C<5 =6 <56 ;5 = 859 N@=

5 < R U<+ R6+ I56= S<56. D = ;;6 6;5 859 @5;+ =

:665 <H+ 85+ 6 =6 78+ : < == 56 @5; < 69;. D =

859 5 @;< << 1*1)+ ; <H + 859@=9;+ ;< 65

=6 5:. 6;6 2((4+ : >;:6<5 56=H+ ;6@=< ; 86H 6=5 ;5+ 6@H6@;< : 859 N@= < 6+ 8 6 I56= ; < = H< 9 =>6< <

85< < ;< ;H 85 8;6. E 2((4+ 9@65:+ ;5:65 <+ 6 ;H

6< I56= ;5 < 5: :65. P5 ;56 865;+ << I56= <8<+ <

;5 859 6 < ;5:6< 6 99@5 < =6 9<;6 8@=6 =;6,<H6 <

S<56 X< 1"(.((( 99@5Y+ 85 ;<+ 56 <= ;;. ¿C9 8<9 78=65

6 <56 ;6 ==696;>6?

A ; 58;+ <@9 ;;65 ;56. E =6 6+ 6 ;<6 =+ 56= =

59 59; =6 85 < >;:6. R5<9 = 95 ;;6= <

855 >5;65 P56+ = 1*13+ 56 55 6 = < 9= = 95 <855 < =6 66 <656 8@=6+ A=966+ 56 < 8 9 < 4.2((.1* E= 7:

95 < 8; 66<9 ; 698+ ¿ 6<6 6 78=65 =6 585<; 66 <

<H =6 =;6 < = 9;6 ;5 66<9+ >6= 9;+ 6; < =6

:<6 :556 9<6= X =6 ;6@= 78 < R65<Y? A =6 >56+ = < =6

H96 6 = 56 8586= =6 = <H :665 = 859 N@= 6; < 1*1'+ <<6+

;65 5=66< = < 56 = 698 = 98 6 98=65 6 :56

95 < 86=;6 < 596 66<96% = ;5 =6 ;5 :56< 986H6 H96

6=966 6 <6@6 98= 6 56 < 9==65.2( E;5 9 ; ;H 86;5+ = 8<

<655==65 6 65556 856= 6; < 1*14 = 9 H9.

P5 ; 5;5 856=+ 6 86 <8565=. C5;69;+ <

6@5 6@5; =6 >5<6< < E;6< U< 6 = <H <8 < 1*4'+ =6 >6;6

786 < ; ;5+ =6 59 6 < 859 N@= < 66=<6< ;6<<

8;55 6 1*)( 6@5H6 5=;6< 98@=.21 U 6;5 9 985;6; + 6 9 9< < >5+ =6

:5:6+ 6 56 <= ;8 85> 6 =6 9686 85 66=9 :;Z;55;56=. E;

78= =6 ;5@ < I56= 5=;+ 5=6;>69; 6@=6<+ 8 <86;+



8

98656 = 5=6;>69; >6; 85;6 <H < 8@=6. S <5H6 >>5 ;5

:;= <5:5 6 == 8 ;H9= 8656 = 98 56;> < 965 6=6<+ 6= :6=

8656 = ;+ =6 8=H=6 =6 96 88. A ; 58;+ : < 9 95 >5

< B5]= < T= A>>.



8

P5 ;5 =6<+ << 6 << X6= 9+ ;5H6Y :6= <5 6 = <H+ 5;

:56< < 96=;65 =6 5=6 ;5 == = :;= 6 <9;56< 5 ;569; ;=. AH

55+ =6569;+ = 6 < A=966 = 985 < = 6@@5:+ 9 ;69@

E;6< U< 6;6 85 = 9 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=. S <<6+ 55 6H =6 85956

9;6< <= := !! R6Z=6 URSS+22 6H 9 =;56965+ S<56 A5:;6. E= 985;6;

68 = <H 5@5 < ;5 :58 5H6 6 <596 566= 6=+ 9 S<56 E;6< U<+ 6 ;<6 = H;96 < ; 96=;65. N ;56 ;<6

=6 9<6< <H6. # 68;65H6 = = 86H < ;=566 9 98=;6 =6

F566 < =6 T556 R8@=6+ = A;56 <;6= < F56 & =6 :5H6 < =6

69=6 96:65 :56=6<6+ =6 86 < 965 ;H9= 6= ;6=; <H + 85@6@=9;+

6==6 =6 = <H ;965 6 < = =H9; < =6 69=6% = 99; fin"de"

si4cle < P5;+ 6=6 =6 96<5 =6 <6<6 < D5 =6 56 < S@5:+ M6=5+

F5<+ S;=5 65= 56. ¿S <6 =6 8@=<6< < = <H < =6 <856 ==: 6 ;65

;6 ;:56< 85<6 ;H9=? S 6 <<<+ 6+ ; = 6 < =6

9<6< 6:=<H6 6;6<6 = := !I!. E = R U<+ << =:+ = <H 59 9; = =<56: =6 6 ;=;6= < = 9>9; 6=;6 < 5>=

6=+ 9 5@=< ;5 =:65 9+ <<6+ 6= ; <= R 6= 5; < =

A=8. N 9 ; 6=6< 8656 ==:65 6 6 =+ ;< ;5. F56 6=

=6 ;6 6;6 = <H6 < ;=5 = =6;+ ;6= ;6 6 <6.

P5 ¿ = ;5? L6 8656<6 < =6 56 8;55 6 1*4" =6 965 < =6 ;56:<6 < =6

;56 <H6 6 85>6< < 6 98=;69; <;;6. P5 =6<+ 6 ;56<

6 6 95H6 985;6; < =6 8@=6 <H6 <= 9< = ;6<,6+ I56=+ 6

> + ;5 ;98+ = 5; < =6 9686 <H6+ = 98= < ;565 = 99

9< = 5; < =6 96<6<. 6 :< =6 <856+ < 596 865;=659; 56<6= =6 5: =96. P5 ;5 =6<+ =6 965H6 < =6 <9 5: <= 9< = 6 :<

6 56 < 68;6 8@=6 6 =9;6<6 < = <H+ 85 =6 >5;6= <6865 <=

6;9;9 =6 <596 >>H 9 >;<+ 6H 9 85 = =:5 <H+

8656== 85<;+ = 698 < =6 =;56+ = ;=; = 6; 8@=. N 6

85<; ;5 <= ;5 < =6 !ufkl6rung =6 <856 8;,=6;. S 9@65:+ 6

<6 6=65 < ; ;5 5:565 6 =6 >6 :5:6 < =6 =;565;<76 5=:6

=6 >6 :5:6 < 6 9<6<,;6< :;,;6 6=6<6. S ;>56 7;

98+ 5 5<<65H6 @ < = <H <= 9<



8

C68H;= )

LOS &UDÍOS # ALEMANIA

L6 965 865; < =6 ;56 9<6=+ 6;6 6= <= := !VIII+ 8<5H6 5@5 9

6 556 965:6= 6 = <H+ 6=> 9 6= 8 8@= 85 < =6

5=: 9;H;6 >56= 6 <<6 ;6 = =69 5+ 85 5

;596@= 85@=96 6= 5;69 X95 <+ 6 = <H ;>5 =6 96=6 5;6 <

>>5 9;< 6 :@56; 5;6Y. P5;69; ;<6 =6 ;56 ;=;6= <= 9<

<;6=+ ;<6 =6 < =6 :56< =;56 <= E;+ 8<5H6 595 6 86 ;6 6= 8

5=6;>6 6 =6 < = <H 6; ;59<65 9<6<5 =;56=+ 6; ;< ;5

=6 56 9<;556 =6+ = =69 = O<; 9<>6=. E; 5=;6 8 585<;+

;9 ;6 =6 7;565<656 985;66 6 6<5< =6 ><6 8@=6+ ;=;6=

=;56= <= := !! = 99@5 < ; 9= :58 96+ + = 96<9:56+ 6; <= =6;+ 6 85 = 1 85 1(( < =6 8@=6 9<6=.

C9 ;H6 >;6< = 6 6 =6 965 865; < =6 ><6 8@=6+ 56 < 8565

686556 ==6 6; < =6 R>= F566. S 9@65:+ ;69@ ; =65 =6 6;><6<

;=;6= <H6+ <56; = :5 < = < =;9 9= X =6 6=><6<+ + < =6 56

=H;6Y+ <5:H6 956<6 9 8586=9; 66 6<;5. S= = 6@ 66=+ =

9 := ;5655< ;5 F= = &<H S86+ 8655 ;5 ;5 : 85

= 869; :;= =6 856 < ;6 =6+ 9 M69<+ 65 85 665 =6

>=6 6@5;6 < =6 E866 9=966. L :56< 56@+ 9;65 @5 =

;7; 6:56<+ ;<6 ;=6 @6@=6+ : 585;6< = 6; 8586= < =666<96 ;6=9<6+ ;56@6 85 = 8; < >;6 < = :;=. C =6 8@=

78 < =6 9<6+ =6 =6 5<6 7856 < = <H 56@6 =6 5;56 <

=6 9<6<+ = 98 ;=;6= =6 66 < = <H ;56@6 =6 96;56 6:56<6.

¿A6 =6 86=6@56 H< <:6 = =:65 < <>+ =6 6::6+ =6 6;:6 86=6@56

6=966 8656 «=6»?

E ><; 59 69; < ;6=; ;6@6 856< 6 = 6656 85> =

9 6<956@= < ;< = 9>9; 96% =6 I=;56 <= := !VIII+ + ;5 ;5

9 =:5 @+ 985; =6 9686 < = <H. S ; ;6 +

<8 < = <; < ;=566 < & II X= %oleran2edikte < 1)'1,1)'2Y+ ; <65>5;6=9; =9;6<+ <56; 6 :=+ 6 =6 86 9<6< <H6 < =6 E586

<;6= ;5,<;6=+ = <H 686 6@H6 96< 6 <65 ==6 6=:

< = 8586= 698 ;=;6= = 9 6<=6; <;665H6+ 6@ 865 =6

96:;< < =6 685;6 = <H 9865 6 65 6 =6 ;56 <= := !I! 8

7;565<656. ¿Q 8<5H6 5@5 =6 ;56 <= 9< 85;65 6; 6 R65< M657+

5; 69@ <= 8595 9< := < 9686?



8

P5 56 985@=+ =6 965H6 < 5;5 6 86< < =6 ;56 <H6

@6 9<<6+ <H 6 > ;< 6 ;565 = 986; = 9< 7;55 6

5< @5 8@=+ 6; = ;565. N 56 ;6 7=; «;56 8=H;6 < 6



9

95H6» < P;5 P=5 ==:6 6 6865 < ;6 ;5>5. L < <H ;>5 965

; @5 =6 8=H;6 6=966+ M657 L66==+ 6; <6<5 <= 9>9; 6=9 <

= ;56@66<5+ 686 6 6865 ==6 X=6 556 6 L66== 76;69; ;5+

6 < ==6+ 5=6;>6 6 86<5Y+ = 6;5 ; 6 ;<6 = 9< =6 «<865<6<

7;; ;5 = :56 95 < <H <;665 = <@6; = =<56: <= 865;<

6=<956;6 :==59 = 59;+ 9 866<+ < :9; =;56= ;5 =<H»+ 855 ;565 = :<.

N @;6;+ 6= 8586+ 6 6 > 7>69; <;6==6< >;6 =6 965H6

< =6 ;;6 <= 8656;9 ;5 <H. S @56 596 865; < = + ;6= >+ = =;9

85>>; < =6 ;56< =@56= :596,<H6% = :58 < ;56<5 66< =

I;;; L B6]+ < L<5. P 8=69; = ;56= 956< =@5 @5H <=

;56@6 ;6 6<956@= ;; 6 < <>=:6< @6 = 68 < ;< 9

A5=< P6]5 55 M. A= :6= =:6+ P=5 985< = + << ;=5+

6 ;56< 6 985@=% 85 = <H < A=966 ;H6 85<69; 6=96

+ < + 85 «= d65; Re 6; 698;6< 6:; :;+ ==J< N6656+ >=9 96=;5 < L:+ 6; G; < 56==6< <

F5;Jf:=5 %he %hreepenny ;pera XLa 1pera de cuatro cuartosY+ 6;;:6@6 =6 ;6<6< < =6

56H =6 <ulturnation 6=966». E @5>% 85 = <H 9686< <= := !I! 66@6+

;< ;69+ «85=6965 6@H6 6=< <= :;+ 6@H6 ;56< =6

>=6» 656 5H6 6 6<9;5=. P «=6 9<6< :596,<H6 :6@6 < 6

8 ;=;6= < =<56:+ = < <9+ ;5 ;5 :58 <H»+ 6 = 56

85 ;5 = <H 9686< 6@H6 9 6@=6; < 6=9 < :6 ;56 =:6+

= ;69 = 6== 5<H6 = 8665H6 6 5+ 1')1+ = R 6=9.

A<9+ 9 ><6 %he +ews of &ermany ;< < R; G6+ :569; =;56< 6=656<5+ 8 6 ;69@ 866 85 6=; 6 M657 L66==+ = <H 6=96 56

96 965H6 6;> < =6 6+ = <8 < 656 =6 9:56 96>6 <=

E; + =6 <6 =65+ 86656 < 6@=65 H< 6 65= 6=9.

A56 @+ =6 <ulturnation 6=966 56 9 9 698=6 ;. E= 95

@5>6<+ 85 68+ 85 P=5 < ;6;6 :56 ;=;6= <;66<6 ;5 =6

6=<9566 6=966 =< ;< 9657;6 9 ;6@=+ 6=> @56

<8=66< 698 < 6;><6< 6 A=966 << = 985 6@@5: X6;]+ =5<:Y =6

R6 65;6 XL79@5:+ P65>+ = M65=J] R6<]Y <9;56 = 6=9 56 =6

=:6 < =;56+ << =6 9656 < =6 G56 R6 6;6 =6 5;56 < F566. L6 <56

8586= ;5 = <H < A=966 = <H 9686< <= 5; < =6 6 =;56= 6=966

56 = 8595 56 ;6 = 6=96+ 9;56 95 6; < = :< 56

8=5=;56=+ 8=5=:W. E;+ 85@6@=9; = ;+ ;;H6 =6 $itteleuropa

<6=6<6 =6 6@6 = <<; :65 =6 <6<6 < 1*'(+ =6 9<<6

=66@6 8@= =;56 < = 985 9=;66= + < ;5 9<+

96@6 ;5 H.



9

A<9+ 56 == = ==>65 =6 =:6 6=966 6;6 = 8; 6>66< 9 59;

<= 985 6@@5: = = =6 ;55 6==H+ 8; + 9 =9;

;;; 9 95 < =6 =6 9<6 ;5<6 6 6+ 5 == <

65 = ;<65 =;565 6=9 > < = <6=; 6@=6< 85 =6 <856 6=966

<= E;% 6@+ 6 X: 5965 = ==: 6=96+ 6 865Y H<.

«A=9» :6@6 =@5;6< 85:5. @ ;<6; < =6 yeshivot < P=6+ 9 &6]@



9

F595 X: = <9;6 R; G6Y+ 5; ;<65 6=9 ;5 = 9;65

;6=9<+ 685>6< < <65% 5,@5 6=9,5. S==5 ;56 : =6

9686 < = ;5 8=6 6 < =@5;6< <9 «=6 6<6 < =6 85; =

85». E 9 = 65:65 < ;9; = shtetl + 656 6 7;+ 6< =

> X =6 >Y ;H6 >>5 6==H.

L <H 6=96 66@6 5 6=96+ ;<6 =6 86+ 85+ : @5>6 P=5 85866+ 5H6 69=65 « 6 =6 6 6=966+ 6 =6 =6 9<6 6=966». S

9@65:+ @> =6 66 9 6@;6= ;56 =6 69=6 = :56 < =6

9>=<6< 6= <= := !I! = 8<H6 68=65. N 8H6 :65 <;<6< <H6+

56 = 6 X9 6=Y < >5. S: 9;56 P=5+ 6 865 < =6

=656 6 :56 6=6 6 ;5:6 6@596<56 6 =6 <6 < 5 6=96+ = <H <

A=966 @5>>5 9 :58 ; < <6H9 6;6 ;=5 = 556<. E;

;698 <@ = 6= 6;9;9+ + : 55<6 = 6;5+ ;< 6

5=6;>69; 6>+ 98656 ;5 86H. E 86=6@56 <= H 5:6< 5 R<=

P5=+ « =6 A=966 6;55 6 ;=5+ 5 <H 56 >; 85;6@=». L >5; 6 5= 6= 9 = 6;9;9 6=9+ = > X9 9 86=86@=Y+

= 6 D5+ F566.

S 9@65:+ 56 P=5 @56 =:< = ;59 «;<6<» 8656 <5@5

= >=6@6 6 = <H ;5 H ;+ ;H6 ; =6 56 @=:+

;5. N >H6 6 H 99 9 6 9<6< < 6:5+ 56 < 6 5=:

6;56=+ + 86=6@56 < O;; B65+ 9 6 «9<6< < <;». C9 56 =

==699+ @;6;+ = <H 9686< 6; :58 985;65 :6= =

<H. XL <H 5;6=+ 85 <;6<+ 985;6@6 < 9< 9 <;;.Y E

965 865;+ = =@5 < P=5 <<6 6 <9;565 =6 8<6< < <;6 8=H;6. N < 7;5665 + 9 9<6<+ 859656 =6 5<6 =@56= 9<56<6 <= 8;5

8=H; 6=9 85+ : 6+ =6 7;596 5<6. I= = <9; <=

=@56=9+ = 6 <= 6 < ;=5+ = 98= 66 =6 6=<9566+ 6; 66

= 99. A <56 < = <H < =6 5: 6@@5: 65;6 < E586+ 8=H;6

56 96. F5 5=6;>69; 8+ <+ = 5 >;65 6= P65;<

C9;6+ + 6; < 1*33+ = ;6 6=96 6 >+ 6 95H6 9 @ 5;6 >5

= 9 9 569; 856=+ 9 85:5696 < 9:56. A <56 <

= <H 5;6=+ >H6 6 H 99 9 7;56 X85 ;65 6 < ==Y «=6 ;556 <

6=;5 =569+ G;+ 6; F;».

E 96+ = <H 6=96 6==6@6 9< A=966. D 6H ;56:<6 56

<@=% = 5=;65 <;5<+ 6@H6 85>; <;. P=5 6 6; 8<

8656 <65 6 78=6 566= 6 =6 686<6< < 55 9 6% =6 :6;>6 6 65=

85;<H6 ;=5+ = 8;55<6< 6 1*33. S <<6+ 5; 6< 56 =

<H 5;6= >>H6 ;5 = 55 =6 9665 < 865; 85 9==65+ 1*1',

1*2( 8<H6 8565+ = @5+ = 6 =6 8;5 55 M6<6] T5@=]6. N6<



9

8<H6 96:65=. D + 8 8<5 <65 5<; 6 = 8595 59 5H@= @5 =

:<+ =;565 6 O<; 1*42. N 6@H6 85<; =6 ;56 966. S

9@65:+ ; 5;6+ >> = 3( < 5 < 1*33 9 6=9 < 6 =6 @5=6+

8< <65 < ; 6=: 6 6<8;65 8; < >;6 8 686=H8; <=

5:9 < ;=5. #+ 85 ==+ 8 6 ;<6 5;6 6 6@6<65 A=966+ 9 <H

8586565 8656 = 85+ 6 = @;9656. A < ;6+ 6 < ;5 < =6 8@=6



9

<H6 6@H6 A=966 1*33 9:5 <56; = 6 :; 6H+ 6 <56 <

5;6< 596 8=6+ @5>>5. #+ 8 6 ;<+ < 596 >=;656 <65

56 =6 A=966 6. A=:+ 9 <<; <= <6<5 <= D; B6]+ >65

6 =:65 :5 6 =6 95 = + 85 8555 <65+ 8;55<6< 6 =6 <ristallnacht

< 1*3'+ 6; 6@6<65 A=966.

C9 5+ =6 ;56:<6 < = 85>>; ;69@ 56=. S= 6== 67859;6< =6 56+ 96:6 @==6 < 6==6 =;56 5@5 6= <H

@=:65 E=6 C6;;+ 9<6<6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ «9 ;=; :5 785<

6=9» 8< 985<5 8=69; : 85<5=6. S= 6== 68==< 6

<6 ;66 < = 8@= 956< < 6;5 + S6@6 F566

= <=5 < =6 56H <:6556<6. F 6 85<<6 558656@=+ 85 =6 9<6< <H6 <

C;5586 8< 5;55 < : 9<+ = 8<56+ =6 =;56 6=966 6

=6 85;H6 6 6 =;56 >56=+ 6 <6< 5<<6 6 6 =;56 5:6=

X ; =6 ;;6 < <5+ 9 6+ =6 =;56 < 6 85>6 7;6Y.

# ¿ 85< A=966? P656<69;+ 85@6@= 85<56 9 = 86H <=> 985 6@@5:+ 85 = <H 6=96 6@H6 ;:56< =6 =;56 < 6 =6

9<6 6 7;;+ 9;56 = <H 9686< <= 985 6@@5: 565 =;56

>6 + 6 9<+ 9 = 6 < V6+ 9 <;;6 < =6 <= R. C=;56=9;+ =6

78= <;5 < = <H < A=966 :56 865; 9 6@H6 < 6;559;+

6 9 85>66 8556 < = 56 6; < 1*33. # 6 6H+ ; 8 @;965

=6 85<<6 < A=966. E= 6=9 6 <6< < 5 =6 =:6 < =6 9<5<6< 8656 = 85>6

6856 6 5 58. #6 =6 =:6 < =6 8@=6 86=6<6+ ;<

;<+ < T] 6 C69@5<:+ <@ 5 686 < =5. S <<6+ ; <@ = 6= 7< =6

95; < = <H. P5 5; ;<+ <6865 H ;> =6569; ; 56<6=%;5 1*(( 1*33+ = 4( 85 1(( < = 859 N@= < H6 H96 5 6 A=966 <<

1*33+ = 6 < 6 ; 86H < 6<6 <. C;6 =6 ;56+ 5H6 ;5:6 95

:5+ < = 5:6< 8596< = N@= ; >=>5 6 >;65 = 86H :596

<8 < 1*4"+ <@< 6 «7;:@= ;6=:6 < =6 =:6 = 866 < A=966»



9

C68H;= '

DESTINOS DE LA $#%%L:R;=!

S985 8=:5 98=65+ = <5 ;5+ = ;59 ::5. S ;6

6 :56 6;=6 85 =6 65;:56H6 ;5:6 65 < 6=6 @;><6< 6 8; 6 9<

6@;6=9; 85; 6 =6 8=H;6 6= 5 < = 85:5696+ 9 6 =6 56=<6<.

L ;56<5 = <8=9; ; < ;6 56 =6 <=:H6 =6

8=H;6 <566 < . L 5H+ 9 ;566 =H6 =656 @5 = 9686+ >5;

5;56 = ;6;6=+ «6;56=». L6 956 = < = 9@5 = 9686 @=:6

6 = 65;:56+ 6 9<+ 6 6<8;65 < 8=H;6. ¿C9 <@ <965 6==

=:65 56: >65 9@5+ 6== 9@5 6 69@6< 6=9;? S

956 9@5 6=;56;>+ ¿= 6 =:5 9 = 8586=? S = 9@5 669@6<+ ¿<56; ; ;98 6 55<65 = 6;55?

M 6;=6 =65 6;5H6+ < =6 <6<6 < 1*2(+ 6 55<6 6 = =;5 O=+ =6 68;6=

5:6+ 6@H6 < C5;6H6 =] = <6 ;5 865;+ 9 ;89 6=;56;> 6

=:5 X85;69;+ ; 6Y <56 = 9@5 8586= < L:56<

S6 P;5@5:. E = 6;=6 @5; < 556 1*)(+1 656 ;: 6; 9H+ L>> :

<5@< X;5 865;Y 9 L9@5:+ 85 V=::56< 6 85<< = 9@5 <

S;6=:56<+ = 6 866< 6 =6 ;56. D@5>] L@=66 6 5>6 = @;H;=

XR6:6 L6@6Y+ 85 9;56 C=+ R96H6+ 855>6 6 556 6 9@5

:65 X=>5Y+ 6 ==6 < ;89 6=9 X=6@5:Y + 86H+ < :;5 9@5 6=9.

E : ; =6 ::56H6 9 8656@= < =6 <=:H6 =6 8=H;6

C;5586+ 6 = 56 85+ 6 <56 < =6 8H=6 <;6= < E566 X=

<969 «;; 58»Y+ =6 5: 65 < 5;56 < 68;6<6+ 6

66 =:65 6 =5 :6 >5 < =6 «E586 ;56=»+ 85 698=69;

=6 <6 X;6= 9 O= L@6+ M P6=59Y. C9 ;= <85 < 6=:6 =6 <

8; 6@= < =6 E586 ;56= 9<6 X=6 $itteleuropaY+ < ;6= 8; 98=6

65+ ; :56 86 69@:W<6<. E 56=<6<+ 56 6 65< @5 =

<@ <5= =6 65;:56H6 = 6@=6+ 6;6= ;5. P656 =6 &uide Bleu 566 <;5:556+ «= E58 C;56=» ;6@6 < B6>56+ A;56+ :5H6+ C=>66

#:=6>6. E = 9686 6=96 6;55+ 85@6@= =6 =6 965 865; <

D69656+ 85 = 5;+ = >6== <= P+ 85 = 5+ 6;6 =6 8579<6< < V65>6+ 85 = ;+

=6 ;6 < F=6< =6<6. P5 9 865;+ >; 9686 7;<H6 = 8; 9 6= ;

< L 6@656@6 = <=;6 <= D6@.

D 9656 @6;6; 6@;6=+ = 9686 6=96+ =6 E586 ;56= =H6 =5 A=966



9

95 <+ = 56 <= > S65 I985 R96 «< =6 6 :596». N >6+ =

8; 8=H; 859: < =6 E586 ;56= $itteleuropa 5=66 =6 ;56 < =6

6 66= 6=966 786 9856=+ = := !I! !!. S ;< 8595

5:6= 59;6 6 F5<5 L;. L6 $itteleuropa < L; 56 6 5: 96 856=966



9

=H6 B=:6+ =6<6+ D69656 S6 6 7;<H6 6;6 =5 @6 865; < =

B6=6. D8 < 1'4'+ 6<+ 85 99;+ =6 :9H6 6@@5: 865 8@=+ =

8; 6<8; :69; V6. B965]+ 6 ;56@6 =6 G56 A=966+ ;698

;56@6 85 =6 $itteleuropa. S 9@65:+ =6 56 <= 985 = ;59 5@5 =6

88=65<6<+ @5 ;< <56; =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ 6< =@5 < ;6= ;H;=+ @56 <

F5<5 N696+ :5 =6 8:556 <56 6 <6< 96 + 6 =6 8;5+8=H;6+ <= R 6=9 A;56,:5H6. N696 ;6@6 86< = =6 ;556

985<<6 ;5 = 5H VH;=6 = 9; V:+ ;69@ 6 :9H6 96

8=H;6 565H6 = B6=6 6;6 6<;565 O5; P579. S $itteleuropa ;6@6 =

69 H6 B5=H B6:<6<. A N696 56 =@56= ;59 <6< 68 6 =6

R8@=6 < 965+ ;=5 : @5>9;+ de facto+ 6=: 9=65 6 ; 8;+

8 6 85 ; =6 69@ :596 6@H6 698=6< 85;<H6 =6 :9H6 <

A=966 @5 ;<6 E586 X=6 E586 ;;6=Y.

A56 @+ 7; 6 :<6 >5 < =6 $itteleuropa+ 9 5; << = 8; < >;6

;5. G:569;+ 9 5;5:<6 85 = ;+ 6 9 6@5;6 85 = 5 = ;.S ;56;6 < =6 «E586 ;5,5;6=»+ 6 << 9 «=6 5: 5;6= <= ;;

58+ << 685796<69; = 5H E=@6 6;6 =6 ==656 56 << = 965 B=; 6;6 =

965 N:5 = A<5;».2 E; ; ;< << = 8; < >;6 ;6; 9 9 < =6

;56 6=. ;569;+ ;6 5: < 9 9 6 865; < E586

6= 969; <;;6 < =6 5: <;6= 5> ;96 < 5><9@5 6:5656

<8<6 6986 6;6 = := !I!. E ;+ ;6 E586 ;56= < = 6;:

985 6@@5:+ 6 68;6= X6= :6= = = < ;55;5Y 6==6 6 < ;6

;6<6 6 5: + 9686 <= ;; 58+ = 6@5H6 <5@5 9 «;56=».

P=H;69;+ 6 8; < ;6 «E586 ;56=» 7856 ;6=:6 85 = 9856@@5:. E= ;55;5 < ;6 >6;6 6:=956 < 5: 66=<6<+ 7;<H6

<< = =6: < C;66+ 85 = ;+ 6;6 =6 5;56 < M=<6>6+ 85 = ;+ <><

1*1' ; ;6< X> 857;;Y + =6 6;6=<6<+ ; 5865;< ;5 < ;6<

<;;.3 D< 1*1'+ =6 ;56 6 6;6 >>5 = 66=;6

<965 «85 < 6» X->lkerkerker Y ;:6 6 96: 9 :6;>6 < = 5

<= 9856<5 F56 & X1'4',1*1$Y. D + 85@6@=9; = 985

55<6 ;6=:6 ;< 6;: ;55;5. E; 6@5H6 585<< 6

;985. A 6< 6 < = E;6< 58 6 95;+ 9 ;98 856<6+

< 5: 6 :56< @56 < =6 =;56;56 8 65= 56+ R@5; M=+ &65=6> 6g]

M5=6> 5=h6+ 686 78 ;556<5 =;565 =69;65 <. L6

78+ 9 >59+ 596 =6 5:=6+ 8; = =6 9656>==6 >=6

Radet2kymarsch XLa marcha Radet2ky Y+ < &8 R;+ 956@6 =6 965H6 5;58;>6+ <<

= H 5;6=+ 5;6 5H6 6==6.

L6 ;6=:6 85 = R@5; M= <9 6]66 X85 =6 6= < =6 <@=

965H6+ k? k . _kaiserlich und k>niglich+ «9856= 56=»`Y4 8 8<56 ==:65 6 5>>5.



9

N @;6;+ 7;6 ;6 @6 8656 = ;96 < 8<5 < =6 E586 <96

< < ;;65 ;565 6=:6 ;<6< ;5586 >6=; ;5 A=966 R6.

D8 < V56==+ = 8595 < ;6= ;; = 8; 56 < =6 «P;;

E;;»% C=>66+ #:=6>6 R96H6+ ;<6 ==6 ;:56<6+ = ;< =6 865;+ 85

6;:6 5: <= 985 6@@5:. F566. L6 P6 E;;+ <;; 99@5+

5H6 565 @= <8<; = D6@+ = :5. L6 8596H6 < =6



9

A=966 ;=566 ; 85; 86656 < 66<9+ 85 8=6 <

8:556+ = :@5 @5; @ 6=:6 =6 < <56 <6@66. E; 8=6 ==:

6 6 :6 865;. N6<6 9 =5 =6 :556+ C=>66 >=>5 6 5=65 <6

6>56@= 6 6 5856 < =6 P6 E;;+ ;5655;6<6 8=6;69; :65+

699 >6:+ < 6 <56 <6@66. U ;5 85; 5=;65 @655< 85 =6

8596H6 < M+ ;69@ =< = 8=6+ 9 9 5+ < 6 <56 @6=6+ =6= 6@H6 < @;> 9;6 << 6H6 ;98 ;6@6 = 985;6; 586=< <

T; D9;5>. E = 6 58=65 <= 985 >;+ $itteleuropa 9 @+

<6= < =6 <;<6< ;5586 95: < > ;5 = 6;5 < =6 5:% <56+

6>=+ 5<+ g+ V6<6+ Mi ;5. T9; G65; A =6 6 <5; 65;6<69; 6=

65965 956@6 6;5+ 66 A;56,:5H6+ 6<=6;+ «9 6== < #6=;6». D + ;56 =6

5>= < 1*'*+ @ @5> ;; < 5565 @= ;56= = < ==6965

«:58 < Vg56<» X V:56<Y+ 596< 85 P=6+ :5H6 C=>66 85 =

6=+ = 85;<H6 56 86565 6 = ;6< 6=;6 9 «6>66<» < = 9

«5;566<»+ 956 6 >5 6 =6 U E586 < = ;:56 9 568<. E =685;6+ = < =6 56 >;6 ;6 5: 6 ;5@< 6 58565 6 965 <6<

;5586+ + 6= ;565+ 6 6<65 =6 <;:56 < = ;556 = 985

6@@5: 85 =6 56:9;6 < C=>66 #:=6>6. E 96+ = < ==65 =

< <6865 6 96<. S6 9 5+ 6 >>9 =6 56 < =6

;56 586 =6 7;H6 6 <96<6 985;6; < @= ;59< 6;656 <

@6=65; ;5 = 8<5 < A=966 R6.

S 9@65:+ 7; 6 ;556 >656; <= 8; < $itteleuropa E586 ;56=

9 8=:56 =6 ;6=:6 <= 985 6@@5: = < < 6=: ;5 @= ;59<

;5 R6 A=966. E =6 <;: ;5 «;5» 855 «==» 55 = @5@65 6= ; 6= 5. E; ;9; < 855<6< 7=>+ : 6+

< >> = ;5 < E586. D + =6 < :556 9<6= <56; =6 :556

5H6+ = 6; ;< = «O;»+ 9 6H6 ==6965+ ; < <;:5 <= «E;» +

<< 1*4"+ 8656 <565 5;69; < = 86H :@56< 85 5:H9 6=;6.

A56 @+ 56 865;=659; 5=>6; 8656 C;5586 :56= + @5 ;<+ 8656 =

985 6@@5:+ 85 6 5;56 ;5 = 6 <5; >6569; 9 «6>66<»

«5;566<»+ «9<5» «;56<6=»+ «>=6<» «@5@65» 55H6 6 ;56> <

;55;5. P656 ;65 6 =@56< ;6<;6+ = 85H8 M;;5% «A6 986 =6

L6<;56» X=6 :56 655;56 @6 < V6 66 = ;Y. # =6 86=6@56 «A6» X+ :

;<H6+ 98=6@6 55<6<Y 56865 = <5 < 6 865; < =6 E586 ;56= @5 =

;5+ 9 =6 @56 <= 5;5 <9 . E. F56 X1'4',1*(4Y 6< =6

B>6+ 5 5 << 7;H6 56+ 8=6+ 596+ 6=96 <H+

5@ !us 'alb"!sien X9esde $edio !sia+ « <5; =;56= 96;»Y." G5:5 >

R5+ ;5 5;5 6< =6 B>6+ = < 96; 656 6= @6;65 =6 6 9

«M6:5@6».$ E 6 5: =6 ;< = 9< ;6@6 =6 5;56 < 6 ;56 «A6».



1

P656 = 6=96 65;+ = =H9; = 8656@6 < = => 8656 = =>+ < =

56;6 8656 = 56;6+ < = 5@ 8656 = 5@+ < = 6=@6 8656 = :65+ < =

596. #+ < + ;<6 =6 <6< 6@H6 6 5;56 ;5 =; 65; < ;5+

;56<6= 9<5 + 6 X85 985Y+ =6 5;56 <H6 = =H9;



1

; =:WH;. C6< = ;558 >H6 6 H 99 9 6:; < =6

>=6 5; 6 =6 @65@65+ 56 8; 8=:569; 8579 6= 569 < =6

855<6< 566= =6 7= ;6.

C9 ;59 8=H;+ 85 = ;6;+ =6 «E586 ;56=» 68;6@=. ¿Q 6@ <5 6=

58; 6; ;59 =;56=? ¿E7; 6 6=;6 =;56+ =6 65; =6 6+ 86

5;56 5:6= <5@=?E ;98 7; ; ;8 < =;56 «;5586»% =6 < = 9686< + 96

865; < $itteleuropa+ < =6 =6 9<6+ @6 9<<6 <H6+ < =6 7;6 6 < E586

6@H6 >>< @6 =6 :9H6 < =6 Bildung 6=966. P5 6 7;+ 6 @5>>56 6

;=5 6=:6 =6 < 9:56;+ 6 ;56< 6+ L<5+ N>6 #5] L

[:=. E56 ;5586 85 ;5 56. P595+ 85 = = ;5 ;56= < E586

= 6=9 =6 85956 =:6 ;566= < =;56+ 6+ = <H6 = ;< 58

=; 6@H6 56+ ;698 =6 6. L6 6 < =6 :9H6 =;56= =:WH;6 6=966

7;<H6 << = R 6 =6 5;56 5;6= <= 985 6@@5:+ << E6<6>6 6;6 =

;55 < = B6=6. P656 =6 965H6 < 6 8H=6+ =6 68;6= =;56= 56 V6. E=6 C6;;+< =6 <6< < R+ = @6 D6@ @=:65+ X < < 5 6Y > 85 =;56+

6@= 5@ 6=9 6;6 = < 6:;6<6 ><6. D;5 < ;6 6+ = 6=9 =

56 =6 =:6 ;566= 859656+ ;69@ =6 =:6 9<6; =6 6= = 85>H6 <

8@= 5: 9 5;566< 8<H6 6<5 6 =6 9<5<6<. . E. F56 785 < 596

656;5H;6 ; <6= < =6 =;56 6=966 9 9< < 9686 >56= 5=6;

@5> «S==5 B65J»+ : =6 8;6 < =6 5;6 < >=9 < 896 < S==5+

: 866 85 =6 96 < >65 < = 6@;6; < 6 59;6 6=<6 < G6=6% 9

8=6+ <H 698 5; X56Y. P656 ;< ==+ 8 95:5 <= 866< 6=

;5.E 6+ 56 < = = 6 8@=6 = 6@=6@6 6=9 X+ 95 <+ =6

9@6 < =6 =:6 =;5656 6=966 <6=; 6@=6<Y+ 56 ;H8 ;6 =;56

;5586 85;56 6 :58 99@5 6@=6@6 ;69@ ;5 <96 85 ==+

8<H6 6;65 9 8; ;5 8@=. AH+ 6@5H6 <5 = 6;; ;558 6==6@6

6=:6 56<6 < =:6 =;56+ 9 E;;5 S9;+ < T5;+ 9 < 85

<9 =;565 < I;6= S>> X«= ;6=6 6=9»Y. N 66=<6< 95 6

<6< 9956 < ;6 $itteleuropa = D6@ 6 ;5 ;5;+ C=6<

M6:5+ 6;56= < 7;565<65 5 <= A<5; << ;56 =6 =;56 ;6=66+

6=966+ :656 >656 =;56 =6>6+ 6 > 9@6 = <6=; 698 <

=6 6 556= =6 96 9=;=;56= < :56 85; 965H;9.

S:<% = 6 865; < E586 =6 85;6+ = =6 965H6 < = 6@@5:

= 8@= =; ;6@6 8586=9; < <H+ + 6;6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+

585;6@6 = 1( 85 1(( < =6 8@=6 < V6 85;6 6 9 =>6< < =6 <

B<68;. A; < 1'4'+ :56 9<<6+ 6@H6 ;6< 7=< < =6 68;6= <= 985

6@@5:. E 96 965H6+ ;565 ==6 =6 :<6 9;6< <= := !I!+ 85<;



1

< =6 <6< 86 < M56>6+ E=>66 :5H6+ = ;98 ;69@ < 5:

9 59;6 < = U566. D< = 8; < >;6 =;56=+ ; <H 9686<

>H6 6 H 99 9 «;558» 6=96+ ;; < <;665 < = <H

5;6=+ ;56<6=;6 6@=6; < H<+ 9:565 66 = ; = := !!+ 6;6

;5965 ><6 = 99 5 < :6 < =6 A=966 < ;=5. D + 1''(+ = 9

<H < = shtetls < G6=6+ =6 <6< < B5< X >; 9= 6@;6;+ )$+3 85 1(( <



1

<HY+ ; 5@56 =6 <6 859656 7=>69; =6 <

=:6 6=966 + 6< =6 6;5<6< :65 = 859+ <<5 >=;6<

86= 6; =6 C5; I9856= < &;6 < V6.)

L6 <; 8;6= ;5 = ;stjuden <H 5;6=+ <5+ = >>H6 =

6;: 5 < P=6+ 5865;< ;5 R6+ P56 A;56 = := !VIII = *estjuden

<H <;6= 9 8H69;+ = < = ;55;5 5<;65 XrblandeY < =6965H6 6@@5: 865 6@5 5:< =6 B>6+ << = ;5 =6 =; <H6

69=6<6 9686<6 + 85 ;5 =6<+ =6 965H6 <6@=6; ;5 865;=659; ;

6 6= <= := !I!+ <8 < 1')" <656 =6 U>5<6< < C5J;+ < =:6

6=966.

E ;55 =;9 =:65+ 85 ==6965 «;558» 6 = 8@= < ;6 =;56

85 = := !! = < :65. S=69; = 8<H6 <;65 6 865;5 < =6 ::56H6+

85 5:H9 5 >5. D56; = := !!+ = 6@;6; < 6 <6< 6;6

;> <6 85 ;56>H6 =;5 V6+ 6 8 ]=9;5 < <;66+ 6H 9

P5@5: X ;69@ 6 < 9 P B56;=6>6 ;<6 =6 <6<;5586 ; >65 9@5Y+ 6 < <6<6 < =6 865; :656 < A;56,:5H6+

< C=>66+ <= 6;=; 6=9 E=>66+ < =6 C=>66 9;6 X+ 85 @5>

;98+ 89;6Y + < >+ < E;6< =>6. S 56 <H ;69 85

E;6< 66= 858 < «6:5 ;556» P6=;6+ ; =6 6 86;56 6 =6 8<H6

>=>5 =6 956<6 56+ 6= :6= &8 R; X< B5<Y+ =6 6;:6 965H6 < F56 &+

;56;6@6 6 ;<6 6 = 99 8;9 696@=. # ;+ 9 ;< = 9<

6@H6+ 6@H6 < 8656 >=>5.

P5 ;69@ 6 < 8656 985 6 =;56 H 996. S 99; 96;56=+

865;=65+ = :56< ;6;5 856 =6 6;<56= < ;98+ 5>H6 6 =6 685685;6=+ 85 6 6569; 5=:6+ < =6 @5:H6 : < = = < =6

<6< < =6 E586 ;56=. L < <96 = @=>65 5=65 ;5

;5 <= > ;5 5@6 6< V6 9<5 <8 < 1'$( + 9 85;<H6

;56 =6 <55;6 < =6 5>= < 1'4'+ «86=6+ 65;= :=6+ ;5 < :@5

;;6= 6=;6 =;56»%' ;5 = =;9 :56 =6 >5<6<+ = B5:;6;5+ = <

=6= 9 < 585;6 <= A5; =6 C6 N6;56=+ =6 Ó856. # 6 6H+ ;6 6=;6

=;56 ;5586 85;H6 6 6 =; =;6 5=6;>69; X6 >+ 6@=;69;Y 5<<6+

8 6 =6 ;; <6;>6 85;<H6 6565=6 6= ; < =6 8@=6. S6 9

5+ = >6=569 6= 58; 56 < 9 6 ;5 8656 =6 965H6 < = ;6

;6; 9== < 6@;6; < =6 965H6 6@@5:. ¿C; < == 8<5H6 6@5 ;6<

=6 96 < ;< = ;6;5 < =6 856 < 6==6 965H6? E 1*13+ =6 8586 <6< < V6

5H6 6 < 9== < 6@;6; 6 6=6 < 5; 685796<69; ;

6;+ << = 65 =6 :=56 < =6 96 6 < 9656 >6.

N @;6;+ = <;5 < ; =H9;+ =6 =;56 < $itteleuropa+ = 6= =:6<6 6

6 =6 =:6+ ;6@6 < 6>6<6 <><<6 85 = 6 <= 66=9+ 6 = 99



1

:= !I!. A 865 < =6 @56 < ;56<;5 ;6@=+ =6 =;56;56 5;6 =:6 66=

;65 < 8 <6 56 < 86H < 5:. E;5 = =;5 ;558+

56 < =6 ;556 6+ ¿; 6@H6 5H6 6@5 @5 V5=]j &6 N5<6? 56 <

:5H6+ ¿; = ;56@6 V5965; &]6? E 56=<6<+ =6 <>5:6 = <

C;5586 6=;6 6 =6 >;6 = 698 5=6;>69; ;6 ;5666= 9 =6 96

=6 8=H;6. L 6=;6 :65 56 9657;6 6 =6 6;5H66+ 6 = 56 85



1

68;6@6 = =<56: ;=;6= < V6. B65;] &6k] 859 < B5]5 M6=5. E=

5;9; 7;H6 =6 85>6 6=86 < A;56 66 = > = <H+ =6

; =;56=+ 6= 865 96=+ ;5 =6 A;56 6;=6 =6 =;56 6@@5: =65+ 656

;6 6<956<6+ 56 86=86@=. N 56 =;56. P656<69;+ = 698 <= ;5;9;

=:5 < =6 =6 9<6 H @5>> 95 =9; 9 6 C;5586% =6 <66 <

5: =6> :65+ 9 6 ;<6 =6 5: = ;56; 96= < = >=;6 H:65=6 85;6 < 5;6 @6=6 :656 < S;56+ L5 =9. S <<6+ 9

858;@= = >6@=65 9=;=;56= X96:65+ + ;6=6+ H<Y <= <6=; >

6=: 865< 6 6 :6;59H6 ;5586+ 9=6 = 8=6; =6 @@<6 < >+

6;5H6 6=96+ + 8=6+ :65 =6> <= 5.

D< =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ 9 6 << = 6= < = 5:H9 6=;6

58+ =6 >6 =;56 < =6 E586 ;56= 6 <6< 8=>56<6 85 ;5 69@ < :56

6=6<% =6 9665 =6 78= ;6 96>6 < =9; < 7; 6 < ;+ 9

6 < =6 =;56 < 966 9<6= 956=6<6+ = := 9 =:6 ;6<6 < =6

96 >56=. E= ;5 < 6 >5 ;6<< < =6 =;56 < 966 956= 7=> < C;5586 55 6H < 9 78=6. P5 = ;5 <

69@ 6 < 56= 8656 =6 E586 ;56=. L6 9:56 = 66; =;> <

95H6 66= =;56= 865;=65+ < <H 6=96 6 >5;< 6 86H

8=566= 9 P=6+ C=>66+ #:=6>6 R96H6 86H 966=+ 6=

865 6 98=6< =6 98=<6< =;56= < <6<. L6 69=6 9 6;:6 < =6

<6< < B56;=6>6 XP5@5:+ PY+ =6 55<6 9 8; < ;5 < 8@=

=;56+ 6 <;: 6 H 996+ = 68=6;> < «85@56]»+ < = «@56;=6>6]» +

>< < =6 6 556= < E=>66+ <;596 656 = 65;5 < =6 68;6= < 86H. #+

9 8<5 5965 :6=9; =6 >; + = 99 6@ 65965 < <6< 9C5J; XC5>;Y L9@5: XLJJ+ L>>Y. $itteleuropa 6 85<< 6 < 656;5H;6

6=.

D= 99 9<+ 85 6 9 5=>6;+ ;9 = < =6 :9H6 =:WH;6

6=966. E= 6=9 6 <6< < 5 =6 =:6 566 < =6 785 =;6 ;5 = B=; A=@66.

N = > + 6< ;5 > :65 =>+

85@6@=9; 965 = ==6 := : < == 8< 8565

= ;5 86 6=9. E ;69@ + =6 6;6=<6<+ 6 85@6@= 6< 6

6@=6; 6;> < 6=9 98= 6 G; L:+ =<5= 9 9; < =6 =;56

=;6 9 6+ 9 ;5; <= 5;56 6 =6 9<5<6<.

D< 965+ =6 =;56 6=966 6 9656 =6 86;6 =6 C;5586. E = 6 =;56

66= ;5 ;56. L6 >6 =;56 < $itteleuropa =><. S =6 ;56< 5@

@5 ==6 9 6. S 9@65: 9 = 585;5 < = 5; =+

< 9656+ @66 9 :56 9<<6 98;5 >>5 ;56@665 56 <

8 ]=9;5 6<56<+ ;5 56 V6+ 85>>.

L6 $itteleuropa 8=H;6 =;56= 85; 6 866< 985@6@= >=>6. S=



1

8596 6 < =6 6 =6 656;5. L6 5;56 8656 =6 9H6 56 7;6

<= O<; 58 5; 6 =6 5: 5;6= <= ;;+ 6;6 55H6 85 9<

<= 985 6@@5:+ : 6==H = 656 55 85 9< < = 5 =6 U E586

698=6<6.



1

C68H;= *

CULTURA # «GNERO» EN LA SOCIEDAD BURGUESA EUROPEA+ 1')(,1*14

A 9<6< <= := !I! 9865 6 8@=65 G56 B5;66+ < 596 5:=65+ @56 <

556 @5 =6 856 ;6@6 =6 ><6 8@=6 56 ;56 85 6=5 56. E=

98< 9 <+ 6;5 <5; <= 6;6= *ho@s *ho _«Q » 6 >

85<; < =6 965H6 < = <9 =@5 9=65 < 556 @@=:56+ ==696@6 $en

of the %ime _«9@5 < ;5 ;98» . C965 ; ;< @5 = 85@=96 < =6

5=6 8@=6 85>6<6 ;5 = 7 =6 =;56 @5:6 < ;5 1')( 1*14 ;

69@ <;56=+ 8+ 85 65; < :6<.E= 69@ <;56= 96 655@6 5=>6;+ 85 85 =@5 < 556

6;559; =9;6< 6 = 9@5 <<56 =5 6 95. D + 6H6 ;98 $en of

the %ime ;H6 8 85;6 < 95 = 85;6 :56@6 < 596 6@;6=

;6= 98< X=<+ << 1'*)+ *ho@s *hoY 59; < 9656 =656. SH @

;; < 6<56+ 85 : =6< ;5 685796<69; = 3 85 1(( = " 85

1((.1 6;6 =6 :<6 :56 =6<6 9;6+ < = 6 ;6 ;;6 <= := !!+ ;5 6

;6 9 965 < 95 = =@5 < 556 8H < = «:5»

X gender Y% = 8=9; <= 9ictionary of Aational Biography 8656 1*)(,1*'( = 1" 85

1(( < ;56<6 96. L6 ><6< ;6@6 55 596=9; =6 95+ 97+ ;H6 =:65 =6 56 8@=6+ < =6 6= =6 6@H6 7=< 6; =6 =6 78

<+ 85 6H <5+ 696=H6 <><6=. Q 56=<6< G56 B5;66 = 9 @5: < =

86H @56 ;6< :@56<6 85 6 95 <56; 9 < ;6 6+ 6; <

6;5656 6 7 6 ;65 8; 6= = 58 < 856 8@= 5<+

6 68 =6 985;66 <= 69@.

D9 <65 :< 98= < ; 59; < =6 95 ; 6

<9 8@=6. L6 E78 A:=,566 =@5 L<5 1*(' + 9

;<6 =6 9;56 ;566= <= := !I!+ 6 = < H9@= =H6 6;;<

>:;. E;6 78 <;;6 85+ 85 85956 >+ 9@ = &: O=H98+=@56< ;6< ;5< 86=9; 8656 =6 6+ ;69@ 85 =5 86=6

86= 8656 = «;56@6 9». N 65 6=;6 865 <= ;< <= <+ 6 >6= =6

86 ;965 <56 < . E 8595 =:65+ + : =6 596 ;9856+

=6 65;;6 855H6 >65 @56 6= P6=6 < =6 A5; :56=+ 8H < «:5»+

6; 9;565= @6 = 6@6< <= «;56@6 9» :< =:65+ = C

I<;56= < =6 M5 85;; 85 =6 96 < 6==65 98= =6 7@



1

5H6 @5;6= 7 < ;56@6 = 86:6@6 85.2 L6 ; = P6=6 <= T56@6

F9 =@56@6 6 =6 95 ;6; = 56+ 85 = 6H6 9 86

6= <= :566 < =6 69=6 =6 <6<+ 6 ;5 < = @;H6 <><6=9;.

E; 69@ ;69@ 5=;6 ><; 986569 = 5;5 < = 96 =

=@5 < 556 6;: = ;7; < =6 >6 56. U 85;6 9 6=; < =6 95

9@56<6 6 @56 ;H86 < =6 85956 865; <= := $en of the Reign _«9@5 <=



1

5»`+ 8@=6<6 8656 =@565 = ;6 6 = ;5 < =6 56 V;56 :56 6==H

< 858 <5+ <@< 6 = =6 69=65 X <5+ 9 5966+ 6+ 86+

><6+ 696; ;5 >H= 9@5 ;5Y+ @ X= 8 6 = 99Y

6; 99@5 < 5< < 865; 5:6 65;5;6. L6 @56 < 556 8;55

; :6 :5<6< 6= 58; < 9 ;56;65 ;8 < 6+ 585;6<

656;5H;69; 85 =6 <696 @= 56= 85+ :56=+ =6 8@=6 ;<5 6 59;<=+ 6<6 > 9.

U ;55 98= <9;56 ; > 59; 8@= < =6 95 =

5 86=965 8656 6==65 95 856 =5+ 566@=9;+ =

68656; 55>6< 6 = =:5 < =6 95 =6 56 8@=6. E = >=9 6= <

$en and *omen of the %ime _«9@5 95 < ;5 ;98» ;6 95 6 6

<; 56 6@5 685@6< = 79 < =6 >5<6< ;6 6=;6+ + ;9856=9;+ ;

98< ;69@ 5==65 6=:6 ;56 <696 @=. M 6<=6;+ 69@6 85;6

65 <.3 Q 6 9 ==696;>6 =6 =>6<6 585;6 96 = 8595

6 < = > 859 N@=. E;5 1*(1+ 6< <5 85 85956 >+ 1*14+ ;5:65 6;5 > 6 95 X6 S=96 L6:5=+ =;56;56 6 B5;6 > S;;5+ = 859 <

=6 86 6 M65 C5+ = < 6+ < 6Y. D< + : 85H< 8;55 <

7; 9=65+ 66 >; 6 8585 98656@= < 859 N@= 9.

E 96+ 66 6= <= := !I!+ 6==69 6 ;<6 <;;>6+ E586 A956 <=

N5;+ 6 ;56;65 6 =6 95 9 856 = 99 ;< = <6@6 =6 <6< @5:6%

6=:6 6 = >65 + 6+ 6 6=:6 686<6< < =:565 9;6. E; 68=

< 9656 =656 698 9@= ;6 5=>6; 9 = <= <85;+ 6 =6 6 ;6@6

986< 6 <655==65. E = ;+ 8 6 <8 < ;;56 = 6986;

<><6= 96=+ 5 9 G56 B5;66+ F566 E;6< U<. Q 6;5 8656 5>=65 = 859;5 =6 95 = =6 66<6

98;56 6986; <><6= 85 56 <;665 + =6 < =;96 <6<6 <=

:= !I!+ ;6 56 ><6< 9 56<6= < = ;<9 6 865 . P5 <;6<+ 5;

;<+ = 5; 59; 6= :< 7 6; 58 < <>< 686 <

@;5 :56< =:5 >6 8656== 6 =6 5; 85 6>56@= 6 55 6 =6 95

6; 8<56 < = <5 = <= <>< @5:. F596= ;;6=9;+ =

59; < =6 <6<6H6 < =6 95 <95+ =6 965H6 < 86H+ 6;6 <8 <

1*1) 85 9 < < =6 5;6=6 < =6 ;<6+ ;9 =6 568< =6 85:5

<56; =6 85956 :556 9<6= 6 > =<6 ;6. E 1*14+ 6 : :@5 6@H6

<< >; 6 =6 95 85 < 6 9 ;65<+ = <5 < =6 95 6 >;65 596@6

865; < =6 ;; < =6 965H6 < ;6< < E586 A956 <= N5;. C9 <6; 9

<5;69; 5=66< =6 ; < =6 95 =6 56 8@=6% 1*1)+ =6 965H6

@5;6+ 85 > 85956+ ;; ;96 5H 59865H6 85 :6= = 95;

< 9@5 95+ =6 O5< <= I985 B5;.

A ; 6 < =6 95 6 =6 56 8@=6+ ;5H6+ ;6@6 =9;6< 6 :6



1

=6 865;=65+ =6 85;6+ 9 6;56=+ =6 9 < 9656 9 965;656

95 < =6 =6 9<6 6=;6. L6 6 78 5=>6; 6= 58;+ 9 985+ 6==6

= 698 <= ;5;9;. P5;69; ;<6 =6 ;56 596 < 6;><6<+ 856=

+ =6 =6 95 8<56 ==:65 6 5 8@=69; ;56 <8<H6 <= + =

55 96;56= =6 =656+ 9 6;5 6=6< 9@6. L6 965H6 <

95 < =6 =6 ;56@66<56+ 98=9;+ 8<H6 <85 < ;6 ;5 >;66. E= 98=



1

< <655==65 ;56@6 86:6< ;565 = 956< < ;56@6 ;H6 :6< 8@=

8656 =6 95 < =6 =6 9<6 6=;6+ :6< 7;; ;5 =6 95 < =6 =6

;56@66<56+ 8 ;<6 ==6 ;56@66@6 85 < + =6 965H6 < 6+ ;6< ;5

< ><6+ >H6 @=:6<6 X6 = 56 85 <6< 656Y 6 55 98=

5956<. P5 ;56 865;+ 5H6 = ;56@6+ 86= = 5956<+ 56 986;@=

=6 < < 6 <696+ < 6 =6 6856@6 =6 95 < = ;56; @5:. E6+ 6 6 95 < =6 9<6 :6656 <5 =6 <56@6+ ipso facto+ 696=6+

6 56 85 5@=<H6 9 >H;96 <65;6<6. E ;5 6+ 8=6;6@6 85@=96 <

<;<6< 6=. A<9+ =6 ;; <6;>6 =6 85 5:66<6 =6

66@6 ;565 =6 95 < =6 9<6 8656 =6 ;56 =6+ <6@6 56 <= 6=6 <=

5; 5;H6 6 6 8;56. P5 = ;6;+ = 95 < =6 95 @56

;< 7; 5=;6@6 < ;5 8@=. E 1'*1+ 6< 6@5H6 6< =5 6 9@5 >

*ho@s *ho 85 =6 98= 56 < @56 @;< ;H;= >5;65 < 85956

=6 85 6 =6 95 > H =6 8<H6 =5 85 ;6 =6 56. E =6 85;6+ 85 <+

; 68H;= 86 6 7=>69; < 95 + 85;H6 6 =6 @5:H6+ 6856@6 66<5 6 ==6 @+ 85 <;6<+ < 95 < 6 < 6= 855.

P656 ;5 858; 6;6=+ 65 6=;6 >;:65 7 =6 56 78=6 =

69@ 96< 9 655@6. E><;9;+ =6 95 < =6 =6 9<6 <6@6 ;565

=6 56 8@=6 5H6 6 85 <56@=. N 6@ :6 <<6 < 6<5 6 ==6

6 ;<6< 6;6 6@5H6 865< 5H@= X6=> 8656 8 5>=65Y.

T698 6@ <<6 < 8<5H6 6@5= :< < 6@5 ;6< = 68 <

;5 96= 985;6;% 8595 =:65+ < = >65 ;6< =6 8 < 6;5<6<

69=65 @5 95 :< =:65 96 9 5;6 =;;<+ < =

>65 5:H6 =6 ;; 6 =6 =6 95 5H6 6<5. 6;6 ; 8; 8656@= =6 56 85>6<6 8@=6 < = 7.

P5 56 @>6+ =9 65 68 =6 8 6 =6 9686 < =6 95+

; ;6 @;6<6+ 5566= = ;56+ = 8595 ==696 =6 6;

< 6=56 + << ;5 85;+ @5> 85 =6 6 <= := !I!. AH+ =6

S<6< P66=H;6 < V6 <@6; 1*() ;5 < 65;H= @5 =6 ;<6; <

9<6+ << 6596@6 ;6 6 = <6@6 ;<65 85 56 <966< 6 8656

:5 965<+ <956=6@6 6 = ;<6; >65 85 =6 =67;< < <;6 76=+

85 6@=65 <= < =6 95 56 68;6 8656 = ;<. L 866=;6

5@6;5 <6<69; ; :6=96;H6 ;5+ <<6+ ;6@6 ;5 = >65 9

;56<6=;6 5665 < =6 @5:H6 >6. S 9@65:+ 6 ; 9@5

685@6@6 =6 ;5<6 < =6 ;6<6 <6+ = 858 F5< 86@6 X 1*($Y « 5;

=6 95 :66 6<6 = ;< + ;+ =6 5; < =6 95 9565 ==.

A<9+ =6 95 8< :6=65 = 7; = 9@5 =:56 @=965 =6

76=<6<».

P5 ;56 865;+ <@9 =><65 6 <;5 < 6<6 6 @5:6 6 =6 =



1

<H6 6 85;<6< 6@H6+ 9 9H9+ 86<5 = <6@6 = 859 + 6 ;<6

:5<6<+ 86:6@6 = ; @> 6 :6 95 6 68656 < >@= =6

6;6=:656 < > «56» = 6@5H6 5=;6< = 68;65 ;56@6 5956< =6

685@6 < 86<5 ;56 :56 < 6;5<6< 69=65. P5+ < + ;6= 68 86;5

6. B6;6 <565 = 7;565<65 59; >> =6 <6 <656 596=

8656 6 = =;9 65;6 6 85> 6 =6 85956 :556 9<6=. E F566+ 9;56 =



1

95 < lycées 96= 96;> ;6@= ;5 = 33( 34(+ = ;;6= < ;6@=9;

9 <= 99 ;8 86 < : 1''( 6 13' 1*13+ = 596@6 6 6 6

85 6<6 ;5 . E G56 B5;66+ = 95 < =6 <656 96+ 1*13,1*14+

56 98656@= 6= < =6 96=6% 3"( ;56 4((. T5;6+ = < 6 6;+ ; 6@5H6

< 6H.

L6 <:6=<6< < ; 85 9 ;56;+ 6 8< 85;<5 <65=6 78=6. AH+ 9;56 =6 <6 <656 96 56 <= ;< :6;

I;6=6+ ;6 = )."(( 6=96+ = 59; 6 = P6H B6 S6+ 69@

1*(( 6@H6 =6 =6 <656 56 65; < 9== < 6. R6 ;69@ =<5 =

698 < =6 <6 >5;656 96+ <69 6 =6< =6 8@=6 < = colleges <

E;6< U<+ 85 5 98656@=. L6 > 9= ;<6; >5;656 6@H6 R6

1*1( >H6 6 <8=65 =6 56 < A=966+ F566 I;6=6+ 6<58=6@6 =6 < A;56.4

N 5 65 55<65 6H =6 85956 >5<6< 858565 86 6 =6

95+ 6 6=6 6 :6;>6+ 5 =6 < S6+ =6 <6<6 < 1''(+ = 859;+

6; ;<+ 6<56 956 8@= ;<6; < =6 E586 5;6=.Q 7;6+ + 6 56 96;56= 8656 ; 59; < =6 <6 96+

85 <H=9; 6@5 <<6 < ;69@ 6@H6 6 55=6 8;>6 ;5 =6 <=:H6 < =

86<5 =6 78;6;>6 < 9686 < 6. E 96 865; < E586 =

9+ = 86H 6;=,596 = ;56+ 6 ;<6 =+ 58 <

86<5 @5: 6@ ;565 965H6 < ;<6 =@56= 85:5;6

<5 6 ;6; 8; 85:5;6 9 ; < 9686 + 6=:

99; < 6= <= := !I! 858 <= := !!+ 68;65 <@H6 85565 6

<6 855+ = ;585;65 868= =6 ><6 8@=6 856=.

E; :6 ;6= 86<5 ;56;656 6 6 76;69; :6= 6 .P5@6@=9;+ =6 95 6==656 9 6=<6< 8656 6@55 =6 85;6 < =6 9<6 =6

< ;56 85 :65<6 6=:6 5=6 = < 565 6656 =6 96:

>6= < =6 95 9 5 865;=659; 68; 8656 = <6< 6. I= =6

<6<6 < 1*3(+ = 86<5 < =6 5;6=:566 R6=< F56]= 596@6 865; < 6 5< <

865; ;H869; @5:6+ < <H =@56= 8585 6;9@56< 6 9

56<6= = 6=;6 = <6 <<656 856=9; 6 =6 6

6;56=. = 6@5H6 855< >5=6 6=:6 =6 < ;56@6 6=." S 9@65:+ 5 :55

6H 99@5 < ; :58 @5: 85:5;6+ 6=: 99; 6;55 6 1*14+

==:65 6 68;65 ; > 9 698= 868= 6= 8656 6+ = 8656

95. E= 69@ 865 6@5 85<< ;6@= 568<. E R6+ = 95 < 95

;<6; 86 < 8 9 < < 9=+ 1*("+ 6 *.3((+ 1*11. E 1'*)+ = 6@H6 R

U< 56 < ;6 >5;656$ 1*21+ 69@+ 6@H6 6 9= ;<6;

>5;656 6 ;98 98=; X56 6 @6;6; 55 6 ;5 <= 95 ;;6=Y. # 9%

= 95 < ;<6; 96 85;6 = :58 < <6< 5=>6; 85;69;

69@ 6;6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ = 85;6 < 95 58; 6= ;;6= < ;<6;



1

>5;65 5 < 856<.) D == = 6@ =:5 =6 55>6 < 86<5

696@6 6 6 6 ;<65 6 6@H6 6;6< 6= 98=; 6= ;5965 =6 85956 :556

9<6=. E G56 B5;66+ = :6 ;56 ; 6= =;56= < >5;656 6;6 =6

786 66<96 < =6 <6<6 < 1*"( 1*$(. # 6 <@ @5>65+ < 6 < 86+ +

= 1*"1+ =6 >5;656 85<H6 < =6 9<6 6=;6 6 9<<6 =6569;

855 6 =6 < = >5;65.



1

E 6; 6 =6 =5<6< <= 69@+ = 6@ ;565. E G56 B5;66 865 ;65

5=66< = 6 <= 9>9; 9;6 + 5< ;5 <= =96 «>; 8656 =6

95»+ >5; 6 56 96>6 =6 85956 <6<6 <= := !!. XM ;: <

65 ;56 @5 ;5 86H.Y C5;69;+ = 56:9 < =6 <6<6 < 1*(( 585;6@6

6 6=;56;>6 8=69; 68;6@= 8656 95 8 >6= < =6 =6 9<6

6=;6. D + 1*("+ 95 6 6 65;6 865; < ;<6 =6 <6 @5;6 =<5;5 6<; 6= 9;6 nglishwoman@s Yearbook _«A65 < =6 95 :=6»+ 1*(" +

;5 < ==6+ ; ;5 9656 < <6+ 56 56=<6< >85<;6 < =6

A6 S56:;6 C5>6<56 U;6. E= 8uffrage !nnual and *omen@s *ho@s *ho

_«A65 56:;6 < =6 95» < 1*13+ 98< < 6 ;;6

9=;6; 6;> <= 9>9; 6>56@= 6= >; 9+ 9;56 85;H6

96 965H6 = 6 =6 =6 9<6+ 6 ;56; 6;6< = >= 9<6=; < =6

<6< @5;6.' D = 86<5 <;6@= < ;6 95+ 9 <= )( 85 1(( 56 6=

< =6 56 6596<6+ =;+ 9<+ 6@:6<+ :5+ 65;; 65;;6+ 96;5

<5;5 < =: 85>6<+ 6=; 65 >= 8=H; = 13 85 1(( 5665;56;6 ;556;; 9 <58 = 12 85 1(( 56 9@5 < :. L

9=;65 = =; ;H6 6 585;6 865;=659; <85856<6+ 6= :6=

= 86<5 7856 =6=. E;5 = 8 <;6@= < ;6 6;>;6 66<6

44 85 1((+ =6 85 ;56<6= =H6 9@5 < : 9 <;66<+

6@<6@6 @6;6; 9 =6 >6 85+ 9 = 85<9 85 @> =6 965H6

< =6 6;>;6 85;H6 6 =6 =6 6=;6 9<6,6=;6. T69@ <@ @5>65 6 ;5

< =6 95 ;56<6 = *oman@s *ho@s *ho ;H6 ;=+ 869; <9; @6;6;

786= 1*13. P656 98=;65 =6 96:+ @6;6 66<5 9 <= 2( 85 1(( < ;6

56:;6 8H6 ;H;= >5;65.S 5=6 =6 =;56 =6 < @5>9; =6 85+ =6 9<<6

96% 2' 85 1(( 56 96;56+ = 34 85 1(( 56 5;56 85<;6+ * 85 1((

<5@H6 6 H 996 9 65;;6 = 4 85 1(( 56 6;5 96. AH+ = )" 85 1(( <

=6 22* 856 596@6 6= 58; ;56@66@6 6;><6< <5;69; 5=>6; 8656 =6

56+ < 585< < =6 =;56.

E 6+ 8<5H69 68;65 + 6=: 99; < = =;9 >; ;5;6 6

6;55 6 =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ = 868= = 985;69; < =6 95+ :

@H6 =6 <6< @5:6 <96+ 69@ < 596 58<6 ;66= >65

86H. N 5 <5 ; =6 >6 95 9686<6 < =6 9<6 59656 9

6 9<;6 95H6 = ;5 :58 < <6< 85+ : 6 :5< 6= 965 ;

68H;=+ =6 >=<6< =6 = < 59; 8@= :5 + 6 << = 858+

>H6 6 ;6 95H6 9 =6 >6:65<6 < 5; 9 9 95+ ;6@6 6 8; <

:5.

N 5 == <5 = 6: < =6 95 9686<6 56 86=9; @>< 85

= 9@5 @5:. D56; =6 < =;96 <6<6 <= := !I!+ ;56 56



1

9:6 + 9 9H9+ =;567;6 ;5 = ;=;6=+ = ;5 ;=;6=

9686< < 5: =@56=+ 865 ;569;5 ;< 9<. L6 56 9 ;H86

;56+ >656 >5 >656 ;<6< ;56+ O;; :5+ 65= 56+

M@+ L9@5+ S;5<@5: =6 =;56 6 =6 6 55; < N; 6H6 68

= 9 ;5 6= 7=H6 = ;=;+ < = <5>6@6 =6 98;6 < =6

95 698 <56< 6;6 ; 9 6=9; 96= 56+ = 95 <



1

= 6+ ;= = 85+ <6;5 8656 69@ 7. L6 8=96 < 1*() ;5 =

866=;6 >+ ;6<6 9 655@6+ 98= ;H8. Q =6 =;56 ;6<6

;9; 976= < =6 >;< ;=;6= 96=6 G56 B5;66+ 9 85

98= =6 < = «A8;=» < C69@5<:+ 5=6 6 ;< 9=65.*

S 9@65:+ = 6H <@ 65 68 =6 ;6 X6 6 > =;6Y

8 96=6 6= 99+ =6 6<9 < 6;6 8; = 868= < =6 95@5:6 6 6@H6 69@6<+ 9 <6+ < + =6 ;6 < F5<. P < = =9; <

=6 :556 < 7 < < :=+ : = >H6 = >65 @=:56;+ 56 55 =6

76=<6< <8<; < =6 95 @5:6. L6 6 < =6 95 < 6=5 95+ =<6

=6 @5:6+ = H 99 56 > 6@H6 <6< < 5 = <5+ =6 9<;6 =6

956=<6< 8656 5 =6 6=<6< 6 56 =6 8ittlichkeit + =6 8innlichkeit . 65= 56 5@

956 >656 @5 ; ;96 + < + =6 =;56;56 6;5H66+ < S;=5 6 M=+

6@<6 9 ==. # ¿ 8<5H6 <5+ =6 56 < =6 5966 R;+ ; 56

56=;6? D 596 9 6;56=+ =6 =@56 76= 596@6 865; < =6 9686 96

=6 ;5H6+ =:65 6 <<6. E86=9;+ 85 <;6<+ 8656 =6 > @5:6 =;56+ + 85>+ <@H6 85965 virgo intacta. A =6 >;:6 ;56+ 9 985+ = 5=;6

<H= <55@65 =6 85;6 < = <59;5+ 9 6 6;65 = <H6 <;5. P5

> 56 6=:6 8656 <<65 < + 1*14+ = ;5 <H 85;;6; < E586 X@5

;< = H5= 9686< 8=H;6 =;56=9;Y+ 5=;6@6 9 9 = <595 =6

6 < =6 9<6 < 6; = 6@H6 < >; 6 6;5. L6 65556 76= < . G. == 6H =

8 < 96;. E 9 9 <H= <@55 55H6 = ;55;5 :; <= 6<=;5+

85 = 9 6@;<5 < 65 ;56 6= 58;.

AH 8+ ¿= 56 = 868= <= «:5» ; 85H< < =6 =;56 @5:6? # ¿9

;6@6 ;5 =6 56 8@=6 85>6<6? S 6 <<< = 9<= < = 868= 76=9+ =6 <6< @5:6 =6 <= := !I!+ >5;H6 6 =6 95 8586= 85;6<56

< =6 =;56 + 9 @+ < = >6=5 85;6= 956= < =6 ><6 = 9 «=>6<»+

9 6=: <;; < = >6=5 «55»+ 96;56= = 696=+ 585;6< 85 =

9@5. E =6 96: <= 8585 9@5 < : 6;+ >@=9; 6@55<+ 6

5; 6= 95 = 6 6556;56< ;56 < >=;6<. 6 6=: < >5<6<

; ;5;8+ = 89 = ;5 < =6 95 85 6;5 6 =;56=

5=6 = < < 9865;5 =6 =>6<6 < 6= < @6 6 = 5;+ 9

6 :6 86 96= per se. N @;6;+ 985<@= 55<65 6 =9;6 56= <=

868= =;56= < 6 95 @5:6% =6 85;6+ ;6@6 5;5:< ;6; 85 = 9@5

655:6@6 = 98= <= ;=; =6 56 8@=6 X6 =6 6=+ <<6+ 85;H6 =6 =;56Y

9 85 6 =6 95 = :6@6 =6 =6 < <6 XBildungY =6 6= =6 =;56 56

@@=. P5 <;6<+ =6 95 @5:6 =H6+ 85 :56 865; =H6 = ;56

95 5@H6 8656 956< 8H69; 9% >=6+ 9<6+ ;6+ ;==

6= 65;6. L6 :56< >=6 5;6 << = ;55 < ; 9< 9+ 9 =6 <

&6 A;+ ;56;6 < 95 >+ ;=:; >>6+ >> 6=6<6 = ;5 =



1

9@5 856 < 86 9 =6 656;56 < =;56 <96<6 «<;56»%

8 < 86+ 8 < <@ 665=6+ ;.+ ;69@ ;5 95 6 9;6=<6<

;56 ;569; =6 ;56;:6 =6 ;;6 <= 96;59+ <;6 ;< = <9

698 6 > 65 = < =6 686<6< < :; <9;6+ 9 =6 S56. B;;

;rgullo y prejuicio. E ;+ 9 =6 6 < @ 96;59 56 965< @

:5+ =6 856 =6 :; 56 985<@=.



1

P656<69;+ = 7;59 55 < =6 8<; <= 6 6= << 5=;

9 @> = 868= < =6 95 9 85;6<56 < =;56 X=<6 6H =6 kultura = ;<

>;+ <5+ =986 856= <9Y. P ;5 =6 =6 ;56@66<56+ =6 95

585;6@6 = >6=5 6=;56;> 6 = 9856@6 ;5 = 9@5+ 6 6@5+ =6

@65@65 =6 7=6 H6. E = 9< @5:+ = >65 <;:H6 < =6 56 966

55 + < 86+ < =6 @5@656 95H6 < = @= ;6< 85 96 85 ;55 =7; 6 865;5 < 98 < 6=6 9;6=+ 6; H6. E =6 @:56H6

6;@:56H6 < = 5< 55+ 6 9< =6 96<5+ 6; = 86<5+ =6

696 =6 69@ ;=;6= =;56= < = % D. . L6J5 @ 98= 6=

58;. D = ; 6865 ]=@55 F+ 9 ;6; ;5 «96» ;H8,<6=+

< =6 =6 >=6<56 < =6 95 < 5;56. # 6; ;; =6 <6

859656 :56=+ 5 =6 95 =6 + 85 ;9@5+ 865 =6 8=66 < 6;+ ;6;

= 86H 6:=6 9 >65 ;5. I= F566+ =6 ;98566 6 < 1'*1+

56 9 956 =6 95 = 9@5 68;6@6 6= 96:;5 9 85.1(

# :55H6 = 66 = 6= < :=+ =6 95 @5:6 ;> 85 > 85956 8 < >5;5 85;6<56 < =6 =;56 = ;< =;56= < ;6 86=6@56. # < 6

< 86% ; 99 85H< 6< ;569 6 95 95: 9 96

=;56= <8<;% I6@==6 S;J65; G65<5 9 =;6 < 65; miss 596+

E996 C+ L=6 B6= =6< G5:5 9 <6<56+ 86;56 :;56 < ;6;5. #+ <<

=:+ =6 ;569 9 865;86; 6;>6 =6 =;56 956=+ 9<6; : <

65; 65;6H6 =6 >6 85 X :56 9<<6+ 96Y < <56<5 < ;55 XE=

< =+ S5 M6:69+ ;.Y% «<565 69@=65 ;55 : = =6 95

6 ;< :56 7; 6 5;».11 O@>69;+ ; 8<5H6 6@5 55< 6

7;6 698=6 < =6 <6 <656 855 < =6 95+ =<6 =6 9=;8=6< =6 < 65; =6 G56 B5;66 8;55 6 ==69 M55 + =6 E586 ;56=+ < 5

< ;56 <= 65;. E 85@6@= + 69@ 6+ =6 6;6 56 965;6569; 96.

A 6H+ :5 69@ =6 ;5;56 996 < =6 @5:H6 = >5; =6 =;56

6 656;5H;6 <;56 9 @6 < ;6 =6 + 6<9+ 68 = 5= < =6

95 6==6.

AH <5 ;5 69@. E 8595 =:65+ = 85@=96 < =6 @5:H6 6;6<6 =6

69=6 6 ;6@6 6<5 85 @ 6 6@H6 ==:6< 6 >= + 9 :56=+

56 @5: < 85 = 9 :<6 :56 56 6 9 69=65 <5+ 9

:6;65=. #+ : <9;56 6=5 ;56 69=65+ ;6 @5:H6 :5 ;5 <=

;5;9; =H6+ < 596 <;66<6+ 6 =6 865; =;56 ><6 >>H6 < =

5<9; <= 68;6=. L6 6;><6< =;56= 56 X : <Y 7=; 9< <

:6;65 58;6@=9; = 5<9; <= 68;6=+ = 85 6;56;>6 8656 =6 856

=;6+ ;69@ 85 ;6 9 = «9 8» < 6 =6 6 9 =6

<<6 85 T5; V@=. N6;56=9;+ ;6 6;><6< ;69@ 8<H6 5 9 56+

56 65+ 9 <9;565 F5]+ M5:6+ M== ;5.



1

E :< =:65+ <56; = 99 85H<+ =6 =656 596= <> 6<6 > 9

6 <6< < 5 = H9@= < 85;6 6 =6 @5:H6 ;6@=<6+ 6H 9 =6 95 9656

< ;565965 6 = < = nouveau) riches @5:H6 6;6<6 + < + 58565 6 =6

@5:H6+ 9 <9;56 = 98= <= 85:5 < =6 69=6 < 6 = =65: < =6 ;5

:56 >6 < 65<5 @68;;6 < 85>6 6= 9;6 & M665< .12

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1

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1

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:= X 8595 <9;6 1*(4Y «8=66 5@66».



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M55.



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6;=56= 8=H;69; 85:5;6.



1

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1

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1

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1

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1

C68H;= 11

LOS -LTIMOS DÍAS DE LA UMANIDAD

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9 55 < 9:+ ;5 = 5;5 65;;6 . M5 V6 6 = ;6

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6< 9 = 8=:+ ;59 5@<=6 ;56 = 99. P656 6@5 8655 @5 6=:+

6@H6 9>5% @ @6@6 5; @ = @6@6 6 = 856+ 6 ;56> < =6

86=6@56 6@=6<6 6;6<6 <56; 696 ;65< < 6;6+ =6 ;69@ 6865H6 =

<= ;<.

S ><6 8@=6 ; =65: 9=: <5:< 6= 9<. E 85>6< >>+ 85 6H <5+

6=6< <= :56 8@=+ 6= 566@6 9 ;6=. C696@6 6 =6 85 =6 6== < V6+ «9@5 8+ < ;; =:56+ @ 6;6<+ 5; < >;6+ < 6 @=

=6569; 9656<6» 6= = ;56; 5H6 6=<6@6 V6 6 :56 <6< <

85>6+ 85 566@6 85 ;96 = 6=< < 6== 6 H6 856. N

85;H6 6 : H5=. T56@66@6 85=:6<6 ;>69;+ 56 ;6;6 < =6 6;6

85:H6 <6 6 9:+ =6 6;6 <= :555 ; 6 =6 856

;6 <6@6 =6 6 < <9;565 8586 855<6<. N 6 6+ 6 <56; =6



1

85956 :556 9<6= 8< =6 96 < =6 @656 S< N<5j > B5;+ 695

=6 86 < Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad = 5=;656 9 ;=56@=. XA 56 =

:;6@6 5;65 = H5= < =6 @=6 @96 6<9+ : 69:6 =6 856

LJ]+ «;H6 5; = 859;H6+ < 9< 6==6< 596=+ 6;>65 6 =



1

99@5 9 =; < =6 <6<».Y E= 96;59 ;> =:65 85+ : <+ = 8;6

R65 M656 R=] = 6= 6 =6 @656 = >; < 665 <H < =6 9<6+

85 @5==6; 6:56<6@= 8<56 5.

56 <85;6@6 <. D85;6@6 <>. S =:65 6 <<6+ = ;96@6 5. L6 856

>6+ ;+ 6H6 6 9 < 7;6. P656 6<956<5+ 56 6 >656 <

9<5 6 56 558;6. S =6 :56 =;5656 « 56 :6 >5<6<56+ 56 856= 6=6+ 8< 55 : 6 6;;< 66 65= 56»+ 5@ F5<5 A;5=;

= !rbeiter"eitung+ 8 6 56 ;698 6@H6 9;56< <56 ; 85<.

S= = 66=6=9 686 < =65=. D8 < = 6 6<56 6= 8<5+ 6

985<H6 = ;98 95 =<6<.

E= ;6=; 7;565<65 <= > 56 8656 = 65 X = < >;6< 8656 985

85 56 H6Y 9 6+ + 8656 =6 =;56;56 ><; << @ ;9856. A

= < 6+ 5@H6 8656 85< 56= 85956 56 8@=6. A = =65: <

=6 =;96 <6<6 <= := !I!+ =6@5 9@5 9 85<;6+ 5H; 8=9;6 8=H;,

=;565+ ;56 596 B65 = 9<5;6 < =6 <6<6 6;55+ ;56 = 9 9<5< T<5 5=. L6 Aeue 0reie =resse+ = 85< 9 <;66< < =6 =6 9<6 =@56=

6@@5:6+ < ;6 9856< 85 = > = 5+ 6 >; 6+ <5 6=

@5==6; D6= S8;5 X«= @ 6;5H6 + 6; ;<+ 6;5H6 6;»Y 9 <;5 < =6

65;H;,=;5656.

56 56 =6 5;6 + 99 6+ 5 6 =6 9<6< <H6 < 8586

5>;6+ 9ie 0ackel X«L6 6;56»Y. E;6 5>;6+ 86+ < =5 5 @5==6; 8@=6

85<6 =6@56<5 5 6865;< :56<6=9;+ 8656 <65 ; 6 9;65

=;6= @5 ;6 656;56<6 85 =6 ;8< =6 96=6 56 = 95 6 ;56> <= 6=

<5:H6 86=6@56 6= 9< 95 <+ ;56 = 9<. P5 ; 9<+ >5; «F6]=]56» X«L6 6;56 56»Y+ 6<68;6< = 868= <= 85;6 @H@= 6 =6 86 6@@5:

;65<H6 =6 =;56 < = 9< < 96+ ;6@6 <655==6< 85 ; =

=6 996 86+ 85 6 856 < 9 ;= 9 9 :. L6 8=96+ 8656 =+

56 6 <6< ;6; ;;6 9 956=. G566 6 <8<6 656+ 686 <

<65= ;<6< 6;6 95;+ 6 <8 < 1*33+ 6< 85< 6 =;5 6=96

865; < = 6;5H6+ 8 569; 5565 =6 5>;6. L6 95; = >; <6;65 6 6>5 <

; < ;=;6=. C9 ;< = <9 5; 85 56+ 9ie let2ten %age der $enschheit XLos

,ltimos días de la humanidad Y 8@= 8595 9ie 0ackel .

L 85;6 @H@=+ = 956=;6 = = 6;H5 956= ; 8 ;5 =

85:5696 8=H;. E= 858 56 5@ 9ie 0ackel ;H6 6 «;<6 68=H;6»

«> _ ;6@6 <6<6 85 =6 :66 < : 865;< 8=H;». P5 : 6

8<9 <565 56 56 68=H;+ 6 6< = <656 5H ; ;6= 9

965H6 58@=6+ = <5 6 =6 6;<;596 66= = 56: >56=. S4

96;> <=@56<69; 6 6 =6 8=H;6 < 865;<+ 8656 = 865 < = 6=;6+

6@5H6 6=:56< < ;65 6 6= :56 8; <= ;96 9 < = X6 >+ 56



1

6;6 6 = 6=;6 9 ;9;69;+ 9 595<9;+ 6 ;5 865;<

8=H;Y. D56; 99;+ ;56 =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ 865 = 8

9 6 =6 :556 6@H6 56< 6 5=6 9 85796 85 ; 6 =. 56

66@6 :6 6==6 8=H;6 96;> 985 56 < =6 8=H;6 < 865;<+ =



1

6< 7856@6 8 @5 = ;96 <= <H6. L6 ; 8=H;6 56 <656+ 6

+ 85 ;6@6 >< < «= 8<5 ;> 5H6 = 58 <

585;6;+ = 865=69;+ =6 6 <;56=».

56 ;> ;6 < =6 6= = ==696@6 6 =6 =;96 @6;6==6 6= =5=6 =6 856. E

= 85< @5: < = 6 < 85:556+ @5 ;< =6 Aeue 0reie =resse+ 5

= :59... 95 <% < 6=: 9<+ 5 6 =6 56=<6< < ;56 8586 56 < =9< < 96+ ;5<6 @5 =6 >6<6< < =6 86=6@56 =6 96:. S6@H6 «<<

85 = 8H5; << 6566+ =6 56+ 6@ 95 6 =6 6». L6 856 = 7856@6

=6 558 < ;98+ 56 H 996 8586= 558;56+ 85 = 98= <

«685865 < = >6=5 85 9< < =6 86=6@56». E= < < C+ <@5

;65<H69;+ 85 6;6+ 865H6 6=< < 8586 @6%

S = =:6 55;+ ; = < = 5 <5 = < = 5 <5+

; = <@ 65 <6 85 65 ; <6 85 65+ = 65; =6 956= <;556

=6 ;6 7;56>H6+=6 :; <65 85<<6 ;5 =6 . P5 ;< ;+ <@ 6@5 65@;565<6< = <

. E 6 ; < 96985;66.

65= 56 << ><6 6 5<65 = 9< 6 ;56> < =6 86=6@56. L6 558 < =

>6=5 85 9< < =6 86=6@56 <6+ H<6 + @5 ;<+ =H<6 <6 596 ;5;56 6 Los

,ltimos días de la humanidad . N 66= 6<6 6; < =6 ;56:<6 98 = :5; <

> ><<5 < 856 > ;;=65.

Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad >5; 6 < =6 @56 96;56 < =6 =;56;56 <=

:= !! 85 = ;98 X« :56< ;98 < = 8 6< 56 ;98 ;68»Y 95H6 6= =6 <65:6 < 65;==5H6 + 6;6 1*14+ 56 6@H6 ;6< =66<

;56 @;> 95. S 698 985 6@H6 < =6 ;56 >56=+ + 9 6@9+

= T5@6= S859 <= 9< 85 =6 5@ 9 85<;6 =6=+ << V6+ 6 @6

;H8,<6=+ 6=6 = 858 < ;< = 6; < Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad + ;

585;6<6 85 =6 S5],E]+ 6 < =6 6== R:;56 f5;5;56+ <<

;56@6 ;< = 9<5 >+ 8656 = 86 <65. S 9 56 = 959. S=

6< 85< = 66; <= 65< F56 F56< S656> 9@5

6 <6< < 5 9+ = 959 >5; 6;9;69; 9659 =6

56 =6= 8< 55 9 9;65 @5 = < ;< 9<+ 9 =6

«;56:<6 < =6 96<6<».

Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad 5@ <56; =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ ;<6 6 =6

56 6@H6 8; << = 858+ 6@H6 <6< 8@=69;

56. E5@ = 8595 @556<5 < =6 965H6 < =6 6 = >56 < 1*1" 6

1*1) = 5=6@5 1*1*+ 8656 8@=6 596 < =@5. E 99 6+ =6 @56 > =6

= ;5 < 86= < 9ie 0ackel + 1*22+ 6 596 6=: 9 7;6+ =6 8@=



1

8586 66 <;56+ =6 =6 editio princeps+ < )*2 8:6. E >5 5:6=+ «;

<5696+ 6 7; >6=<5H6 6 9 9 < >=6<6 : =6 9< 966 <= ;98+

_ <6< 8656 8;6 6 ;6;5 <= 8=6;6 M65;»+ <5+ 7=H6 ;<6

585;6 ;5 8=6;6. 6;6 1*2'+ 858 ;56 < =6 ;6<6 85;;6

< 6<956<5+ < 859 8656 = C;5 A5;H; S6=<956;6 < V6

585;656 6 >5 6 6@5>6<6 X+ 8656 5 5+ 5=;6 >;6@=9;



1

6<6<6Y. E= 858 56 5 =;56 < >656; < =6 >5 6 =6 8596>56 <

1*3(+ V6+ B5=H+ P56:6 M56>] O;56>6 85 >=> 6 65= <8 < 6 6. E=

;7; 5<< < 6 =6 985;6 6;6 1**2.

AH+ =6 85; >5 < Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad ;6 = 6 = 95 +

< 6 < 86 58; 6= 6 <= 66=9+ ;6; 6<68;6<6 8=H;69;+ <=

:56 <5696 9656. P5 = ;6;+ 8< <@ 598=665 =6 =;56 < =6 6;;6 @56 < Los ,ltimos días. A56 @+ =6 85; < ; 6=: 6==65 =6 @56 9 7;6

;69@ 5=;6 6= 8656 =;5% = <@ < G5: E=5. L6 < 5:6= =

=H6 < =;56% =6 ==696;>6 8:6 < ;H;= <= «5;5 6;5H6» <= >5<: >6=+

;56< @5 6<>5+ 5<6< 85 ;5 6;5H6 59+ ;69@ 5

5 =< =6 ; =6 96: 6= < 5 <;5< 85 : < 65;==5H6 6 698

6@5;. XU6 56 =6 585< < 6 8;6= <>=: ;5 ;<6 =6 965H6 ;56 =6

<= 6=;6 C65 B6;;; =6 ;56 =6 6@H6 >6< 6 56 = > 5; T=].Y

A 85956 >;6+ <5H6 85; 55 6 < =;56<6 < 6 ;56:<6 9<6=

+ 9 = :<+ <@ =<5 ;<6 585;6 <5;6. P5 = G5: E=5 9;6 =96 <@ = ;96+ = 6;5. C9 > 56+ E=5+ 85 6H <5+

6@5@ 6 56 =6 = 96;56. E56 < 88= < S@5: = 99 88= <

]]6+ = 65;;6 >6= 9 =6569; 8579 6 56+ 85 = E=5+ 9 65;;6+

;69@ 5 56. N6< ;6@6 6 8 95 = 8656 565 8; ;5 =

;7; <Los ,ltimos días = =;5 9<5.

E= 8; ;6 85 = ;7;+ 8656 = =;5 6;6=+ < <H= 6. P656 = >

< 9 :56 =6 < E=5+ Los ,ltimos días+ 98=9;+ 596 865; < ;56 ><6. E=

98=65 < =6 85956 < 5= ;69; ==>6 @5;6 = 9@5 < 9

96<5+ 6 < =6 96 6<956<56 < 56 ;5 =6 686 9<6 < V6. E= «5;56;5H6» 6986 9 66. # 56 <966< > 8656 7859;65 =6 85956 :556

9<6= =6 95; < =6 965H6+ 85 ; =@5 9 5> 8656 5=6+ 6 ;56. D@5H

= 66; <= 65< F56 F56< =6 R:;56 < 65= 56+ = 85=: 6 =6

@56+ 85 <:566 = =6 85; >5 6. X«UN VENDEDOR DE PERIÓDICOS%

/E< 8666=0 /A666 = 5<5 <= ;50 /E= 6;5+ <;H0 UN PASEANTE _A SU MU&ER`%

S5; 56 <H.»Y L 8595 8 < =6 ;56 9<6= = <@ 6 = 6; < =

6= P]5+ NJ; PJ=+ <= 58;5 = 86;5;6+ <= > B6 =

G6=<5 M55+ 6 = 656 G5: E=5 6 <6< 5;5 596. I= = <6=;

> : < = < 9 66. P656 = > < 9 <6<+ Los ,ltimos días+ 8 6 ;<6 =6

6= 6 :56 =><6<6 =><6< < 6= 99;+ 5=;6 = 985@=+

<69 85 ;6< = ;6. P5 ; <H=9; = 55 6 ;5+ 865;=65 6

= =;5 < 56 < A;56+ ;586 59< ;6 @56 <9;6= >656+

=6= 956@=.

P5 ¿;6 ;6 @56 6=: 9;65? ¿N <85;6 <56+ 9 985+ <

< ;56;6 =6 6 < Los ,ltimos días? ¿Q 85> =6 =56 = <85 <



1

56? E;6 6 :56 9 85 98= =6 5586= =><6<6 A= S6=] =6

;6 < <;56= 6 6965==; = 7; 8656 ;5+ 8656 = ;5+ :566 6 56.

¿N @6;6 6@5 «= <=: 9 >5H9= ;< = <5696 5 <

86=6@56 85 86=6@56 = >; 9 ;566=65 ;6»?



1

SH . C5;69;+ 96;56= + 85 98=+ 6 MW==5+ <5696;5:

95<69; =><6< 856 6 86 86=6@56 ;< =6 85956 6 <=

8595 6;+ 56 6= 99; <5696;5: 7; @ <. U6 @5> ;6 6= 8

@6;6 8656 56;65 = ;< < =6 <97;6 6 <= 8595 6;% =6 >56 < = 6;5

9=;65 X6;;Y 6 ;56> < =6 :56 = «R<=» 6 = :56= 6@@5: =

5@ 6 8;6= @66= «<< = =6 69869;» 56 = 858;65 < 6 696 6;5H6>6.

P5 ;5 =6<+ 596 865; < =6 <6< 99@5 8;56; 56 @5> 6;6 =

7;59 < =6 698;6% = ;6 < = = > 8H69;+ < =

<5 =;56=9;. E= 85@=96 ; 985<5 «= <6=; < = =;9 >+ 6

9=66 6<6 > 9 =6 <=;6 < > <H»+ 8 < + 8656 =;5 6=9 <

;5 <H6+ ;7; ;566 9 <=;6< S6]865 8656 = 9<5 ;<6; :=

< @6==56; = <H= 68;65 = ; 656;5H; < =6 86. E; 5=;6 86=9; >;6=

8656 5;5 9 56+ 85 <6 < =6 86=6@56 56+ 56=<6<+ 6<;>6. E= ;7; 5;

= 585;6<+ ;;; 69@ 6 < =6 65556 9 6;5 = 6@H6 :6<+ 8656@=. S 856 6<956@=+ 85 6 9< 65;6+ = ;7; 985 7: 6

6; ;6 ;6+ @56@6 ><6+ 6 ;<6 =+ 6< =H6 > 6=;6. «Q = 9H 6

= 8595 6 < 5;5 ; 5;56+ 6= 99 ;98+ 596 ;6;56= 9;.

L 5@ 6 6;6 5;6.»

P5@6@=9;+ 66=<6< + 85 6==6 996 86 X 1*1(,1*11Y+ 56 <<56

>5;5 9ie 0ackel 85 9=: 5;965 =6 >=6<6 < =;56 8@=6 6 =6 6@H6

56< << 858 < =6 <6<6 < 1'*(. « 56;6< =6 6 _< = ;98

5@ < = 9=: < E= C5;+ =6 < 98=;6 < Los ,ltimos días 9

H< 6 <@5; = < < =6 6 9 + =6 :;6=<6< <= 6@=6 9 >+ 8 6 ;6= 58;5+ 6 ;6< < ;6= 596 = ; <69;6= 6 <6< 6< 8656 985 69.»

E 8569; 6 «:;6=<6< <= 6@=6» =6 6 6;;<+ = =:6 5856=+

596 865; < =6 =7 < = ;98 =6 5=6 =6 =;56 < E=5. AH+ ;6

6<6 9 6 985<5 = ;7;.

P5 ; ;69@ 985;6; 85 ;56 56. Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad =

:5; =695 ;56 < =6 85956 :556 9<6= =6 558 < =6 ;56:<6 < =6

96<6< 85 865; <= 85<9. X«6:69 >6 9 ; 56<.»Y E= =@5 ;69@

8 5;65 6866<69; =6 A;56 6@@5:+ 56 56 <56@6

586@= <= ;6==< < =6 ;=<6< 5;65 = «5;5 6;5H6» + 6 = =65: < =6

6 < ; <5696+ >6 6 =6 <5>6 6 <>5<6< ;596@=+ 85 ;69@ =6 996

856=<6<. «¿N 5;5+ 6 A;56+ =6 :556 5@ Aachruf X5=:6Y

@5 =6 965H6+ 6= 8 < =6 :556 66@656+ 6;696 >< <; <

6:5+ 7: =6 <6< =6 95;+ = @6= =6 <>5 ;>6+ = < =

<85;+ 6 85:< << =6 ;9@6 << =6 < = :=? ...

9+ 5 6 = 85 56 = ;98 < 96;65+ 85 = 6=;6@6



1

96:6.» E = 5;5 < = 6= < =6 6 < =6 8=;5H6 S5] X«= 5; < 6

5;6=6 <= 86< =6 R:;56»Y+ < = :56= = ;H6 ;5 = 9686 <= ;6;5

< :556 6< ;6@6 <=6; < ;:56 X =6 86+ 6@H6 <@5; 6 =

«85;9 ;:5»Y+ = 85<;6 =6 :56 =;5656 66@6 @56



1

=;+ 85 + ;5 68;+ ;6@6 9859;< V6. P656 56+ =6 >6

965H6 = ;6@6 <6<6 6 955 9 6 6@H6 ;< = 65 <= :@5

6=+ ;69@ 95H6 =6 86 < 95;.

P5@6@=9;+ : ;5 985 6 < ==>6< 6 =6 ;9@6 ;6;6 @6 9 =

6@@5:. S 9@65:+ 5;69 6 =6 8656<6 < =6 95; < : ;5 985 <

;5 := 8 6 6@<66 < 985 6 :56< ;6;6 =;56;56 985;6;. P M=+ &8 R;+ 85 9 Las aventuras del buen soldado Dvejk + < &65=6> 6g]+

=6 8586 Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad ;<6 ==6+ @56 86 8H69; <

=6 6H<6 < =6 >6 965H6.

L >=6 ;<6 ;6 ;5@ = :5 < = «86:H5 565 <

A;56» =6 6 <= 65;5 6@5< < ; 5:9+ =6 9<6 < ;56:<6+

8< >;65 56 =6 <6 9 986>6. I= =6 X66Y 956<6

5;58;>6 ;98=6 ;9; =6 86 < F56 & = 6 6 56

56.

N6<6+ 85 98=+ 9 96 = ;96 < =6 6 <= 8;6= 9=;65 XLos ,ltimos días+ 6; 4+ 6 41Y+ 6 + 85 5;+ 6@ 986565 = 9656>== 68H;= ;6> <

l buen soldado Dvejk X«l>] : 59»Y. A 6H+ 8 6 = =;5 <6 5556<+ =6

@6 = 586 6 6566<6. P5 ¿ 8< 5H5 @5 D66 M6;6? N

6 5H5 56 = 6=+ =<6< ;==< < = 6<5 < G5: G5+

558< 76;69; =6 6 ;6 < =6 R:;56+ = 6; 6= <= <5696

< 56. L 6= NJ;+ P]5 PJ= 8=6; 85 ;69@

9 9 8=6;+ 85 <<6+ 9 9 =6 :56 6=966 <

Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad . A56 @+ 55 6H 85 56 5=656 9

6@=<6< = 6@=6 >6 =6 >656; 6=966+ 85 6@H6 96;5 =6 ;6 <A;56 =6 :556 56 <856<6+ 85 56.

E= 985 6=9 = 5=;6@6 6@5< 8656 = 7;565+ 6 8656 858

<6<6. E; =96 8H < =6 965H6 6@@5:+ ;6 6>56@= 8656 =6 =;56;56+

;69@ = 8< 6565 95 =6 =;56 < E=5.

E; =96 ;69@ 78=6 85 =6 :556 585; 8656 56 9 =6 956 558

< =6 5=<6< = 66; =;> 6 <6< 5<6<6. L6 5 < 9<6; 9 =

<9; < ;< 9<% =6 >=6 =@56= @5:6 <= := !I!+ 6 =6 = 99

85;H6+ 6 56 6 865. P+ 9 ;<+ =6 V6 < = =;9 6 <

F56 & 8 = ;5 < @556;6 ;6 =;56<+ 85 =6<+ 85 ;5 =6<+

=6 @5:H6 <H6 =;56<6+ 9859;< 6== ;6 = :56 = < 65;;56 8@=6

;5 <= R:+ 96; <=: <= =@56=9 @5: < := 785 =6 <

;. A9@ ;6@6 6<6<+ 9 ;56; 8 95 < =;5 «=;»+ :5966@=6;+

< =6 Aeue 0reie =resse+ 85 96 < =6 966 < =6 8@=6 556= =6>6 6<6< ;69@

9 865;<65 < E;6< 65H6 < ;5. D = 6@ <<6 < + << =

< :=+ = > 6 ;H6 6 6 < =6 5 < >=6 9 9 =656



1

: ;5 =:65 < E586. 56+ 66@6 =6 6H<6 <= 9< =@56=+ ;6@6 858656< 8656

==6. P5 9 ;6@6 6;66< V6 + 9 9H9+ 6 = =;5 < =6 Aeue 0reie =resse

= 85 5 «]6]6» X: = ;59 < R@5; M=Y+ 9 8656<:96 <= <655==

8= < =6 <6< 68;6=;6,;=:6 =@56=,@5:6+ =6 :556 >5;+ 8656 =+

= =;9 <H6 6 < A;56+ < =6 96<6<. E ;+ <8 <= <9; 6@5H6

>=;6 6;5. S= 6@H6 <65 6=; 6<=6; 66 ;5 @@=9; 686=H8;.



1

P5 =6 965H6 95@<6 = < 6 56 6=: 9. L 859; 5@5 6 @56 <56; =6

996 :556+ 6< ;5 =:65+ = 8<5H6 6@5 5; <8 <= < =6 ;<6

== =<6@6 866< ;569;+ 85 856=+ < 9< 9=65 6= 98= =6 =;56;56

< :556 98 6 5:5 A=966 < 6 <8 <= <9;. ¿E ;5 8;

< =6 965H6 6@@5: 6@5H6 859;< 85;;65 ;56 = =; 6 6=: ;6 8; 6

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6:5>6 <=656 86;6 ;69 =6 8596>56 < 1*1' <6;656 = ;

65< ;6;6 6 9»? A= 9+ 6H = < = ;5 < 5;6 ;56 =6

8586:6<6 9:6 <= 56= 9856= M;5 < G556. # ¿<< 9 8<5H6 <65

85;<; 8=6= <= <;5; ;+ « 6@H6 6;< 6 =6 56 9

585;6; <= :@5»+ 59656 6 <865;69; < 56=<6< 56 6@H6 <6< 6

65=6 ;56 = :6 ;7+ « 6 6 985 7;596<69; <6:56<6@=+ 6:;6;

=» @5 = 85;<;+ « 9@65: 6== 56 8656 ;5>5»?

L6 8=H6 >6 6@H6 ==:6< 6 65< = 5;5+ : = 6= = ;7; 68@=6< 9ie 0ackel 8<H6 =5 8@= 9 859@=+ 85 =6 @56 6 <;6

<@H6 9;5 6 =6 56. 56+ 85 ;5 =6<+ ;> 85;65 6; =6 8=H6 85 6

<6 56 6 6 596=% 6 < =@= =6 ;569 6=6<6 <= ;< <

<5 6;@= 85 865; < 6 856 <<6. # ¿<<+ 56 =6 A;56

6@@5:+ 8<5H6 6@5 866< 6@=;69; 6<6 9+ 6;6 =6 ;56 9<6= 55 =

78<; < =6 8586 A;56 6@@5:+ 8 6; < =6 5=6 85>>; <

M;5 < G556 55656 = 78<; <= 6 56?

E= 8;5 ;5 < 6;9; 7856 68586< 8656 56 56 5=6;>69;

5<<. E ;5 := 6 6 @556 6;6 =6 9 >6 < =6 56 < =6 656 <=9 >56 < = 6;H5. E= 858 65= 56 < <= 66=6=9% «S@5 = ;96 <

;=5+ 9 55 6<6» 6< 85 = 55 <5+ =:6 6 5=;6@6

6<6<% «=6 86=6@56 6 <59<6 6< 9< <85;». E =6 ;56 < =6 U

S>;6 @ =:65 8656 =6 ;56+ =6 86 < =6 N>6 P=H;6 E96 =6 56 B5>+

+ ; < 9 <5=+ 6 > 55<6 = =;9 6 < = 6@@5: 85 =

6; <H6 < I S;6=+ < = 6< 6 96<+ 6;6 ;5 <H6+ 56 956<

6;5.

56 ;> =6 @6 5; < >>5 6;6 6 = < <H6 9< 6 56 =

8<H6 5@5 =@5;6<+ = =6 96<6< 6 56 ;6 @5;6= @=:6@6 6 6==65 6

=6 86=6@56+ 9 6+ 6 =6 ;56. A 8< 6==65 =6 86=6@56 856 8656 = 8595 :56 6; < =6

;56:<6 <= := !!% =6 :556 9<6= < 1*14. L6 6== = 65;H= <;56=+ = 6+

=6 >56 H<6+ = 59 < 856 < 6 86 =6 5 ;6@6

;585;6< 6 ;56:<6 856 ;56= 56 = 5 L65+ = B 69=;+

R56; G=<;5. 6== 86=6@56 8656 = 6@= 6 86 =6 6 6@H6

==:6< 6 5 <= ;< 6@=.



1

B5;=; B5; 5@ =6 95+ 9 =68<656+ 5=:6 < 56% «C6< = ;98

;65 =6 ><6 8586 96+ = 6 96».



1

C68H;= 12

PATRIMONIO

¿Q <6+ 55<6 : ;< @ = 86;59 < =6 =;56

@5:6 =6?

L6 «6=;6» =;56 ;6; 969 8656 :565 85<; 8596; 596 <

@; 855>6@= <+ 8;56+ =@5+ ;. 9 6 5 < = >656@= <

6 8<5H69 6=65 < «6;6» 6;+ ;585;6+ <66+ ;. H956

85 6;56=6+ 8 6 + :566 6 =6 ;=:H6 <= := !!+ 8< <65 ==6 8596;

:56@6+ 8=H=6 < <5 >5;6=. S 6<69 =6 ;+ 6=:6 6;6 <655==6 < 86= 8< 5965 865; < = <56 = 86;59

=;56= 855>6@= 85 985 55 6H. D + << =6 6865 < = 68656;

<9; < ;569 < =6 =;56 =6 56< =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ =6 ;=> + 9

5;9;+ = <8;> 85;;= 6<6 > 9 6<68;6@= < 858 <= := !!I+ =

698 < =6 @6 596= < =6 6;6 8@=6 6 =9;6< 9+ 85 = 5:==

66= 9:6=96H6 6 ;6< 9=;8=6< 6 6H ; 86 5<. 6

5@< ;69@ = ;H9= ;5 < 95 6<6 > 965 < 6;9; >56=+

;6= 9 = &: O=H98.

E= 85; 6 86 8H69; < =6 =;56 ;< 6;58=: 9:56=+ 6+ < + 85<9; = @; :56 ;< 6 >5 6<6 > 9+

=6 6;6=<6<+ 9 ;56 865; <= 86;59 66= <@ 855>65 = 86

=;56= 9 86=6<. P5+ 9 >59+ ; @6;6 8656 >;65 = 85@=96 <

=6 «<;<6< =;56=»+ @5 = >=>5 9 6<=6;.

6;6 + = := !I!+ 6865 6 =;56 9><6 85 956< < 966+ = 96:

65: 5 =6 965H6 < = @; < 6=;6 =;56+ =6 6=><6< < = :56< 85 =

56 = 8595 < =6 5>= ;=:6% =6 985;6. D 6H 6 =6 ;6 6

<96 6 = =;6 < «@56» 6+ 558;@= + 6+ 56 < =

;<6>H6 <96 «= 956< <= 65;». E E586+ = 85<;5 < 65; 585<@=<8<H6 :56 9<<6 < =6 5; < 9656+ 85H8 @=+ 86;56< 5@6

9==65+ + 85 <;6<+ < =6 I:=6. L6 :56 65;;56 ;<6>H6 <8<+ = 6=+ <

;6 596 < 96:+ @6 6; ;< = 85;: + 85 ;6 996 56+ 8<5H6

;65 85856< 9 =6 ;56 65; >6=.

E= 96: 985 ;585; 868= 9 <;66< =6 65; 6+ 6@H6

6556:6< 596 =6 85;6 = ;5;9; < =6 :; 9 85 5;6



1

=6@56 8H6 < 6 65; 5 6<8;6<6 85 =6 I:=6 =6 =;56 5;66 + 85

<+ 8665 6 <8<5 :56 9<<6 < 86;5. C 6=:6 ;<6>H6 55

86=9;+ =6 856 = @6==;. L6 < 96: =6 6 69<+ 6@;6=9;+ =

E;6< ;56 ;<6< 8@=6 + 9 56569; X9 E;6< U<Y+ = campanilismo <

86;56< < = 9==65 =6=. A= 86 < ; 9 ==696 =6 6; + 6 <56 < =

55< = 8 < ;@=+ 6;6 656 = 8586= ;5 < 6;6 65;H;6 6



1

< 6@5@< 85 859==65 <><6= 9 56 85<; < =. L6 =

;H86 < =6 @5:H6 <= := !I! =;> < 66< 6= 65; 9 9 66<6=6<+

5; < 596 5:=65 858;65 < 6; 86= = ;6;5 6

<>6<.

L6 85< =;56= X=<6 =6 6;6Y @6 = @ 956< < 966+

9 <66 =6 «56 < =6 585<;@=<6< ;6» < =6 6@=6@6 B69+ =6= 5; <= := !!+ 6=> = 6;6 6 =6 985;6. E ;5H6+ =6 5; 556

<8< < =6 >;6 + 6+ 8< :6 =6 < 5>6+ 68

@> ;;6=. N 6 56 85 =6 La ratonera+ < A:6;6 C5;+ 8<6

;65 6< <56; ;5 9< := 85 858 98=. A =6 >56+ = <=>

< =6 6;6+ = :5 < = @5; >6 << = 86 H;9 6;6 =6 6=6

< =@5 S;6;+ 9= 6; 6 <6865< < =6 >;6 = 9686 9

85;;6 = 65 < =6 ;6 =< < E;. V>H6 955 85 =6 ;6==6. S

9@65:+ 6 > 55 6=:6 85< 5;6<6 66 = 956< =:56 6==65

8@= 8596; = @6;6; 95. AH+ 8< ;65 6<6 @>+ 856 856;6; 85<; 9 85 98= = 6 <;596< < >6:65<6

<56 >6=+ << = 8; < >;6 =;56= 85 ;56 56 96+ =:56

:5 956= ;. E 6+ 8< <65 ;:56< 6

56;5;56 < 85; =;56= 9 =6 855>6 =6 96 =6 X85 98=+ =

L= C;5+ N>6 #5]Y + 6<6 > 9+ =6 ;; < <6 855.

E ; 8;+ <@9 <565 ;5 =6 «=;56 66=»+ = <5 58;

6 6 <6< ;,=:WH;6 7;; 85>;6+ = ; < 85<; 6;><6< < :56

85;: 6; X6; ;<+ =6 E586 <96Y 9 58 >56= < «6=;6

=;56» «=;56 =6» 6<8;6< 9 ;6= 85 =6 =; < =6 <6< 586 85 < ;6;6 9<56 X>6= <5% < <;6=6Y. G566 6= :56 85;: <

; 58 6 =6 8@=<6< < >6 :56 < = > 5 8<5

>5;56 = 8656 ;;65+ =6 6;6=<6< ;6 ;6 96; 69@+ @5 ;<

=6 96 =6 65; >6=+ <6 596 6= ;< < 9 :6=5H6+ 6= 585;5 <

5; 856 6 =6 ;56;6 < 9 6;6;+ T]+ PH S= ;6; 9

E;=9 L [:= :56 9<<6+ 9 ;56 < «:56< @56» < «:56<

65;;6».

L6 <>5:6 ;5 =6 =;56 66= >56= =6 98=6 @ =6 <56 ;5 =

8595 = :< 9 < O]65 R65<;+ < ;5;5+ < = :56< =;6

:596,. S 8595 9 86= =6 8;56 6=966+ 6;5H66 6 < =

:= !VIII !I!+ 65 < 6;56;> 85+ 85 6H <5+ <6 56 <= 5; ;5H;

=;56=. E 69@+ 5<6 85>6<6+ R65<; < 6 :<6 :6=5H6 < «:56 65;» <

68;6 >56=+ : < 6 < =6 :56< = 85>6<6 < 65; <= := !!.

L ;< < ;6= 9 66=+ 6 ; ;6< =:65 5;+

;698 85; 6 86;59 66=+ 56 6= = 9< < 69=6



1

5:6= X5@+ ;6+ 965H6+ <5 96:Y. T6; 6=:6 < ;6= =

>5; = 5: < 9 6=9; 6;6=:6< < 66= 9 + 6856 6

9@; 85666=. S 9@65:+ = 9< < =6 <=6 = 9<5 ;59

:=@6=6< 6 5:< > 85@=96% =6 ;56 <= 58 <= «:56 65;»

>56=9; 68;6< 9 ;6=+ 8586=9; = 9 = < =6 6;:6

8;6 9856= <;6= X>6= <5+ 6;6 = := !!+ :56 9<<6 586Y =6



1

69=6 < :@56; 5. E 58;6+ 6 66< 8; < 586;56

< 6 @56 6 ;55;5 < 5:+ 85 865; < = ;6< 656 86 6 ;556+ 9

85 98= G56+ T5H6 = [56 <;6=.

A ; 6 :56 96 ;5>56+ 9 985@6@= =6 <;5@ ::56

<= :56 65; 69@ = <69;6=+ 85 : :56 9 <= 9< 95:;+ 85 5

6+ 8< 98;5 6 =6 686@==6; ;56 <= «:56 65;» >56=9; 68;6<9 ;6= E586 E;6< U< =6 = <;6=+ :566 6 =6 ;6+ = 5@

= :6+ <;6 9 < 655 < ;5 < =6 ;56 :56< =;56. A 6H+ ;6

<;5@ >5 6;6<6 85 ;5 69@ <= =;9 9< :=% = 6: <= 9 85 H

= 8 = :5 < 8586 6;56 =;56=+ <8<;9; < ;<. E;

<+ 9856; 85 = :56= 6<6+ 6 < ;5< 85 65;; <

58;6 >56= @ 8656 565 :56< < 6;56 ;5 + < ;5

9<+ 5H6 = 855 85>6=. L 55 = ;55 5=;6 55=>6;+ 6=

9 <65+ 9 = 6 85 < =6 T55 E=+ 7; ;6 = 8656 5 6<956<6

85 H 996. E= 69 M &<H < B5=H+ < D6= L@]<+ 85< 56=<6< @6 865;< 8<5 9@= 85 = ;; < ==65= 78 5=66<6. L6 Ó856 < SH<+

< 858 < =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ 98= < 85 = 6 >;6+ 6 <6< 85

= <9 5=6;>69; 6<6 9 B=@6 >5; ;5 ;5H; :=@6= :566 6 =6

56 <= M G::9 < F56] G5. S 9@65:+ E866 6 = <

985;66 9<6=+ 9 =6 < E= P56< =6 T,B596+ 6 ;6 6865

= 965 < =6 65@66 65;;6. P5 ;5 =6<+ = 65; >6= ;985+ << =6

<98 < =6 9<5<6< = 6 ;6+ 6 ;<< 6 <565 ;6= 86

< 6<6 686<6< 6;;6;56= 6<6< 8656 =6 7@ =6 performance.

A= 65= 6H+ 6> < >5<6< =6 <56 ;5 = 65; «9<6=» = «=6=» 68<5 < 865; <= > 8<5 < 6;56+ 9 865 6@5 ;6< 55< ;5 =6 T6;

B5;6 =6 T6; M<5+ L<5.

E= 85@=96 ; = 86;59 < 85<; < 9@; 8569; 66= 85>6=+

85 ;+ 85 = :56=+ :6 < =6 85; < =;6 6;5<6< 86;5;6 + =6

85;6+ 6 9< ;69@ <= < 6 8 ;5 == 56 < =6 «6». E;

= 85<; + 6 < 5: 66=+ @ 9 865; <= 6 ;566= <

«=6 65;»+ 6 6 85 865; < = ;6<5+ @+ 9 9 85@6@= =6 6;6=<6<+

85 865; <= 956<. E;6 =6 @56 < 65; 85 =6 >6= =6 86 865+ 5@65 5;65 =

;56@6< =6 6=6.

E; 8=6;6 = 85@=96 < 665 =6 65; =6 <;<6< =;56=. ¿Q =6 «<;<6<

=;56=»? N 6 6<6 > = 8; < ;9; =;> < 85;5 6 6=: :58

< «;5»+ << :6;>69; 85 = < 5965 865; < ;5 :58 < «==».

D + ;< ;5 9+ < 9656 9=;6+ 99@5 < >656 =;><6< <= ;=+

6 = ;6<,6 + << =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ = <=: < =6 «8=H;6 < =6 <;<6<»

6 ;< ; 868= <@5H6 7:5 = 9859 7=> X 6= 9+ 8595<6=Y <



1

99@5. E= > 9=;6; 6=;6 := + = = < 95;+ 6596@6 55

&5;+ &69 5 65< = <<5=< U;< 6@5H6 685@6< ; 769 6=>

<=65656+ 8595 =:65+ =6=;6< 6 =6 @6<56 < =6 U. S 9@65:+ ;9; <

<;<6< =;>6+ 85 H =+ 8 :6 <9 =;56= 86=+ 6 8<6 65

;55 6=: : =;56= 9 <6<5 < <56 85+ 5;69;+ =6 =:6+

;6 6 9< <;65 = >6=5 @ < 8@= = ;=;6=



1

8585 ;55=6 6H 8656 ; . #+ 56=<6<+ ;6@6 8<H6 <65 6556:6<6 =6

><6 < 856 8<5H6 6@5 985<< :6 =:6 66= 6;6 =6

656 ;96 < <6 ;6;6= = 5=;656 8656 =6 56 9=;65 < E;6<.

P5 ;6 56+ = ;7; <= «86;59»+ =6 «=;56 66=» ; ;<

8=H;. C9+ 965H6+ =6 <6< 8=H;6 <= 9< 6;6= 6856 6 5

«;6<,6»+ =6 «=;56 66=» 6 985 ; 85 965 6= E;6<. C9 =6;5 5;5 < «86;59» 6<6< 8656 =6 «6» =6 85;6=

8595<6= < ;< > ;6<,6 ;55;56=+ ; 66< ;> 8656 =6 855>6+

;6; 9 6; ; 9@6 =9; =6 9;8 XmythopoeiaY. O55 6H =

5: << 95 ;6< 9865; =:6 5=: 85 98=+ =6 >6;6 6

<< 68;6 = := = 56@ 9 =:6 < =;56 :56=+ @ = 6;=9 596

= =69 9 5=: >56=. M;56 =6 =;56 =6 <6 <65 5;5:<6 6 =6

95H6 < =;+ ; 55:+ 6;6 5; 8;+ 85 = 65;5 98=;6 < ;6= =;

X9 < =6 6;6=<6< =6 86 95H6 < 9@5 < :+ ;

;=;6= >> <>56 6=<6 :=@6=Y. E = ;5 7;59 < =6 6=6 6=+ =55:H6 ;69@ = =6=9 < 856 6@=6@6 =6 =:6 66= 6 <6< =;56=

< @6 56 9 9 5<<6 =6 6. E I;6=6+ =6 85:5>6 66=6 < =6 =:6

;6=66+ ;98 < =6 6 6@=6@6 = 85;6 9= < ;6=6+ 6

<655==6< 6 ;56> < 6 <6< < = 9< < 96+ 55H6 < 6 =:6

6@=6<6 985@= 8656 = 6@=6; < ;< = <6=; ;6=6. L <6=;+ 6=; <=

8<5 < = ;6<+ >> 6 =656 5;56<6 6; =6 9:6 =:WH;6+ 6=> 9

6; 5:6= = =6=+ 6 6< =6 965 865; < =6 96 ;<66+

5: 9 S=6+ ; 56=< =6.

S 9@65:+ 6< 85 9< < = :@5 =6 <6 85< 6 ;56596:56= < = 698 56+ ;6=6 55;6+ ; 66= 6 =6 966+ 85 =

6 < 698=6 =6 9<6 9<6,@66 698= 6 =6 > 66= 6 =6 =;. P5

98=+ 565 58 < 9@5 95 8656 = = < =6 =;56;56 >56=

= 5=;6@6 6@= ;56<H6 6 =:6 66= >5;H6 =@5; < 856

;6=6 56. #+ 85 @56 < ; 99 969+ 8<H6 86565 = + < 6=: 9<+

6@H6 5< 9 865; < =6 «=;56;56 >56=» < = + =6 85;6+ <6@6

=9;6< 6= 956< 66= X6= 9+ 6;6 =6 56 < =6 ;=>Y+ 9 =6 65=6 E866+ =

< < G=@5; S==>6 G56 B5;66+ ;6;6 >=6 ;56 < =6 A=966 <= := !I!

X; 86H 6: = :5 865;=65 ;69Y. P5@6@=9;+ =6 <956;6 55

6 9 = =6 < =6 =;56 =6 =:6 66= = E;6<.

L6 <6 59+ : 596<+ = =6 8586= ;5 = <. S 69 <5: @6

= 68 < = ;6< ;56 6;5<6< 8@=6+ ; : < = 6+ 6=> 6

86 56 ;5;6. R=;6 <H= >5 9 8<5H6 6@5 55< < ;5 9< 66 <

6;5<6< <6< 8=H;6 85666= ;>6. E;6 ;6+ <<6+ ;5<

<;5 6@5 = 69 6 9 «=6>6< < 5@5» 8=H;. A ;<6 =+ =6 «;56»



1

8< =9;65 6= 866< < 6 <6< 8=H;6 6;6= 865;=65+ 56 8< ;6

;:6 866< =65: ;6<+ 6 <56 < =6 :56 965H6 < = ;6<,6 <=

9<. S 9@65:+ <6< = 868= ;585;6 = 866< =6 596 < <;<6<

<><6= =;>6+ 5566@= ;65 =6 ;56 866<6 < 6 'eimat 865;=65

X86+ :56< = 66=Y 5 6 865; ;56= < = 685< = <6<6 <



1

;96 <6;>. S6 6= 6 ;56 55>6 6= 58;+ <H= :65 =6 <6 X

<5+ = ;98 9<5+ =6 <6 8@=6 < 9@; ;6;6=Y 6 9 9;5 <

596 < =6 <;<6< 6=6 66=.

E; < 6= E;6< = 6= <;6;56= 8<5 <56@=. C9 @>+ =6

=6 < E;6< =H6 ==6965 «;;6=;65»+ ;56@6 96 ;< = 8<5 =6

96 ;;6@6 985 6 = <6<6 ; 9: < 56+ ; 8< <6@= 85 E586 6 ;9 ;6= ;6<+ 56 R6.

E= 8=:5 8586= <= E;6<+ =6 <6< =@56=+ =6 98 < 6 =;56

6= = 98= < =6 66 =;56=+ 85 = E;6< 6 8 98=.

C; ;; ;555 =6 @<6 < =6 >5<6< ;56 85 865; <= 8<5 =6 =.

6 6@<66 < 98= < ;+ @5 ;< = =;9 ;5;6 6+ 6< =6 ;56 6

9=;8=6< :6 < ;5 ;9;6+ 86 <:6< 9 86;59+ 9+

9956 596 66<6 < 8@=. L 69@ < 5:9 >

66=9 6 56< 95 6<;69; =>6< < ;6< 8=H; ;6 <

6 ;56< ;56 8@=6 6 ;56 >6 ;= 8656 86;5;. E; 5=;686=9; @> = ;6< 5 <8<6<+ 6=: < = 6= 6 < <6<

<5:<+ < + 85 ;56<5 856= + 95 <+ 85<6<5 < 9;

66= 85 98=+ C566 G5:6. A<6 6 ; = 8=H; <6 65

6 = :58 < 85 <95;6 >;6; 8;6=9; <6@=+ 6 68

8586 55 8=H;6 >5<6< ;56. V 6 =6 9;+ 6 ; 58;+ 98= 5;

< F566+ E;6< U< E6. E;6@=5 =6 >5<6< ;56 85 9< < <5; =

865=69;656 6 < 6 ;;6 8656 = 8=H;+ 85 65 < 86 =:H;9 ;6<

;;6=. L ;6< <@5H6 55<65 = < E5; R6% «O=><65 =6 ;56+ @

985<5=6 96=+ < = =9; 8586= =6 ;5 < 6 6 85 + =85:5 < = ;< ;5 8 6 9< 8=:5 8656 = 66=9». E;<

= <@5 8595<6= < = ;56<5 9<5 85 ;6 =6 < 8=:5.

S 9@65:+ = E;6< = :56 8=:5 66 6 =6 =;56 =6 <6<

68;6=;6 <95;,=@56= < =6 6;6=<6<. C7;+ 5=6 < 9<6 ;6@=<6<+

=6 56 <8<; < 6 9H6 68;6=;6 58< 59; 6<6 > 9

:=@6=6<6+ + =6 56 < =6 <6< < 9+ =< = 9< < 96 <

966+ 8< 5 9;5 9 8<5 < 6=6 8=H;,<=:6 &leichschaltung

9:6. A<9+ 9 8 < 5=> =6 8=66 <= M<;55+ = =6 6;5<6<

8@=6 X 6Y =6 = =9;6 = 986; 85 = :56=+ <6;5 <= E;6< @5

= 86;59 ;5 96;56= < 86H. D + =6 9<<6 =6 = E;6< 65 <

;5=+ 6>6 <;5 ;6;9; = 8; ;985 < «86;59»+ 6 6

85;:5 866< 8=:5 ;56 >6 5 66<6 85 =6 <6;+ = 956<+ =6

> 5>=656 < «<@ @6555 = 866<» X«< 86 6 ;6@= 56»Y =6

> ;=:6 <69;6=;6.

L6 6;5<6< 8@=6 =6 6 596 < :656;65 ;6 85;+ 6=> + 9 <



1

6+ ;69@ <8= 9 <;5;56 <= 866< + 6= 9+ < 865; 8 6<6<6 <

;.

S 9@65:+ = = <5 9 <>; <= 86;59 <@ 55 + =

=;9 9< :=+ = 8; 99 < «86;59 =;56=» 6 >=; 85@=9; =

6 55< 6;6 6 8; 68656 6<6 69@:+ 9 = < «86;59 96;56=».

P5@6@=9;+ 6=6 8 <8 < =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ 6< 6 ;<6 865;



1

=6 56 5@66 ;;5 85 5;5 =;56= < = =:65 < 8@=

9@= 6@H6 5=;6< <;5<. C5>65 = < >56 <6@6 >5; 6

; 985;6; 9 6<=6;+ @5 ;< <8 < = 6 ;6+ = 8; 9 @6 < =6

;5 5@66. P5 ;5 6+ = «86;59» 56 65;+ 85 9 65

. E= 986; < =6 6;6= 9656 < >;6; @5 98=669; 5:= 85

5>65+ 6 6 =6 <6< X 86 V6Y = 698 X= 6;6 = 6 =6<6 9@5 < =6 9;66Y =6 ;6 ;6< < 5: 85<; @ <;5

65;5. E 6 7;59+ @=:6 6 =9;65 6;6 7=5 =6 >;6.

P5 = >5<6<569; ; ; =6 596 = 8; 99 < =6 6=;6 =;56

9 = 85;6= < =6 <6< @5:6 <= := !I!+ : 785 =6 ;;

= < ;565965 = ;5 5@6 < =6 86. I= <H6+ : ;6<

= 56 < =6 6=;6 =;56 5>6. P5;H6 6 =6 86 95H6 < = =;+ 6

865; < = 6= <H6 < 6= 6 ;56> < ;+ 9 =6 Bildungsb7rgertum

6=966 85 6 <6< 6@5;6 6= 95; =6 6856+ =6 Bildung ;H6 =H9; 85 655@6.

A < ;6+ ¿ 6@H6 @56= 6=6@;65 =:H6 8656 = 9@5 <M=; M65;? #+ ;+ =6 <6 <656 ;5656+ 6H 9 = 6 < ;56;

9< 596 =;56= 9 95+ 6 59;6< @59656 =6 <96<6 < ;

;8 < =;56. E = 6=+ ;H6 6 X 68;6 :56=Y < «@56» <><6=

56<6 85 65;;6 < :56 856 <6=9;+ : @+ 6=;56;>69;+ <

;5@ 6 6 =6 585;6 < ;6= @56 85 865; < 6;6;+ ;59;;6

<5;5 <><6=. # ; 58 <= :56 65; =69; :65H6+ 5H6

6@5@<+ 9 ;6; ;;6 9 85;6=+ 85 865; <= <6<6 5; + :

9 85@6@= + 85 ;5;6 85:56 6 6; =:65.

6 9 ;98 6 ><6< ; 9<= < =;56 6@H6 @5>><+ 856@H6 <6< < <965 = := !!+ 85 56 6 66=6<6 ;56 8:6 < ; =@5

865;=65+ 85 = 858 56<5 = 6@6<65+ @6 9<<6+ <8 < =6 :<6

:556 9<6=. ¿Q :6< ;H6 = 9<= ;56<6= <= :56 65; 8656 =6 ><6 <

8@=6 <5; 6 R9@56<; B5]5+ ;98 6<6 > 9 98686<+ <H6 +

85 9:+ 596 < 85< <;5@ ;5 858; = < =65

=6 >;6 6 <6< < 9 < 966? ¿Q 685;6@6 =6 856 856= =6 >5

96= < «65;;6» 6 56 =6 ;6 6 56 6= =6 85< < 6

«@56»+ = 85 =6 @=6 ;=:6+ 85 6 ;6@6 =65 ;;H6 6

«@56»? ¿C= 56 =6 <56 ;5 6<5 =:6< =6 865< < 6 :6=5H6 =

;596@= = < 596 <656+ 6 9< 7:6+ 69866< < ;7; 85 =

:56= :6= < 6=+ 56< 9 6+ ;56 96 ; < 6 =6 56?

E 5; ;<+ =6 @56 ;6= ;7; 85< 9 «65;» 5 @596 6 ;6

< = <56@6 6 96: < 9 698=6<6+ 9 =6 < L;;+ 56 6=:6 6

=6 $ona Lisa. E= 65; < A< 65= @+ < 9656 <=@56<6+ 9 6;65; 65;

9 6; + < + =6 85; < 6 856 ;6 9 6== < = 9H9+ 6



1

5 ;596@= < 9: 5:566<6 < = H95+ 85<<6 966 «@56»+ <

@; <6H6 = 858 99 < =6 956<6 8< <;:5 65; = .

E= «65; 8;6=»+ 6 >;6 8656 65=6;6 ;;> 9 = :56 showman

;6<< P. T. B659+ 6@= =6 @56 < 65; H 996+ 656 8<H6 5 ;5<6 85

6=56 :56 6 ;5+ 56=<6< ;6@6 7;5 56 < =6 9;



1

<= 56<5. D69 5; <9;5 568< 7@5 ;@5 <6<

596=<H< 8<H6 <65 5: 6 =6 965 5;6 <= 65; @5;. D + 86=6@56 < R@5;

:+ «=6 9656 6@H6 86< ;< = =:65 ;6; < =6 656=<6< 9 < =6 =<».

M< := 6;+ = =669; 5:6= < 9= ;56 =6 65;+ 85 D6< ;5+ 6@H6

;;6< <;55 = 65; =6 <6< ; 7856@6 9<6; =6 85>6 = 5<H=.

C6< D698 = 8;6 @:; 6 =6 $ona Lisa+ ;=6 565+ = 6= ; 6<6 <=656 < :556 X6<9 < @596 < ;<6;Y. E= «65; 8;6=» <= ==

5 ; < 856 =6 :<6 9;6< <= := !! 65H6 < ;6= 858; 5>=65.

Q5H6 + 85 <5= 965 76;;<+ <6@6 85 ;6<6 =6 ;:56 = ;96

68;6=;6+ 85 8656 85<; < =6 «6;><6< 56;>6» 6 56 <;6@= 85

5;5 ;56<6= < =6 «@56 < 65;»+ ;6= 9 =6 856 =6 85966. N>

856;6;+ 9 85 98= :58 < 5]+ 6 9< <6 ;6+ 66@6

56 6 = 5;5 < <= > ;< = 856= < =6 96 = >5;H6

:56@6@= = 6H6 6 <;6 <=@56<69; 6;856=. O+ < + <6@6

< =6< =6 @=:6 956= =6 <8=6 < ;56@6 98=6@6 6 96;5 5;5856= < :56 6=<6< 6= 6;5 ;56<6= < = 6;9; :6 <= ;6;5+ = @6==;+

=6 856+ =6 6=6 < 5; = 5+ 85 6@=65 <= <6<5 < 5;6= 8@= 6

58;<.

L 9 =: < ;5 ; 8;65;;6 5H6 << = 858 85<; 56

6 956H6 6 =6 >;6+ 9 ;< = <9. L 9+ <6@6 ;6 < 6=: =6

<;56 <= 6@H6 << 6H6 9% 6 <6< < =;56 < 966+ = >< =6

956H6+ 6; = 95;+ =6 856=<6< = 986; 8@=. V<H6 = 5;5 =6

6+ 9;56 = 856=9+ ;6 6= 9 985+ 866@6 6 =6 9@56 = ;6=;+

6 6=;6@6+ 56 @=:6;5. E= =9; <= 6; = ><<5 <= 956<<= «:56 65;» ;56<6=+ ;6; 59;+ ;6@6 6< 68 ><H6

7; =6 >6 85< 5 9 56 56 6 558;@=+ 68<

=6 56 < <6< 5;6<6.

E= 98= 7;59 6= 58; A< 65=+ 85<;+ 2(1(+ 8H6 = 1) 85

1(( < ;<6 =6 @6;6 ;9856 X =6 6<6 <<<6 < = 5 <= 65;;6Y. A

865 < ;+ @56 ;5@; 6= 95 986; 96;56= < 6 5 <

<96=+ 85 <=@56<69; <6@= 59; < =6 ;+

6865;9; 596=+ =6 65= 985<H6 ==6 =6 9;6=<6< @; <

E;6< U<. L 7856 9 ; <;6<+ 85 5;+ < 9: <

8566+ <6+ 9<+ + 6=+ 6<956 = 65 @ < =6 ><6 96;56=+

6 ;;6=<6< @6;6; 85@6@= ;;6 = >6=; >6= 9 56 6 =6 «:56 >=6

69566» =6 5; ;98 65 = 5;5 < E;6< U<.

AH+ 6 =9; <= > 8;65; 6 6<56< = > 965 =;56=. C

9 8< <65 ;6= 6+ 8< 6<565 ;6 = = 69@ 8=66<

7859;6 6==6<69; =6 ;5;56 <= 86;59+ 9 = 6 96;< ><6 =6



1

=;56 8@=6 :566 6 > 8; < = 866 556= 5@6 6 > 86 <

7@ = ;9; >6; 8656 <65 6@<6 6= ::6;9 + : 6 985<< =

65;; 6 6 ;98+ :656;H6 < 6; ;. ¿C;6 865; <= :56 8;=

5 9=; < <+ 596+ 96:+ =5+ =@5<6< 8;= ;; =6

7856 =;56= ;9856 ==:65 6 @5>>5 9 86;59 855>6@= <;; <



1

= ; 69@6; < 55< :566=+ 6 5>> 9 9<6 retro?

¿C; < ;< == 55<65 = 9 9H9? M;56 = tsunamis =;56= <= := !!

858656 = <= !!I+ ¿ 8< 6@5=?



1

P65; III

INCERTIDUMBRES+ CIENCIA+ RELIGIÓN



1

C68H;= 13

INQUIETUD POR EL FUTURO

E7; 6 :56 <56 ;5 =6 85:;6 + ;56<6=9;+ 59=6 = ;<

656 <= 866< X«¿Q 86 =6 ;56+ < 85 ?»Y = ;55:6; << 6

65;6 6 5> < 856 6 6 55; < >;:6 ;56 6<6 > 9

698=6% «E + ¿9 6 X 5Y ;5 6 =6 :;?». L6 85956 <6< <

;56 56= <65 6 6= < =6 <6<6 < 1*$(. D< ;+ = 95 < ;;

;56@6 <<6< 6 ; «86;59» 6 =6 9956 ;56 9 86=9;+ 6 =6 :56<

:556 <= := !! 6 5< < 9< 78=>. L ;< < «9956 ;56»

;56;6 6=9; <= 866<+ < =6 956<6 5;58;>6 << 85; =;55. E= ;56@6< R65< O>5 %he $orbid !ge 85; 6 ;5 ;8 < 685796+ 9 <5;6+ 6 =6

;7;56 96= <= 866<% =6 <H= 76>6 < =6 56 88=65 contempor5neas 6 =

;6@6 << =6 ><6 < =6 :; 6 6=5<<5 6=: 8<5H69 <965 =6

«96 6H96» < =6 ;56.

A = ;55 < ; ;8 < >;:6 66; 86=+ 6 =6

66@= 5<6< =6 69@56 5< < O>5+ 8=6;6 ;6@= 85@=96 6=

;56<5. ¿Q :6 <5@5 6 9 9 656;5H;6 < 86H < 6 56? ¿Q

985;66 ==:6 6 ;5 6 9 :56=6<6 =6 <6<+ =<6 =6 :65<6 6 =656

5=6 6;9; ;5 <569;? ¿C9 9<9 :56< < 858<566 6;6 << 89 9<5=? D= 969 6;6= 8656 ; ;8 < 9<+ =6 ;6+

8<H6 <85 6; < 1*3'+ 685796<69;. E 6=5 6+ @> ; ;8 <

9 85 98=+ =6 6>5 6 = <H O<;+ 7;596<69; :56=6<6

5@H6 ;56=6<6@6 6 =6 85;6 <= 99 9< 85 865; <+ <:69+ A<= ;=5

V5:6 =. E =6 ;56+ =6 9 ;6@= << = 8; < >;6 5=:

9:6 6 >= 6=+ 56 = 99; =6 6 >>< 85 :6= ;<6

865; 9 < L<5 <56; = @9@65< 6=96 9 9 6 =

585;6 ;=;6=. ¿C9 8<9 986565=6 ;56;65=6? E 59+ ¿

8< 65 = ;56<5 ; > 698?E= ;6< < 9 8H = 6<;56 O>5 =6 6 < 5 9<+ «=

85;9; < <6;5 9;»% =6 8@=<6< <= < =6 >=6 + << = 8;

< >;6 <= 6;5+ 656;5 6 G56 B5;66 =6 86 < ;5:556. N 6 6<6

8H69; @5; 7=> <= := !! 6 =6 < 9. D + 6 = =65: <=

=;9 9= 5H6 <H= 6=65 6 86+ 6= 9 = 9< 5;6+ =6

;59 6 785 :6;>6+ 6 9< 6 = =:6 686=H8; ;5< 8656



1

@;> 78=56< =6 @56 < N596 C. XA=< 7=+ 6 ;6 585<

O>5+ > =6 ;56 9<56 «=6 96 5;56 < B=6=».Y E =6 ;56 < E586+ 6 56

=656 8656 65965 =6 6 < «;5» X <6 ; 9 <6Y >>9 @6

6 6966+ 6 6 85 865; < 9: 7;5 <9 ;5+ 5=;6 786=.



1

L6 @56 856 <;5 < ; :5+ 6 ;56 <= 9< =6 E586 <;6= << =

:= !IV 6;6 858 <= !VIII+ 5;6 85 &6 D=96 XLa peur en ;ccident + 1*)'Y+ <5@

66=6 6 >=6 >> «9<6» « 866 < 9<» 8@=6< 85 «6;6H6

95@<6»+ 8=:5 9< 6;=:. E= 85@=96 < O>5 + 6 <56 <

D=96+ = <56 ; 9< 6 56 6 7856 8=:5 56=+ 6=

9 G56 B5;66+ <<+ : = :56=+ =6 8=H;6 =6 <6< <8=965 =6 >=6 ;> 5 ;5 =6 < :556. ¿P5 + ;+

«85H< 69 85 8@=6 < C66<56 &59H6+ 6<65 6 ;55 =6 96:

88=65 < = 6 < ;5:556 9 6 ;686 < 6<6<+ <<6 9<»?

C 6@5+ =< :+ @5 ;< @5==6; = < =6 ;6+ %he $orbid !ge

<96566 =6 <;;6 @56 < =6 78;6;>6 6;6;56 =6 95; <= 68;6=9+ =

;95 6 =6 6H<6 <9:56 =6 558+ «= 86= =6 ;56 6=»+ = 9< 6

=6 :556 @5 ;< 6 ;56> < = ;7;+ 8@= 85>6<+ < D=96+ =

99 86+ ==69 «= ;H6 =6 86=6@56 = 8<5». E <H6+ 56 = =5:

6;= =6 86 < O>5+ 6 = < ;=;6= @5: 856 5=7>6 < =6=6 8=H;6. L6 ;;6;>6 < 6865 < = <6;5 6;86< 85 = 869 = = 6;5

<96 «8=H;6 ;86» <56 8586=9; 9 ;56 5 < H;96 < =6

8<96 <= 899.

D9 85 @+ 85 656+ 65;6 6= 6@=65 < =6 :6;><6< < «= ;H6 =6 86=6@56

= 8<5»+ 8 6 6=:6 78 @>6% = >;:6<5 6@H6+ R;55<+

;6@6 >>< = <H6 < :=56 < =6 6 6;56= = :5 >H6 =H9; 6=

;5 85:5 < =6 ;=:H6+ >6 >6 = 65 98565 < 985

6=6 9796 7; 86 < ;5:556 6 865H6 ;65 @ ;5=6<

X6=> = E;6< L@5 I5=6<Y = 5;5 =;5 <= :5 < ;5:556 85 7=6+=6 >=6 < <;;>+ =@56@6 9< < :5<6< 956= 6=+ < ;6@=<6<

5;656<6 ;56 6 ;558 ;9856=. L6 85:;6 @>6 =6 :;% ¿6;6 8; =6

8 < 6 95H6 686<6< < 86=6@56 585;6 6 = 56 < ;5;6 9== <

=;5 56 @<; 56= 1*31+ @ 5 6=:6 =6 @5 ==?

E =6 E586 < D=96+ 6 6= < =6 E<6< M<6 858 < =6 86 9<56+

8<5H69 <65 6 58;6 @6;6; :5<6<. E = O<; 5;6 < 85H<+ 6@H6

=6 5: ;5 = = 65<; 85<6<5 5H6 = = = 856;6@6

X6 56 ; 8<69 ;98=65= 9 ;< :5;Y. E= =5 < =6 R96

6;=6 :6@6 6 ;98 < 6;5<6< ;=;6= 85;6. P5 ¿ =6 ;

85; ;>5+ = 6 < ;5:556+ =6 86=6@56 < C65= B=6]5 X< =6 S<6<

E:6Y+ < V56 B5;;6+ C5= B5;+ G. D. . C=+ L65< D65J+ G. LJ D]+ E. M.

F5;5+ E<J65< G=>5+ &. A. @+ A=< &=6 7=+ S;59 &69+ E5; &+ 5

A5;5 ;+ & M665< + = 65@8 C9 L6:+ B6= L<<== 65;+ B5i6J

M6=J]+ G=@5; M556+ P=8 N=,B6]5+ G5: O5J==+ =5< A5;5 P@+ B5;56<

R==+ B565< S6J+ A5=< T@+ S< B6;5 @@+ . G. == L65< V5:6



1

= X85 ;965 = = 6 < = 5;5 86 9 < < =H6 = H< < O>5Y?

A 9 ;6 = 586=< < 6 985;6; 66 <;56= < 85<

9 56 = 6 < =6 5>;6 Aew 8tatesman < V;5 G==6 := M65; 6

>5<6<56 5:66 < 966 9 =6 U 85 =6 S<6< < N6+ < =5< R@5; C=+

=6 86;6 U <= &569; < P6+ < C6 S8865<+ 6==6 856 ;>5 =6 86=6@56+

85 8 9. C9 = := !I!+ <85 < @6 6 8656 6@=6 < ==



1

55 5;6 =6 @5 =6 8=H;6 =6 6<9;56+ = ;55 6;6< < =6 =;

;6@=<6+ 85;H6 6 ==6 85 69; 6@H6 < 5< 85 ==6 86=9;

85;H6 6 =6 5< < =6 «65;566 ;=;6=» < N= A6+ 9 < >65 <

= 56=< <= <= 9<. P5 ¿6;6 8; <6 9<=65 =6 «8 8@=6»

<6@6 56 <= 9@; < 5@H6 =H6 =6 65;6 <= %imes = Aew 8tatesman?

L 5; <89 < 8 < < 6H <56 =6 =;56 =6 596 <><6 < =6 =6 ;56@66<56 =6 =6 9<6,@66 < =6 86 < ;5:556+ ;55 <=

86 =6 >;:6 < ; =@5. G56 F=<+ G5: F59@ B< F=66:6 >>5

856< = <559@ 6=+ ;698 = ;6;5 <= ; E<. L < 6 7856 95@6+

=6 =6 ;56@66<56 < =6 >;< < R65< ::65; X 9H6+ ;69@Y ;6@6 596<6

8586=9; 85 :; «;H6 =6 6 < 8<5 65 9 58; 6 =6

; 8586= < 5;66+ <6< < >>5= <856 <8

+ ==69;+ 9 6 56=<6<». C5;69;+ 9 6=6 O>5+ = 8;6=65 6 <

= 9< < 966 859; «=6 <6 =65» < 86<5 95@ <<56

85 ;<6 865;. S 9@65:+ =6 < <= 899 ;=;6= ;6@6 ;5 = @;>< =6 985; 8=H=6+ 56 < = 85< < 966 6=665 ;56<6 < <

9== 9 6 858 < =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ 6 =6 56< < =6 BBC+ 6 =6 6<H6

6 ;< = 9< 6 9<6< < =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ < 6 >5 6 56 8H96

:;65H6 O>5 @56 == < 59 85<. N 65 <

5=>66 = < %he Listener + 9859H6 65=6 <@6; 56<+ ;>56 6

;56<6 < ;6 < 9= 98=65 1*3"+ 5; 6 = 2+4 9== < Radio %imes.1

E= =@5+ 5>=6< =6 <6<6 < 1*3( 85 P: G==6+ 6 ;<6 5;6

=6 596 9 ;>6 < < ;=;6=% 8656 = :5 < =6 =6 @556 966=+ 8656 =6

«=@5» 6 :6@6 «5>;6»+ 8656 = < <6 6;:6 = 58+ 6<6 > 9;5<+ < 6856; 6;<<6;6 6 8=H;6. S: <6 =6 ;6 6= 8 <

O>5+ = ;5 == 56 8 5; 6 ;56<6 < 9 < ;6 9= 98=65 ;56<6

>6=; 6= L; B] C=@ 6=: 855 6 85>;6 < =6 86+ 6=>6< = ;

9 < 85:556 < 1*3',1*3*. L6 6<956@= >;:6 < O>5 @5 = 5:;5 < =

<;5 9;56 =6 >=6 < 6=;5 G5J< @5 =6 <85+ Love on the 9ole X«A95

= 865»Y >< 4$.2*( 98=65 ;5 1*33 1*4( X«8 85<; =;56= < =6 5

==:65 6 8@= ;6 7;»Y. E= 8;6= < =;5 < =@5 1*31 X;6< = 99

:58 =6 6;:5H6 < «856= 9856=» <= =6 < «=5:

98=6< 6=:»Y 5<6@6 = < 9== 9< <= ;;6= < = 6 ;5;6 9== <

=;5 @5;.

C5;69;+ «=6 ; < 6=: 86<5 <; X >>Y» 85 6<68;65 =6 56 < M665<

<< 85 9< ;6 >6= 9 ;+ 85 6 5; < 9

9<6; =6 6= 8 8; 5<< 98=6< < 596 56<6= «=6

85>>6 <= 9 68;»+ «68;6=9»+ «98= < 55<6<» «= ;» ;56

< 6=: 9< = <5 8@= 85>6< 9 9656 5<6. A ;



1

5;5 ;6 =67+ >656 < =6 85> 6;H<6 < O>5 686 6=5 <= H5= < =

;=;6=+ 6;>;6 586@= < =6 < 66= @5 ;< = ;95 < =

<9:56 6 <8=9 < =6 8@=6 X =: <9;5 5 <6<Y =

6;6 8=6 ;5 < = <5 < =6 :6 8656 =965 6 = << 9

:;69; 55. M65 S;8 < 985;6 G56 B5;66 85 6@:65 6 6>5 < =6



1

;5=6 < = @596=+ 9 =6 856 <= ;5= < 6;6=<6<+ =6 966

@5;6 < =6 86 ;98=65 9 55 ;= 965 6 =6 85;6 ;56<6= <=

coitus interruptus.

S= 6==H << =6 8 8@=6 9865;H6+ < 596 8;6+ = 9< =6 56

< =6 =; ;=;6= 8<H6 ;7; 5>5 9 785 < ;6< < 9 @5;

:56=6<. E 6 :5 <H6 = 85@=96 ;56= < =6 86+ = ;95 6 =6 :55685@6@=9; ;69@+ < 6=: 9<+ =6 5 < =6 9H6 X@5;6Y. E ; ;<+ =

@5; >>5 < :<6 96 9 :5 O>5 =6 856 586 <

;5:556. C9 = 56+ >>5 = 5 55< < = 66; =;> < =6

«G56 G556» X= 6 9 ;>Y =6 85@6 >>; < = 85>>;

<:56< =6< 6==6@6 =6 6==. L <6<6 @5; 5 56=;6 6= ;95

;56 :556. S@5 ;< 6 865;5 < 1*33+ =6 :556 8=6 @5 ><6 @5 =6 ><6 < =6

95 6 ; =@5 @5 =6 G56 B5;66 < ;5:556 :65<6 = 6= 58;+

9 @5 =6 < = 9@5.

E =6 9856; :<6 865; <= =@5+ O>5 >6 6<5 = 698 < =6:<6 :556 9<6= 95<6 58;6 9 ;56<5 <5@ < 9< @5==6; =6

6 < + =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ 6>6@6 6 6;;5 >;6@= = 869

6@=; @6;65H6 6 <;5. P5 6H 8569; 85 ;56;6@6 < ;6< < 9

<856<+ 98656@= 6= 7856< = 8;6=65 99 <= 59 5; <=

:@5 @5 =6 :556 =65+ 1*""+ ;6< 85 P;5 X«Q ; 86H 6 686 <

5;5 6;6 :56= 8 6 == :5 < < ;65 =6 ;=<6< 5=;6

9 <<»Y. E 1*3*+ 56+ 9 ;985 ;H6 ;5 78;6;>6 =6 < 955

=6 :556 85796 O>5 ;6 9 8586 9956 6 9< < 98=+ 85 ;

98< 865 =6 :556 <@H6 =@565+ :665H6 =6 >;56 8<5H6 ==>65 6 6 <6<95.

L6 56 @5;6 6; =6 5 < =6 9H6 66= = 85H< < ;5:556

5 9 98=6+ 85 6H = 65:9; < = 68;6=9 @5; ;H6 9 9;>

< 6=6596 55+ <<6 6=:6. E =6 <6<6 < 1*2(+ = @5; 865H6 ;5 9;>

9 ><; ;56 6 8656 ;65 85 = ;5 < 9H6. L6 85< 6@5=

@5;6+ 686 :6= ;< = 9<+ < 85 <@6 < = >= < 1*13 = =

95 99; < =6 <6<6 < 1*2(+ 6< =6 85< 9<6= 856@6 "( 85 1(( =6

56 < 6; < =6 :556 ;66 < <98=+ 9 85 96 < =6 6=966 =6

;6<<+ 69 @6 <= 1( 85 1((. N 7;56 =6 G56 D85 6;6 6 ;5

86H 9 <56 6 6 G56 B5;66 6 ;69@6=6; 85 >6= =6 86 55<65 =

986; < 1*2* ;6 <569; 9 8656 65 + 1*31+ = 86H 6@6<6 = <

<69; ;=: < <;<6< 96 <= !I!% = =@5 95 = 86;5 5. L6

965H6 < =6 ;6 < O>5 @5 =6 ;6 858;>6 96 ; 6<6 6; < 1*34.

S <<6+ =6 5 ; = 65<+ ;5 =6 =6 686<6< < 86=6@56+ < = ;96

8<H6 ;65 9 6;+ 6 56 85 = <; < @6 <= 68;6=9 85 = « <=



1

laisse2"faire» 66< 85 1*2$ 85 = <@6; @5 = ;5 68; < =6 9H6

56 6=;6+ 56 9<=6< 85 68;6=9 5596<+ 9 ;5>;6

«8=66<» <65 5;5:< ;5;69; 6 6 95H6% =6 85956+ < 6;6 9<

9== < 856 >=6<6 6 = 9>9; <6= =6 :<6+ 85@6@=9; ;6@6 <

8 ;65 < = G569 6@5H6 <96< «;=;6= 5:» < =6 =6

:@56; @5;6. P 6 ;<+ =6 9956 :5 O>5 65;6 6= 865 =6 56



1

9 7;<<6 6; = 85@=96 < =6 9H6 ;5 = @<; <= 5 <;66< < =6 86=6@56

5;6+ 56 < = > 8569 < =6 6;:6 5: <;56=+ 56 ;6; =6 6

< « = 68;6=9 6@6+ <@5H6 65= 9 = 6H6».2 # =6 9<<6

= «6=9» 7;< 9 6== < = 6;>;6+ 6;6 = 2* 85 1(( <= =;56<

@5; >; 6= P65;< L6@5;6 = 99; < 9 88=65<6< <56; = 6 <

;5:556+ ; 585;6@6 6 858;>6 956= =6 = 68;6=9 <65H6 ;56596<85 =6 96:6 < =6 66=6.

P5 =6 56 = 6=9 68;6=9 8=66< 98=6@6 95@<6<+

<856 6 < A86=8. A9@ 8; < >;6+ <;;6 596+ 865;H6 <=

858 < 8<H6 <@H6 8565 6==6 5+ 6=;6< 85 6=: 865H6 5

9656>==69; 9 6 =6 G56 D85% = 8=6 6= >;+ =6 <6<6

< 1*3(+ ;6= 9 65;6<69; 6=6 O>5+ >5;5 =6 86=6@56 «8=6» «8=66»

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1*3(+ 6== = 8<H6 =:565= <6< 9 =6 URSS+ = 596 ;6=;6.

E 6==6 86+ 8656 = <9 < > 86=;6 =6 6 6;56=+

865H6 =:+ 6= ;98 65+ 8665 < =6 6 6 =6 8=66 8@=6. P5 6 865;+ =

8 :58 < >;:6<5 85+ 56=6@6 <@59; 6<6 5 X« ;

:=5 > 9< < =6 6»+ 9 < = > B56=Y+ 56 ; < >>5 6 86

;56;. L6 5>= << 1'*" >H6 << 698 6@H6 6:56< 6

56 < 85:5 8;6=65+ =9;6< 686 < ;565965 = 9<+ ;6; =

9; 9 = ;5= < =6 6;56=6. S= = ;H 6@H6 65=. S= == 56

>5<6<5 <5 < 8;6=. B56= 56 = 59=65 ;56 6<6 @5

«=6 596 < = ><5». S ;5@ 8H6 =6 9 <56<56 6 =6 6596

<= 8<5 < =6 6 ; 66=65 9 =6 6 6@6 < 9 6:;



1

6= ;=;6= 9 =6 <@H6 5:665 8656 :5 <655== ;>.

T6 ><; 9 ;< ; 56 =6 :566 < :@56@6 = 9< <;6=. E56

;6 8;6=65 9 = 5 566 9=;65 9 6 865;5 < 1*14. E56 <= ;<

686 < 6;65 6 56 < 6=69; 5>=65 + ;6= 9 >< = 6;6=9 <

=6 9H6 68;6=;6 = 9< ;5+ 6 56 < 8@56 9< < =6 6@<66. XA

858 < =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ =6 «<6< 6=» = «@;65 66=» ;565 = =7



1

8@= < =6 6 @5;6.Y L6 <6< ;6@6 ;H. A+ ;56<6=9;+ =6

>;:6 =6 ;5H6 6@H6 9;56< 566 6 =6 ;5>56 8=H;6+ 656 = ;H+

6@H6 96;< 6= 965:+ ;H6 ;565 :;656 =6 56 < =6 6;><6<

8@=6+ 9 :58 < 8586:6<;6 < =6 6 H+ 9 85;6 85 9=;6;. #

<< = 99; ;=5 @ 6= 8<5 6 A=966 96@6 =@5 <96@6 6

>;:6<5+ = ;H 8665 6 5 =6 :=56 < E586+ ;6; <5 <=;5 < =6 >=6. E ; 99; ;6 56=+ =6 6865; 9<6< < =6 URSS 6 =6 G56

D85 <65<; 6 =6 9H6 < 956< =6 «8=66» 86556

59< 6= < ; 9=6:569; 9<6;. L6 R6 >;6 >5;+ 5; 9<+

9<= = 8656 = 56 @=>. M 6== < =6 5;56 ;6;6=

<=:6+ «=6 8=66» 6;56 6 = 6=;6 5H6 ==6 85 9;> <=:+ 6

= ;H = ;56;6 =6 856;6@6 < ;< 9< 6 = 8=H; 9865 6

;965 6 < =6 <85 =6 :556 =6 6@H6 >5;< 6 <6<.

E : < 6965:6 5H6+ =6 ;56 << = 965 < = =:5 <= 85:5

8=66< 9<6; =6 9>=6 ;6 < 856+ 8=H;6+ 6 8566 6= =6 <6< @6+ =6 >;56 6 ;56> <= 5 @= ;;6=. L6 :<6 :556 9<6=

< < 8=H;6 ;H6 >5; =6 6 56=<6< 6 56=<6<+ 6

>+ < 86<==6. L6 @9@6 6;96 =6 68=6 6= < 8=H; =@56< ;56

;=5 1*3* 85 = 7859;6<5 ;5 =65 9 85. E= =; =

; =6 85< < B56= @5 =6 <6< < 6 «:56 6» 8=66<6

859; 6<5 6 > 9@; <= ;<9; =6 ;=<6< 6=+ ;69@ ;>

65=6 56=<6<. N 6@H6 ;5 9< < ;55 6596 =65. L6 :556+ = =6 :556+

;5:65H6 6 =6 6 =6 ;=:H6 =65+ 866= :56<6 85 5<6<5 = 55

=6 ;5;56 < 68 98= 69@6 <8=6 6;6 ;565 =6 :<6 9;6< <= :=. #9 < 96 966 8<5 > =9;6<+ =6 :556 68 <= ;5=

>5; =6 5=6 ;5 @5 685<. L @5+ 56<5 < 6== 8<5 ;

< 8=:5+ >5 < 6= 5;65 6 = 685< ;6@6

5:==H6 < ==. L 6<5 < =6 @9@6 >5;5 9=;6; 6;=65 +

<56; =6 :556 5H6+ @; < =6 86 = <85 < =6 6@6.

R@5; O8895 D9< B56= X+ 6 865;5 < 1*4"+ 85@6@=9; 86 9 ;98

6< 69866 ;56 =6 :556 =65 856;6< 6=5 ;56 < 96 6;><6<Y

;>5 ;5 =6 956 >H;96 < ;6 >5+ 6 < 9< <;;. E 5;

;<+ = 6 < O8895+ = 8586= 65;H < =6 @9@6 6;96+ = 9 ;5:. E=

6 < 9: =6 66 < @56 6 9;< =6 76 < 5=6 =

9;6 6; < =6 :556 = 78=65 < =6 ><6 8@=6 6H<6 9 :56<+ = 6

;56 =+ @>69; 6=. B56=+ 85 865;+ 585< < + <6<6 =6

8=H;6+ 6 865;5 < 1*4" = ;56;6 9 «5: 8656 =6 :5<6<». S 9@65:+ ;5

68;+ 6 ;6 ;5: 9 = < O8895+ 8; = 5 65 = 99

9865;H6 = > 8=H;,;H6 <= ;5+ 85 8555 <5=6



1

56<6=9; < <56; =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ 85>6< = 5: < 5;6 ;5

858;6 <56; =6 :556 5H6.

E = ; 9 <= P; A5 < B5=H+ 1*4'+ S;6= << 5565 =6

5;6 < =6 URSS ;56 =6 =;56 <=:6 ;5 8=:5 < O<;

9<6; 6 < e) catedra : =6 6=+ 6<=6;+ 6@5H6 < 6 ;= ;5 H. S=

6 < ==6 56 55;6 @=:6;56 8656 ;< = 9;6+ 85 = P65;< =6 6@H6



1

6;56<. E =6 ;59=:H6 96H;6+ 56 9 985;6; 5 «5» «785;». D ;+

< =6 8=96 @5 =6 6;56=6 < =6 585< 5:6+ ;56;6@6 = 6; L]+ +

<5;69; «6;56< + < + <;6< 85 S;6=» X;6= 9 <9;56 >;:6

5;Y+' ;59 =6 56 < =6 «6 56»+ 9 85 ;56 865; 6@H6 8565. B56=

<65<; 6 H 99 6= <65 9 855<6< 6 =6 @=:6 < «5 5» 6 =6 < «5

785;».S 6 < =6 5H6 ;56+ S;6= 6@H6 =:< 9 6@6 < ;5 < =6 5;<76

8569; = 698 < =6 >;:6 =6 6 < =6 ><6 9 6@H6 656< 6 =

;H <;6= 6= 869; >;+ = 6@H6 85<< 6 = 9657;6

986;6; 9 9; < ;<6 =6 56 < =6 «6 56». E R6+ = :;;6 56

856 >=56@= 85+ 6 <56 < = H 96;9; 6 <@H6 859;5

;56@665 6 9656 <8<;9; < 86< <=:+ == 56@6 6596

;698+ 6 5; 8=6 6= 9 68656+ 55 ; 956 8656 =6 6:5=;56.

L6 85@=9;6 ;5H6 6:5@=:6 < T. D. L] 5 <=656<6 6=9; 55;6+

96;56=;6+ 85:5;6 86;5;6 5; 6 =6 :;6 @5:6+ 7;5656+ 6;86;5;6+=;6 56656. XE= 5=;6< + 9<6;69;+ 56 < ;5 9= @=:

85<5 8; < ;56@6 6=: =@5;6<.Y E = 6; L]+ =6 <;56 >;6 =6

85;6 >;6 5=;65 76@= 85 :6=.

T<6>H6 6 =65< 85 B56=+ 6 =;65 ;5 = ;H <;6=+

<< =665 6:5> 6=:6; 8@= <6 < 69@6+ 6 565965= 6 <8

6 >5H9= 5=:6 <= «S;6= ;H». N @6;6 6<5 8 = <@5 <= 865;<

85 96 < =6 6 ;H6+ 85 ;;6;>6 < ;65 ;=;6=9; 6 L]

686 8<H6 >5= 6 = 99. T69;+ 56 56 99@5 < 865;<

9;6. S 9@65:+ 85 ; H 56 6 :56 8@=6 985;6; =6 56 ;566=< =6 URSS. P5@6@=9; = 9>5 6 == =6 ;< 85 =6 86 9<6= =6 8566 <

=5 = 69@ >>H6 <;5 < =6 U S>;6. T6= 9 9;56 B5J+ ;59

6< 69: <; < &5>. F56 6= 9;>+ 6==6 8;56

< 6<6 8656 =6 66 < B56=+ 8656 8586 856+ 8656 58;6.

B56= 566 <;@=9; @;> 8=H; + 6 6 96; :6 5H;6

66 =6 U S>;6+ ;> ;5 <86< = 55; 6 8566 8=H;6.

T> 6 =6 9 855 9 85;6 =6 5:66+ ;5;56 66 8@=6< =6 6 <8 < 1*4". 6 9 5<5 < ;56@6+ << 85; 9 =

CERN 6= «H< < ;6». P5+ 9 ;H+ ¿ :?

S 9 8 = ;H 6 <85;6< 9 6<956 ;5 =:6. «E= 6=6

<= 5@5 < B56= 56 =:<65»+ 5@ &9 6;+ 9@5 8 <6< 6 = ;9;

< 55<6<. «# >H6 6 B56= 9 :»+ 5@ F56 C5]+ 9865; = 859

N@= 6;. L P6=: 5H6 B56= 56 = ;H 9 @5==6; 69 @56



1

<. S @:56 6 =6=6< <=656 < 6= 9 < 859 N@=+ 965

95 B56=+ =6 96;6@6 «6<956 = @5:9;». P 6 ;<+

=6 8586 >56=<6< < ;5+ 8586 >=<6< < 58;6 =6 9866

:; = ;;6@6 6 6=65 < =6 ;56 6= 8656 :5 5=;6< 6856@=.

E 85@6@= =6 <=656 9 9 56 =6 C. P. SJ 5@ 1*$4%



1

E 6; 6 <; 6;56=+ 786= = ;H 9 <; < 86+ 6 ==;9 <= <5+

;<+ 6@H6 6 ...# 6 6H =:5+ 8 6 5 9 ;6@=+ 865 = 6=; <

=;6 9 8<5H6 6@5<<. E ;< = 9< 6 6 :56 6;<6< < 65;H= ;H 5; 85 ;5 6;

<@ 5H: 6

B56=. P5 = 6 65< 865; < =6 @ 656;56 6 =6 965H6 < ;H = ==>6 6 98=;65 <= ;<

@56 56;>6. S B56= @56 8H< ;6 =6 < @+ 6@5H6 <866< :56 865; < =6 9<56 @=:H6 9==65

6@5H6 :66< 859 N@= 58;<69;.*

¿D@9+ 85 ;6;+ ;5 85 8 < =:5? E 6 8656<6 <= 9;

;H + 85 = < 5 69=6;> X6 <56 < 6=:6 < =6 65; 56;>6Y+ 6

856= = 55<69 85 = 85;6:9 856= 6 56 =6 = 85:5

=;> <8<; < =6 856 85 H =6. L 965 : < =6 6

;569; ;;@=+ 85 >6 6@5H6 ==:6< < =6 96 < ;5+ 9 85; 9 ;65<+ >;6@=9; 596 865; < 6 9856 =;>6 ;6;+ 6 <56 < =

< S6]865 M65;+ 5 = 586@= < @56. 569 6

M<=> 95<69;+ 85 = =9; H9 6@5H6 ;56< ;6@=6 85<6

=. L 9@5 < C5]+ 6; =]+ = 859 N@= < 1*$2+ 585;6 6

5:9; < >;:6<5 8@= 6>6 <> ;65 <655==6<

<6. P5 ;56 865;+ = 969 < 5986 59; 856= ;;96

6<6<69; =6 ;5@ < 9@5 9 B56=+ 6 6= 9 6;5 < <H8=

:665 859 N@= = ;5 6 < 1*$2 6 1*$4+ ;65 6 C5]+ 6@H6 5<

;56@665 8656 =+ 6 R6=< F56]=+ <= =6@56;5 < B56=+ 6@5H6 <;66< =6 99665556 @56 6==< 6;. L6 @56 < B56= =<6 9 @ 98=+ 6

6;956.

P5 9 69 ;9 5 ;56 6 < =+ ;< = 9< 6@ 85

<== R;: = 698 ;H% <@5 = 56 ! «56 < R;:»

1'*". 6;6 2(12+ 8 6@H6 56 ::+ 85 < 9@5 6= 9;5 «@

< ::»+ @5 = = H ==>6 6 <@6;<. P5 =6 6+ 6<6 ==>6 8656 985

= 9@5 < B56=. L6 965H6 < = = 5 ;5 = 986; < 7;565<656

:56 6 95; 6. C6< 95 =6 :56 58<5 <5;69; 6= ;H9=

< 6= 9@5 < ;5@ 85=965 86<6+ 58;6 <6

7=>69; 96 < = ;56<5. E;+ 6<9 < 785; =6 ;56 < =6 6+

;69@ <@5 5 9@5 95 686 < 5;55 = 69@; = ;98569; <

86 < 6;;5 :=@6= 8566 :=@6= 6< < 6< 8<6 55<65=. A

865;5 < 656+ = =@5 < A<5J B5J 5 8; < 865;<6 >;6@=.



1

C68H;= 1"

UN MANDARÍN CON GORRO FRIGIO% &OSEP NEEDAM

S6=> 85 =6 < < S;6 C== < =6 696 «56 R<» < 1*"*+ =6 6;6=<6<

686 55<6 =6 :56 @6;6==6 + ;5 6 «=6 < =;56»+ 5; 6 =6 6 =6 65;

C69@5<: =6 8@=6 ;=;6= < =6 G56 B5;66 < =6 86. E ==6+ = 6

=><6< C. P. SJ X1*(",1*'(Y 5>< = 868= ;56= < =6 6 =6 6;6 ;56 =

<96@6 «;=;6= =;565» < 9< ;+ 85 8586 >=6 956

@5 =6 8566+ = 8<5 = 85;: ;6 96 6 656 <= 8@= < =6 ><6

66<96 < 85H<. E 5; ;<+ ;56; < 6 8=96 @5 =6 <6<6 < 1*3(% 6 <

:=56 8656 = ;H+ 85 96=+ <; = <856@= 8656 8;6

<86<. E ;< 9 ;5;+ 9@6; =@56< =6 5;6:65<6 < C69@5<:;5 =6 65; =6 6 6;56=+ 6 =6 6 9 :56 < H 996+ 69 6 < 6=665

;6 < 859 N@=+ 6@<56 < =6 ;56 :56<6 X 66Y < =6

>5<6< 565H6+ 8586=9;+ 96. P5@6@=9;+ 6<6 55;6@6 9 6 =

855 < 65; =6 :5<6< < = ;H 5H6 = 69 <= ;5. E ;<

9 698=+ =6 8=96 ;56;6@6 < =6 5=6 ;5 =6 56 =6 96:6. D< = 8; <

>;6 < SJ+ = ;H ;6@6 6 ;56+ 9;56 = ;=;6= =;565

6@6 6;6=9; 85 :566 85 865 < =6 6 = ;5. E 56=<6<+ = 6

< =6 < =;56 ;6@6.

A SJ = =6 96+ 85 < 9< ;6 6@5< 9 6 8586= 6;6:;6+ F. R.L6> 6+ SJ ;H6 56. D56; =6 85956 9;6< <= := !!+ =6 @56 ;5 69@6

=;56 85@6@=9; 9 698=6 < = 6@H6 < 6+ 6= 9 G56 B5;66+ <<

=6 =6 <656 6 8656@6 =6 «65;» < =6 «6» << = 6;5 6.

E 56=<6<+ = ;=;6= <= 65; ;H6 6 6 =6 6+ 85 <H6 = 99 6

=6 >56+ 8; =6 <6 @6 < =6 =6 6= 6=;6 985 6@H6 < < =;56 =6

5<<6 9<6< ;H6 < =6 86 85>H6 <69;6=9; < ; ;5.

A 6H+ 5=;6 69@5 = ;56; < ;5 =6 >65<6< < 9; ;5

< :58 < ;H < ;5:556 <<6< 965H6+ 6 =+ 6 =6 @=:H6

=6 =9;6 < = ;5:65 6= 65;. E= :58 < = 8;6 9 5 < =6 <6<6< 1*3( X6=> E98+ Y 6<956@6 =6 ;=:H6 9 ;;96 ;<6 6 ;55 < 6=;6

; < 896+ 85+ 6 <56 < = 8;6 59; < 858 <= := !I!+

865 6@5 ;< 6 < >>5 6 56 < 85<: ;H. S== 6; :

68; &. B. S. 6=<6 5 = =;9 8;6 ;>5 6= <H6 < =6 >= < =6

H96. P5 = ;565+ = ;H 8<H6 <65 56 @5 = 65; 56H XB56=Y+ 5@5

=@5 @5 ==69 B=6] XB5J]Y+ 5@5 ;H;= 5H < 96 XC. . 6<<:;Y+



2

>;:65 = ;55 < =6 5=: 98656<6 X9 = 858 &. B. S. 6=<6Y + 85 96

< ;<+ 5@5 ;56 @ 5;5.



2

T69@ ;H6 ;<6 6 9@65+ 85 =6<+ =6 <6 96:6<6 85 = 65; =6 6

+ 85 ;5 =6<+ =6 5:H6 =9;6<6+ = 695 =@5+ =6 7;5<6< =6 8=H;6 5>=656. E

6 9@6 599; 656;5H;6+ @5 ;<+ < =6 86 < ;5:556 9

5;69;+ < = 6 ;5;6. E= 6 9 ;H8 = < &8 N<69 XL #+

96<65HY+ =6 9;6=<6< 9 ;56; ;5 =6 ;=6 < = @5==6;

;H «5» < 6==6 <6<6. T69@ + + = 6 9 6=+ 8 8< 665 =6> = 985;69; 5>=65 =6 68;6 85 865; <= 9<

=<6< <= *ho@s *ho+ 6;6 5 9@56< <5;5 < ;5 >5;65+ C69@5<:+

5 <56< 9 C9865 < 5. E = 6 < =6 :556 5H6+ ;< = 9< :6@6

<= 6; 85 9 8656 65556 @5>>56 6= < 6@5 66< 6=69;

6 E;6< U< < 65 6596 @6;5=:6 =6 :556 < C56.

S <<6+ =:5 5 9856;. L6 :56 @56 =8<6 < N<69+ 8cience

and (ivilisation in (hina+ ;5659 = 9; ;H6 @5 = ;96 < =6 6

>=6 6 ;6; O<; 9+ @6 9<<6 ;69@+ =6 8586 C6. E;

;; 85; <96+ 9 56 < 8565+ =6 >H><6 @:56H6 6 8@=6< 5;9;S9 ;5+ 5;5 86=6< =@5 5=66 6 856 :56< =:5.

E= ;H;= 5:6= ;> ;6 @:56H6 E;6< U< %he $an *ho Loved (hina X«E=

9@5 69 C6»Y. L6 ><6 < N<69+ 6; < ;5656 5:H6 9

C6+ <866 >;;5 8:6 8 6=56<6. N 9;59 ;6 ;

=@5 ;6 =:@= < 95< 7; 6= 65965 8< 85;65 9 6 >6=6

=@56<6 < 7;565<65 <<6< ;96.1

E= 8595 >=9 < (iencia y civili2aci1n en (hina <5; 85 5H;

6=@5:6@6 986;H6 66 =6 8=H;6 = 985;69; 856= < N<69 9 « =

965 6; <><6= < H; ;56 96 ;5=;56= 69 69;< 85 6=6 856». L6 96:;< < =:5+ 6H 9 5=>66 = := !!I+ :656;6 =

55<65 85 ;. A N<69 =:< 8656 :565 =6 R6= S<6< < L<5 6 =

65;6 6+ ;56 =6 8@=6 < 7; ;< Biochemistry and $orphogenesis+

858 ;56@6 ;H 85@6@=9; 69 6@5H6 6=66< = >= < 859 N@=+

;698 865 6@5 856< 6 ;5 = :56+ 6 <56 < = 55< &. D.

B56= &. B. S 6=<6. P5 ;56 865;+ = 6 6@H6 96;6< 69@ 9 ;56<5 < =6

6 96;56 ;5< 9 6:6;56 C69@5<: 6 <8 = ;5

>=9 < =6 (hemical mbryology .2 AH = 59 = ;6< < =6 ; = 698

< =6 @H96+ = 699 6 9856; ;56 85;56 < =6 96;56+

=: ;69@ > =6 = 9 ;6=. E;6< 6 95 = 6; + 6 85;

55;@= @ < =6 «;56 856;6= < =6 H96» =6 ;5< 6 %he (hemistry of Life+3

=6 <5@H6 =6 6;:6 56 = «=; >;6=» 9 6 «85;=:H6 9;6»

>6=6@6 = >H= ;5 =6 6=96 =6 > <= B<; ;5 =5 9;.

S585< ;6; 9 6= 8@=65 X = <9 < 5 =56JY =@5; 88=65

@5 = 868= < = levellers X«>=6<5»Y <56; =6 5>= :=6.



2

L6 ;56 = 6;>9 8@= ;>5 = 56 < =6 «6 56» < = 6

;5;6. U <6 9656>==6< 6; =6 ;<6< =6 >65<6< <= 8;5 < 6;><6<

66<96 7;5655=65 < ; ;H. E = 6 < N<69+ = 85 =6

«C6» < =6 6@=6 = 9@5 <655==6< < =6 U+ 9 <6<5 8595 <5;5 <



2

=6 S < C6 N6;56= < ;6 5:66 X1*4$,1*4'Y. P5 56 ;

6@6< ;56@6 ;5+ 6 = 85; 5=6;> 6 =6 ;56 ;H6 =;56= < =6

96<6<+ 85 = ;5+ >6= 9 =><65=.

L6 ;56 56 56= 8656 = ;H 5+ = 85 6@H6 6 86 <

69@ 7;565<65. L6 6 < >= ;56596 6 = =65: <= ;98 6

= 56 6 ;56> < =6 :56 85:;6 <= 5: < =6 ><6 5 >H= ;5 =6 6 = 85@=96 9 96@6 6 = @=:. T< == ;H6 6@5@< 85 =6

5=6 69@6;+ ;6; 866<6 9 85;+ ;5 6 <6<. T<6 =6 9956

< =6 86 < = <569; 986; ;>5 = ;56@6 >; 85;6< =

C:5 I;566= < ;56 < =6 C6 =@56< L<5 1*31+ 6= =6 URSS

> 6 <=:6 86=9; <;:<6. E= : 9657;6 6 6 85<6 985

@5 = @5; X=< N<69+ 865;8 6==6 56<6Y+ ;6; 85 =6 6=<6<

< = ;< 9 85 =6 >6 858;>6 6@5H6 = ;6; 6 =6 5=6 ;5

6 <6<. S 6 < = C:5 < 1*31 = <@59; < C6 1*3) 5

= < :56< 6;9; 9<=65 =6 ><6 < N<69.P5 = 6@9 6;6 656+ N<69+ 56 9657;6+ 6 6= ;>

86=9; 8579 6= P65;< C9;6+ 6 656;5H; «5>5 9=65»4 =

>5;+ 66+ 9@5 9 ;;>69; 56<6= = 5<;6 9 <5. F =

6859 6 &. B. S. 6=<6 8656 <6;656 85 = 96;56=9 6=;6 <= ;5 6=

8 ;98+ 6=<6 H6 6 =6 =6 <= P65;< C9;6 1*3$ 5 = 8oviet

(ommunism _«C99 >;% ¿6 >6 >=6?» < = @@ = 6

<5; 9 «;69 56@6 = 7;6»." P 6 ;<+ @ < <5; <=

<9 =6 <66 M55 6 = >;5 656 < 7;5<6< @5;6 6 =6 =

:58 5>6<5 < C6 X= «F==J» <= =: >5;65 < G>== C6Y 69= ;5<76 8=H;6 96@65 85;: =6 8=H;6 < 5<6. A 865 < =

85=:6< ménage / trois < &8 D5; N<69 L GJ X6 =6 ;5

6;5@ =6 86 < 6= 85 C6Y 6 6@H6 =<6< 6; < =6 :556+ =6 6656<6

9686 76= < 6<956< 965 ;=56<6+ 9 9;6<6+ 85 =6 :56

9;6 < =6 <6<6 < 1*3(.

L 99 6@ 65965 <= 56: 9 585<; < N<69+ = <;:H6 < ;5

<;66< ;H 5% 9859 >;6= =6 5=: 596=. S <<6+

6:=6;=9 ;58 > 8=H;6 =6 <6<6 < 1*3(. A;<H6 6 =

5> =6 9656>==6 :=6 < T67;<+ + 9 966@6 858 @+ ;

65<; 5>=65 < 5; 6=;6+ C56< N=+ :566 6 =6 ;5> < 6

;556;; 6866<69; 6=;6 + <56; ;98+ ;69@ <@=; 9 696;

<= 5 E<65< VII. C = ;98+ N<69 6=< 85:5>69; <= 6:=69

= 99 5H6 9 9 =6= X«9 < =6 66=<6< < 6H =6 E586

<;6= = 5;69 6:=6 56 =6 596 5=:6 ;H86 < 9 86 9 566»Y$ 66

6 8 < ;6H9+ = <56@6 <95; ;<H6 6==6@6 =6 56H < =6 6



2

=6 ;=:H6 6. E 6=5 6+ ==: 6 865 8 5=:6 6@H6 <

« <<6+ <966< 8=6;6+ <=;6+ 86<6 85;6=».) P 6 ;<+ 6

;69@ 56 99@5 565 < =6 A6 R66=;6 < P56 X «96;6»Y+ 69

< < 55 =6 5=: 9 «= ;9; =65 < = 6:56<+ =6 >6=56 < =6 6;:5H6

< = 9 _ 98=6 6 D 56<5» « 656 = 5; =6 @5>66

=;>».' # 6@ <<6 < + 6 + ;< ; ;56@6 =; =6 6+



2

6 685@6@6 =6 858;>6 < C : =6 6= <@ 68;65 =6 7;6 < = <

= 8H5;+ 85 6 96;5 =6 <;66. T698 596 < 5=: <;:H6 < =6

8=H;6. E 1*3"+ N<69 86@6 = 99 5H6 =6 ;=:H6 956= 6<6<6 8656 =6

86+ 85 8< 6= ;9.

N ;6= = 6 <= 99 ;6=;6+ << =:+ 85 N<69 69 =6

56 <= ;9 6=5 ;56 596 < 5<9+ =< = 96579. E; <@H6 = 6 ; <6@6 6 =6< 6 865; <966< :56< < 6; 56=<6< 985;6+

;69@ 6 6>6@6 =6 6 : = =6 985<H6. V6= =6 86 ;65 866 < =6 56

<< 1*32 6 =6 696 <;8H6 < A=< 7= :n mundo feli2 + 8@= X/ 9

90Y =6 5>;6 8crutiny < F. R. L6>. N<69 5H6 =6 ;<6 ;=;6= >:;

X6 + ;;:;+ = CH5= < V6 = L6=; :@ < 5<6Y+ :6<6 «85 6

7;568=6 566@=»+ <H6 6= «9< =» < 7=+ 85

;H6 = 8; < 56=<6< <@H6 ;;5 85 = 8; < 96@=<6<. A56 @+ = =6 6

8< 6=665 6 96@=<6< 85;6. #+ < < ;5 9<+ ;< = 8<9 <5 8569; + =;9

;59+ 858 ;H6 6=656<6 85 =6 =:6 96;9;6 ... N <6 =69; =6 69 ;56; 7=> 8656

=6 56 = 6 85+ ;69@ =6 =H6 =6 9;6H6 <6 5=:6<6 6= 9@; < = @=+ < 9< =6 6+

6 9 6 596 86= < =6 =H6 5>6 < ;=;6=9; @6 6=> 5>

< < =H6+ >5; 6 956 9;=:H6 69866 6 6 ;6.*

6H6 ;98 N<69+ 9 >;:6<5+ 69@6@6 565 6 9@5=:H6 @H96

9@6 = 5<9 < = H9 =6 >;6@= 8586 < = @=: 85

= 5:69 = 85 9 ;<. L6 8 6;96;6 XN<69 855H6 =

;59 «5:»Y < =6 6 ;H6 6;56;> <;@= 8656 = @=: < =6 >=+

9 85 98= = :58 = 6 ;5;6 5 = C=@ < B=:H6 T56 = ;

=; X85 656 :56 9<<6 =><6<Y &. . <:5 6==H ;6@6 ;6; N<69 9 C.

. 6<<:; X 5H6 = @=6 8H <= 6;6 < V 6] ;56 = 9657;6

(amino de servidumbreY. E= =@ = 8595 <<5 = 8; < 5 >> 5:66<

>= 55+ 6 85;6 =6 8<9 >5 = ;rder and Life < N<69

X;rden y vida+ 1*3$Y. A==H 8=6;6@6 5:69 98=; 8< 5 985<< <= ;<

: < = >= 55 < ;696 98=<6< 5; 9==65+

9659==65+ ==65+ < ;<+ ;. 6<6 >= 68655H6 > 9< <

985;69; 8<5H6 ;585;65 6<6<69; ;59 < = ; 85

<@6 < : ;5 9<+ 6=> 85 5=6. S: 5@ N<69 1*$1+ =6

;5< 6 %he (hemistry of Life XLa química de la vidaY% «Q =6 <6 5;56 <= ;5 6 =6

565H6 < 5=6 << =6 ;5;56 9==65 <= 65@ 6= =@5 < =6 8 =

;< =:». P5+ 565H6 ;56 56 =6 =6> < 6 56=<6< = 8<5H6



2

;<5 9 ;< 98=.

# 6 ; = ;5659 =6 8:6 < S9 ;5 =6 <6 <

N<69 = ==>65 6= 86H =6 >=6 6 =6 ;5:65H6 = 5; < ><6. = 5@

C6 56 = :65 <6=; <= # = #6:+ < 6 «7;596 56 6 86565 8H5;

96;56»+ < 6 =H6 : 6 < 65; > = 9 9 6 :56<6

H6 98H6 6 H 996 <;5 < =6 6= @56@6 596 ;56 H6 95.CH6 <966< @ =6 56=<6< 6 8656 >5=6+ ;6< 6 785 < G5: S;5+ 9

=:65 = =6 «;8H6 56 5;6» : 6 >H6 6 H 99+ 6 =6 9656 <



2

M65 P= <= := !!+ 9 95 85;6<5 < 585<; ;6 < 5 7;565 6

O<; 6@H6 859;< @6 865; <= 58; ;=;6= < = 86<5 <= :=

!VIII 66 C6 >6856 = := <= ;5 9<6= 58.

N<69 696@6 6<956@6 C6 6 6@;6;+ 85 8656<69; 56

<;6@6 9 = 866< 9856= = 85; 5>=65+ = ;6@6

9859;< 56 @; < <6+ 6 6= 8655 66@ 5;6< =6 8=H;6 < M6 =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ 6; = < =6 95; <= G56 T9=. S ;H6 9< = =6

8 6 < =6 6;56=6+ ;6 956<69; 5;5<6 (iencia y civili2aci1n en

(hina+ 6 >=6 @66@6 6 956=<6< 65;5 @56;56=+ 6 :56

=;56 9;6@6 =6 <;56 <= 86< 5:6=+ 86H : =5 6@H6

==:6< 6 <965. E56 6<956@= = «= 6;: <5 < 5@=+ =6 <;56 ;6;

656;5 6 = <H8= < C»+ 6<6 85 = 5<; < =6 <6;H6 K. E C6+

= >H6 «<8;9 6;» 6 56 = 5H6 >;6<6 85 = 86<5 56

<= !VIII+ 85 98656 = 6@=;9 58 «6==6 <6=<6< <95;6 < =6

><6 =6 C6 ;56<6= 6 7859;6< ;< 6== 6 < =6 <6<6 < 85956 96».

P5 96 < ;<+ >6=56@6 =6 ;56< < =6 6;:6 86 @=6 < = 5<;+

5=;6< 9<6; 769 8656 5965 = 6<5 < :@5 =6 C6 9<>6=+ 85

6 >= =;> ;69@ 585;6@6 «6 8 8@=6» < 785; 6 «69

85<5 6;5<6< <=:6 <8<;» =6 686<6< < 5;5 = 6;6 9856=

;56 = >6=5 ;56<6=9; 68;6<. ¿Q ;96 <;6= 8<5H6 6@5 ;56< ;

:@5 8656 = >6=; < ==69 B=6]+ G5<6 B5+ F656<6?

TH869;+ ;6 <6 < =6 ;56< 6 86 6 9 ;<6 6865 6 5>;6

9657;6 ;6<<+ 6 7;6 5H;6 < 969;5; 79;6+ ;;=6< 9espotismo asi5tico+ N<69 ;> = 65; < <65<;65 9 86=; ::6; < =6 :556 5H6

«= 965 85 69 = 66 6= ;< @;> < =6 ;56 < C6».1(

V;< 5 6<5<6 686 ;56<6= < = 5<;+ < <6 6=+ <56;

<=; >6 85 C6 ;98 < :556+ &8 N<69 56 ;+ <<6 6=:6+

< 6<6< 96<65 ;985. # 6 6H+ = quid < > <= 9<

8569; =6 58;56 ;56 = 866< 8 6 =6 =65:6 56 < 855<6<

;=:6 6+ (iencia y civili2aci1n en (hina ;56; < 78=65+ 6 6 6;6 <

;<.

L < ;56 = 5:9; < =6 6 6;56= 9<56+ 6 865;5 < 1$(( <

;56 56+ 685796<69;+ 8<H6 8655 6 = 6;55+ = 5=;6< < «69@6

<6<+ =6 68;6=;6 =6 6=;6+ 6=;6;>69; <;;6 < ;<6 =6 <6<

85<;». N 6@H6 >=;6 6= 866<+ 85 H 6 6=<6 66 <=6;. N<69 69 6@6< =6

= 8;6= <= 85:5. L6 6 =6 ;=:H6 56@6 6 @6 <6<+ 85

8<H6 565 =6 5569;6 8656 =:565=6+ ;69@ C6. «Q ;6 6 =6 86 859;<6 =6

;556+ =6 5<65 6 6;8:6 =6 <6< 56= < =6 :; 56=.»11



2

E 6=5 6+ N<69 5 55<6< 85 6866< 6= < ;5 95

8656 =6 96<6<+ 56 85 96579 5: < 856 @=:6+ 85

7;565<65 7; =6 78=56 =6 556 < 866<. S 9@65:+ : <

86<5 <<6<+ 6=> = 966= < @=:H6 <= <655==. E; =@5 < S9

;5+Bomb3 Book and (ompass+ = 6 ;6. N<69 6 856 @:56 6

985 9 8=6 < 9@5 7;565<65 < =6 86 = ;7; = 5965.



2

C68H;= 1$

LOS INTELECTUALES% PAPEL+ FUNCIÓN # PARADO&A

¿P<5H6 6@5 7;< 6 6= < = ;=;6= >6= <5+ 8<5H6 6@5

7;< = 858 ;=;6= 6; < =6 > < =6 5;56? DH=9;. L 696+

65<;+ 96: ;5 ;8 < 5><5 5 < = 5;6= 6 <655==6< 985 6

6=+ = 99 8<5H69 <5 < 6== 6 <965H69 65;;6. P5

¿9 8<5H6 6@5 7;< ;=;6= 6; < =6 > < ;96 < 5;56

956 ;6@6 < 96+ 985+ ;585;6+ 685<6 855>6? D

;< 9<+ 6 > @5 ==:6< 6= ;< ; ;59; 9<5 < =6

96+ = == + @5 ;<+ = 55<+ 85@6@= =6 7:6 95H6 <96@6 ;6 6@=<6< 556+ <56; 6 86+ 8<5 6= 965 <= =

;=;6= 6 ;< <8. C9 55 =6 85956 <6< 98;96 < =

< =6 9H6 6:5656+ = 785; =6 5;56 8<H6 ;;5 = 8595 «=5»+

6 =6 < :@56; 65<;6=. 6;6 @ ;56< = := !I! !!+ <85 <=

98= < =6 6=6@;6 = 9< < =6 =;56 < =6 <6 656 8656

<9 98=6@6 ;69@ 98= <= 8<5+ 85;:< ;56 =6 98;6 :566 6

6 <6 =:6 5;6 86=6<6 85;: <;5 <= 9@; 5;6= =;56=.

P5 ;56 865;+ =6 8=96 69 9 8<56 =6 86<6. L :555 985 8<5

;65 6 = 5;5+ 85 ; 6@5H6 6@< ;96 < :@5 9H6965 + 9 ;<6>H6+ 6@5H6 7;< = :56< 985 ;5 <= 9< 6;:. L6

856 =;6 9;56@6 =6 <=:H6 8@=;6@6 =6 9856= ==6@6

6<5 6<9;56;>. E C6+ >5;5 6 = ;6<5 9:= <6;H6

9856=+ 9;56 66 ;5@ 6 =6 58<6 6H<6 < G: 6 T695=. L

8595 < <= 98= <6;> 5H6 = A; G569 6 <96< «=

d;=;6= 5:e < ;< = :56< ;96 < <96 8=H;6».

T< ; 85; 6= 866<. L6 6865 < 6 =6 =66 =;6 =6 =:6 >5=6

5:6= 6 = =65: < =6 B66 E<6< M<6 8@=; =6 7;6 < ;=;6= 9

;569; <;596< 85 6= ;9=65H6 ;6; 85<;5 9<5 < =;56;56 ;56 596 < 96 = 5:9; < 6 >6+ 6

5<<6+ 56 8@=6. E= 6 <= E;6< ;55;56= 9<5 55+ 6 > 9+ 58

6<6 > 9 698= < 65 ;5 ;=;6= «5:». C6<6 > 56 9 5;

; 596 >5<6< 9<56<6 @6 =6 ;;=6 < 855 < <656

6@H6 :56<6< ==6. P5 ;56 865;+ =6 96 < =6 >56=6 < =6 =6 859656 +

@5 ;<+ <8 < =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ =6 59 786 < =6 <6



2

<656 >5;656+ <5 =:65 6 95 965 6 < 856 6=6@;6<6

596 ;=;6=. E;5 ;6;+ = 7;565<65 59; < =6 >6 <;56 < =

9< < 96 = := !! 698= 7;565<6569; = 6@6 < =6 8@=<6<

96 <8@= 8656 6== ;=;6= 56 <8<; < ;< 68656; 6=.



2

6;6 9<6< <= := !I!+ 6@=69 < :58 9 5<<. E= 58 < ;<6;

585; 868= ;6 <;66< =6 5>= < 1'4' = 596@6+ P56+ 6;5 9=

> X;< == 9@5+ ;<6>H6Y+ ; 9= ;< = 985 6@@5:+ 56 < =6

5;56 < :5H6. L >< < ; 5 5:< ;56; < «;=;6= =@5»

56<6@6 ==69; = < 9865; =6 <6 = 6@5 =;56= =6 =6

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985656=+ ;69@ = < :6@6 < 96 9 8@=<6< < :665 =6

><6 9 ;=;6= 6;9. L6 >6 <;56 ;6 ;H6+ =6 ;;

<;6<6 6= <655== < =6 >5<6< ;H6 =;56=+ = ;5 <= 85<9+ =6

8@=<6< =6 8586:6<6+ = 65 = 8;=+ ;< == = 5H6 >6 596 <

:665 =6 ><6. 66 6= <= := !I!+ =6 9856 68;6=;6 6@H6 :56< ;6;6 56

5 95 = ;56 856 6 65: < =6 =6 9<6 985656= 8<5

<<65 85 ;5 6 6;><6< ;=;6= < =;56. L6 69=6 M6+ ;;:;

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<;<6< 6= 5<6. S = <56@6+ 98=9;+ 9 99@5 < =6 @5:H6 =;6

X;6= 9 < &. M. + «9 =6+ =6 @5:H6 =;6»Y + = 95 < = 6+ 9 =

@:58 @5: < = Bildungsb7rger !kademiker . T9 ==:65 6= =;9 ;5 <= :=

!I! 8656 ;565= <5; 9 =;> < «;=;6=» 9 «=6 intelligentsia»% <

1'$( 6<=6;+ =6 ;5@=;6 R6 65;6+ =: 6 F566 6<<6 85 = 6 D5.

E 69@ ;7;+ = 865H6 <;:5= 9 :58 9@656 =6 6;><6< <=

869; ;5> 5H;6 = ;55 8=H;. I= + = =:6 88=65 ;<

6 665+ 5=;6< 985 65;6<+ =6 785 «;=;6=» «8;5 8=H;»X =6 86 <= 6=9 >; :6@6 «8=H;69; 8 < 65»Y. S 9@65:+ =

69; < =6 966 =;56 = :; 8;6= 8586:6<H; < = > 9<

858565 6 = ;=;6= 69 6 8@=<6< < <;665 85<;+

= = :@5 8<H6 ;=65.

D8 < := ;<6>H6 5=;6 >=; 55<65 = 86; 96; < = >;6

;5 ;=;6= 6=96+ 6H 9 = < :6= 56 @5;+ @< 8656

5;6=5 =6 <6 85;6= < 58;> :@5 @=:56; =6 85956 :556

9<6=. L >5;H6 6 ; <>< :6;65 ;6 >6= < ; 96; 56

7856 = 6; 8@=+ 58;6 9 5;5+ 6;5+ 9+

;H 6;56= =.

E= «@5> := !!» < =6 5>= =6 :556 < 5=: <=:6 >5;5H6 =6

56 656;5H;6 <= 9859 8=H; ;5 = ;=;6=. N = <<5 8586

66 =6 86 <= 6;69 =: <= 6=9 ;6;6=+ 6<9 = 5H6+

69@ @6<+ 9 8 86< <= 869; 8@=. S 85H< < :=56 6 ;5 =

6= < =6 :<6 :556 9<6= = <559@ <= 99. E;6 =6 :56 56 < =6



2

9>=6 « ;56»% ;56 < =6 :556 =65+ ;56 < =6 =;96 :556

9856= < =6 >6 E586 =6 85956 <= > 985 9<6= ;6<< XA5:=6+

S+ C@6+ V;69Y+ ;56 = ;6=9+ ;56 =6 >6 >;6 < :5H6

C=>66+ ;. L ;=;6= 56 =6 85956 =H6 < 6 ;<6 ==6.



2

P5 85 98=+ =6 69866 @5;6 8656 = <659 =65 =6 <65 5;5

69+ = <;5 <= 9665 ;=;6= 9 85;: < =6 86+ H < 85<;6

9<6;69; :5 9 85<; 6= = B5;56< R==. L 9@5 =;5 <=

65; =6 =;56;56 555 6 5 6 =6+ << B69 B5;; 6;6 5 M5 E. M.

F5;5 ;5 == ;6@6 = ;56<5 E. P. T98+ + 6 865;5 < 1*'(+ 5H6 = 5;5 9

<;66< = 9>9; 85 = <659 =65 58. T< = 9< H6 = 9@5 <= :56< ;=;6= 56 S65;5 C69 = < = ;=;6= <<; < =6

URSS% S=; S65>. A =6 6@6 < =6 =; =;56;56 < =6 <= 9;6

X9 =6 58=6 %he &od that 0ailed? ! (onfessionY @ ;=;6= 9 <;66<. L

5> 5; < E;6< U< <565 = = >6=H6 =6 86 <65 665

5:66 8H6 9 = C:5 8656 =6 L@5;6< C=;56=+ ;6= < 9;:65 =6

<65;6<6 6=;6 < ;69 < = ;=;6= 58 85 = 6:; < =6 :556 5H6.

F =6 996 86 =6 + 85 85956 > << 1'4'+ =6 >5<6< <= 9< <;6=+

85 ; 99; < 786 9=;8=6 8;6=65+ 8<H6 5 <56<6 85

:@56; 9 >>5 < 8 8=H;6 6= + < + 6 = 99==5 < =6 5>=.

E;6 56 < = ;=;6= 9 8586= 5;5 8@= < =6 8 8=H;6 6 <6<

= 866<. ¿D< ; = :56< <5 :6;65 < 96;? S6=> 5656

78 =6 9 696+ =6 <= ;6<< N69 C9]+ 8596 =

6 95;. ¿D< ; = 69maFtres / penser < F566+ = 5 < S65;5+ M5=6,

P;+ C69 R69< A5+ < F6=;+ A=;5+ D55<6 B5<? L <=: <

6= <= := !! 6 855< 6@6<65 =6 ;656 < @65 =6 56 = 69@ 6=+ <65

; 96 < =6 856 6;9;6 < 9< < <>< 8569; 566= +

8;69;+ 8;6 6= 979 @ 9<6; 956< 6;6 566=9; ;<+ 6< > =@5 < =6 7;56+ 6 =@5 <56<5. E 6 <6<

<8 6 ;<6 56 <= ;5;9; < 966+ = 6;>;6 6 866< 6 <565 =

;=;6= 5=;6 9 ;=+ 6 =6 56 < 8565 @6 66+ = 9 < 5] =6

;5==6 < < 696 9<6=. L = 6 8<H6 98;5 B E+ 6 9

6=656 < > 6 H 99 9 6 < 6 >6 :56 <= > 9< <=

8;= 96;> >56=% =6 «=@5<6<». V>9 6 56 >6+ 6= 9 6;6

= 5< >56= < =6 785 856= F6@] = <6= :6=;65 < ;5;

66 <655==6< 85 98=; ; 8@=.

E= <=> < = :56< ;=;6= 85;;6;65 <@+ 85 = ;6;+ = 6= < =6

:556 5H6+ ;69@ 6 =6 <8=;6 < = <6<6 <;6= 85H< <

59; 9 ;5 < =6 <6< < 9. E= ;56; ;5 = <6= <95;

<= :56 6; =6 55;@= ;;6 <= ;5 956= 6 5<< = 86

<8@= 8656 =6 :56 56 <9H66 < = := !I! !!% 6 6@5+ =6 =6 6

8=H;6 56 =6 596 <6 < 9565 = 9<. D + = @;> < =6 :=@6=6

=@56= ;H6 8569; 5<5 = ;696+ =6 ;5> 8@=6 = 9@; <



2

6 <= E;6<. # ;+ 6 :< 6 >;56 8656=.

S 9@65:+ ;5 =9; <;59 =6 596 < =6 >6 56% =6 5 < = >6=5 =6

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:=@6= < =6 56+ =6 6 =6 8@=<6< < 9565 =6 < 966. D< =6

5>= < E;6< U< F566+ = >6@=65 < =6 I=;56 <6+

=<6 66 = ;5 < =6 <=:H6 6556:6<6 ; :56< 6=69;+ 6



2

<<< ;5 = 86=6< <= 85:5 6= 8=H; < ;< = :=@. U6 6= < ;6

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=6 ;<6 5665,56<6= <655==6 ;<6 =6 5=: 9<6=. I=

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¿# = ;=;6=+ ;6 >6 56? D< =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ =6 59 786 < =

;< 855 = 6 ;56596< 6 =6 =; 5=>66 8=H;6. D< 1*$'

6 <6< =65 = 9>=65 6 = =;> ;<6;=+ = 6 >= 66=

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96 856= 6 556< :56 9<<6 686<6< < ==>65 6 6@ 6

8@=6. L6 = <= 855 >5;65 B656] O@696 8656 =6 85<6 < E;6<

U<+ =6 P596>56 [56@ < 2(11 = 9>9; >>< R6 ;6 ;5 =

98= 9 5;. E= 85:5 =96; < =6 6 =6 ;=:H6 6 <6< =:65 6 6«<6< < =6 596» =6 85< 9H6 <8< 9 6 < =6

6;><6< =;56= <5+ < = 9@5 95 ;< >5;65 < = ;5

= 596+ =6 >5<6<. E; :6 6;6 = 5:H9 9 5665

6;5;65 <@ 859;5 >5<6< 66 5; :56< < =@5;6< 6 =6 6. E =6

6;:6 U S>;6+ = ;5 66<9 56 = 5 ;> < 5H;6 6=

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R>= C=;56=+ << ; 6 685<< =6 =. E 5;6 9<<6+ ; ;69@ 6

< @ 8656 =6 6=;6< 6 < A5; 96<6<+ 6 5=; 9

6= << 8; < >;6 9 ;=:.P5 ;56 865;+ = <96= 59; < =6 <6 855 ;< 6 ;565965 =6

=6;56 <8=96;56 6=6 6= 8656 =6 =6 9<6 = ;56@6

856=+ < 9< = =6< 8665 6 5965 865; < =6 «=6 6=;6»+ 6= 9 6

< =6 966 < 8@=6 9 =;6. A = <96:: = 6 5=;6< = 85;65 6 =

«;=;6=» = «establishment =@56=»+ : = = ==6965 9 6 =; 85;6

956=9; <;+ :6 < 85>=: =;56= 9. E 9 =:65 <

O<;+ @5 ;< E;6< U< G56 B5;66+ =6 @56 <6;>6 55 = 5: <

>5;5 6 <> < =6 ;5 6== ;H;= >5;65 5>5 9 :5

@==; < ;56<6 66 =6 65556 < 7; 85;: = 65 < ;6= ;H;= ;

9656< 85 = 5;9;.

S 9@65:+ == 56 = 6;; 5+ H9 85;6 < =6 8@=6 =

=;9 ;5;6 6 <= := !! =6 85956 <6<6 <= !!I 6 ;56< 6<5< 5;6

<@5<6 = 9 < < = % 9 55 6 9@5 + 6+ 95

6;> 856= :6=6 = PIB < 9 86H 9<6. E 96 965H6+ 5;6

85>H6 < = : = 8<5 8=H;+ 85 9 6=: < == ;>56 <<6@=



2

5: ;=;6=+ 6= ;5 ;H;= >5;65 X9 <+ < 596 ==696;>6+ E;6<

U<Y 6@5 986<+ 85 66@6<+ ;6= ;<. P656<69;+ = = <=

6=65<6@6 5; :5<6< ;56 =6 6H<6 <= 99 :5 6 8 < >H=

=6 966 =;6+ 6 6 >H6 < 6=5 < < 866@6 85 5 6 = 8 ; <

856 < 6=5 86H 6=66 =6 96 <; < =;56 985656=% ;@=;6+

;5==6 < =6 =;56 < 966 :66<5 < 859 < =;5H6 <5@;6<. E;6<H;69;+ =6



2

85@6@=<6< < 6 856 8@5 :56 6 ;56;56 865<6 56 9H96 85 <

>5<6< = :H6 <8H6+ <<6+ < <5 7; 7@5. E 5;6 596+ ; 6

6=;6< 9>=65 6 = 78=;6< 969; = «5666<» «85<<5» < =6

<6< 68;6=;6 ;56 = = 5665 ;6<< 6 ==696< «= establishment

=@56=»+ 6 =6 =6 865H6 ;5 85;69; 6<6 9.

6 ;< 8665 >65 6 < :56> <85 96 =6 85 < =6 9H6<;6= << =6 <6<6 < 1*3( 8656 = 5;9; :56< 85 =6 8=656

96 986 6 <8=665 6= 5;9; ;56 =6 8;6 855<6< ;=;6=.

C569;+ < 785 9 >@= =6 6 59=6< ;=;6=. E= <8=9 :56=

< =6 66 =6 686<6< <= 956< =@5 X= « 6956»Y 8656 :565 ;5

95 8656 ;< 9 6+ = 5; 899 58; 6= ;5 <= ;96 9

6;6= = 85 @5 =6 96 = 85<;6 < 9H6+ + 6=> ;6<H96

78+ = 859==65. L6 86 < =:65 8579 6 6== S;5; ;5 ;5

< =6 @66 =6 66 ;566= @6 = =96 < «S9 = ** 85 1((» 5; 6= 1 85 1((

< = 855+ =656 ;H6 =6 986;H6 <= 8@= :56=. I= E;6<U<+ =6 ;6 9;56@6 68 <= $1 85 1((+ = 6= 8 =5 =:65 6 <<6 6

:56 :58 < 58@=6 6;=@56=. P5 85 8;+ ; 96;6; 8=6;65

;<6 < 69866 ;55 9: 56 = ** 85 1((. E56+ 9 ;6;6 ;56 >+ =

6 <6< ==6965 = «5; < 6» <= 6;>9 ;=;6=+ = <;669; <

;<6; @9 <8; 6 9>=65+ 6596@6 65696 =6 8566 <

66@6 >5;<6 @6;6==6.

E 6=5 6+ 5: =6 85:;6% ¿9 8< @5>>5 =6 6;:6 ;56< 5H;6

<8<;+ 8586 < = ;=;6= < = := !I! !!+ =6 >6 56 < =6 5566=<6<

8=H;6+ 56596<6 85 8586 <<6 656 <= ;5? E 6 8656<6 < ;5 ;98 =6 5566=<6< 8=H;6 <=:6 6== <=;6< 8656 7;5 =6 ;=:H6 6>66<6

56=<6<+ 6 ; 55. E;6< U< = 6;69; < 9=;6; 56=H <;5 < =6

6 86<6 < P6=;6 <9;56 6=;6 = 856= 86=6< 59;6

5 6 8 ;==6 =6 ;56 < =6 C56 : 5=6;6 = =@5 <= &énesis = 9

6:5; ==696< <= A;: T;69; 6 556<65 6 = =. <H6+ =6 96<6< 6

6 6;9@56< 9 596= 6 ==>65 ><6 < ;56< ;56+ <:6556 ;5

9< < ;9; 6 ;=:H6 @= 6 =6 9+ ;5 = 9@; < =6 7856

= 9; 98H5 6 6=6 966 = 9@; < =6 96:;< 6@5<6+ ;5 = «;<

9» < =6 ><6 <656 =6 98@=<6< < 985<5+ 6=> 8656 6 7:6 95H6+ =6

856 ;=;6= 56 = 965 = >>9. ¿S 8< 986;@=65 ;6

66 ;9;6 <= 566=9 =6 ><6 966 9< <8< 9 6

< =6 566=<6< < M67 @5 5=6 =6 6 =6 <6<? D< =:+ =6

:=@6=6 < = 9< < 596+ <= =:6 < ;5; 98< = =6

6;5<6< ;6;6= 9 8<56 8<6 6=65 <= ;< 6 86H+ 96;56= 9;6=9;+ <= 5; <=

9<. S 9@65:+ =6 85:;6 : >:;.



2

P5 ;56 865;+ 9;56 =6 ;=:H6 86=6<6 8< 65 X6 :5

<655==6<Y 869; 5:6=+ =6 6 ;6 <6. P5 ==+ = =6 <6< 9

;9;69; 6;;=;6= <= 85; ; 6 <6< 965 < 856 ;:6 <6

;5 = ;6 8<6 =55. E 566@= 85 ;6 856 ;69@ ;<5

<6 5H;6 58; 6 =6 <6< = 9< = >>. E = 86H 95:; <= A6

5;6= 55;6=+ 9 <= 9< 9=9+ 85@6@= ; ;=;6= :6



2

;;< 6 56 < 5596 8=H;6 69@ 6= 6 =6 >6 66. T69@ 8@=

+ ;5 ;98 < 5+ 585; ;56 > ;6 =6 < 56 O<; >>

;6 < 6< 5;<9@5. D + 6@ <<5 + =6 6;6=<6<+ = =:65 858

< =6 56 < 5H;6 6= ;9;6 ;56 = > ;56; < = =6<

>5;65. P5 = ;=;6= 5=7>+ 85 H =+ 6==6 ;6 < ;565965

= 9<+ 85 9 ;6 ;56596 6 98@= 685;6. R5 5;;65 ;;< 85 :6= 85 ;=;6= :; 55;. C =6 78 < 8

98= 6=6<+ 85@6@=9; ; 9 <H= < =:565 = 866<. 6H = <=96

<= := !!I.



2

C68H;= 1)

PERSPECTIVAS DE LA RELIGIÓN P-BLICA

L = 6 55< 6 =6 5=: = =;9 ;6 6 69@5. D56; =6

965 865; < =6 ;56 <9;6<6+ 6 85856< = =:6 6 9<+ = =:6

8656 6@=65 @5 =6 5=6 < = 5 96 ;5 H = 9< :56=+ @5

= 9< =<@69 =6 56 ;5=6@= ;6<6 9 6== < ;56 ><6

;<66. S <<6+ 6H 6 < 8656 =6 966 + ><;9;+ : 55< 6H =6 I<6 =6

5: =96. L6 5=: ;6 85856< = 9<= 68;6< :56= 8656

=@565 = :56< 5; < =6 ><6 966+ << = 69; 6 =6 95;+ 866< 85 =96;59 + << =:+ =6 6 ;98=6<6+ 9<=6 = 5; < = = 66= ;5%

A N> =6 6+ =6 8596>56 X=6 P66Y = >5 XN6><6<Y. S= 56569; 6 <

598=66< 66 85 >6=; =6 85@6@=9;+ 85 =6 566=<6< < =

;6< =6 85 965 ;=<6< <56 66 =6 ;; 5=:6

= ==> 6 @;965 =6 56 996 < = 5;6= =6 ><6 856= 9;656. S 9@65:+

8 < ;5 8<9 6865 6 6 56. R5< 5> @5 5:6

;5 >5;65 < O75< ;56 65:65= 6 <696 >;6+ 985 8;6+ 55< <

8+ @5; 6866<69; 6; : 659 =6 95+ 865H6 9858 <8<5=

:6 =6 < 5;6=. P5 9 55=>6; 5=;656 = 5> 6:=6+ 85;6< 6 ==6 H6 = <85;6@6 : ;5+ 56 = 6= 8<H6 5555 6=

99;. D + 6;6 = 9 566=;6 < ;5 8< 65 5 < = 9 859;>

8656 85865 6 8<6 <5:5 ;5 ;5 << 89 = «;65 96<56» =

«565 = <<»+ >6=; 6= « D 5» < = 5;6 = «I A==6» < =

9=96.

E = 9< ;985+ =6 5=: : < 985;6; + 6 865 < =6 >6

9=;66 < = 6; 6:=6 X ;69@ 6;;:6 985;66Y+ 6 85<< =:65

85<96;. E 5; ;<+ 8< 6@5 <<6 < + << =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ 6

85<< 569; 56<6= < =6 5=:+ 6 >5;< 6 56 política X6 ;=;6=Y < 8595 5<. L6 :56 5>= 56H =6 85956+ << =6 5>=

;6<< <= := !VIII+ 69865 = 8; < =6 5=: 85< <=

<5 < = =;56<+ 6@H6 5>< < 856 ;6; 6 = 9>9; @6@6 =

69@ 6= 9 6 :56< 5>=+ << =6 566 6 =6 56 =6 6. L6 8=H;6 <

O5; P579+ ;5 <H 9=96 85 :6=+ >5; 6 8=H;6 < =@5

6:56< = 99 6@ <5+ 6;6 7;59 585<;+ < =6 8=H;6 < E;6< U<. E



2

= 6=65 + = < 5 6 ;56< 6;:6+ ; 9<= 6 >6 <= := !!. E=

<6H9 5;<7+ ;56<6=9; 8H6 6= 9+ 5=; «6<» 85 =6 :556 <

= S DH6 X1*$)Y+ 85 =6 >;56 < I56= 6; 9=6:56 6 >65 56@ = 865

;6< 6@6<65 =6 > < = 5:5 < ;< = <H 6 I56= <@H6 8565 6 =6

==:6<6 <= MH6 X+ 6;6 6= 99;+ 56 @> 6@H6 ==:6<+ 8 6

66 585;6; < =6 ;6 6H<6 ;6<< 5=696@6 ;6= < 8656 H 99Y.



2

6;6 858 < =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ 9 6== < 6 596 < 5;<76 9 ;5;6+

5>> 6 ;6 ;=:6 6>56@= 6 96;65 «85 68;6H6» 6 6=56 = + E:8;+

6 7;59;6 < = 596 M=96. L6 6;6 6;56@6 = 66; <

; ==: 1**2+ << = < A=,Q6<6. S 6 <9;56< =6 5>= 56H <

1*)* ;5< ;96 < :@5 =9 ;56<6=+ 6 >5 ;5;6 <=

9<5 E;6< ;55;56=. A56 @+ =6 8=H;6 59=6<6 965 5=: 6 5:56< 6 56 9856;+ < M65;66 6 =6 I<6. E= :@5 < T5H6+ @6 = 68 <

865;< < 966 < 5; =9+ 6 6=6< >@=9; <= 5:9 < 9=;66 =66. L6

<6 < 8<5 865;< <;6 1*'( X ;> = :@5 ;5 1**' 2((4Y

=6 ==6 < 9>9; 6H6 5<5 =6 9=;8=<6< <= <9 6 6 5;<76 6+

7=>6 ;=56;. E =6 8=H;6 :=@6= < =6 6;6=<6<+ 6< ; =6< 6 @;965

;6 ;<6.

N ; ;6 =65+ 69@+ 66 6@< 6 9<6= :56= < =6 85;6 =6

5=:6. 6 6@< 6=:6 ;5656 8;6=65 < 6 5696 6 ;56+ 865;=65 <;5

<= 5;69. T6; =6 A956 9 96 ;56 6+ @> 6 556< == 5=: < =6 9<6< 58<6 786 < 85;;6; >6:=

8;;6=Z659;. I:6=9;+ << =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ 6 ;6@= 55:5 <=

=699 5: 6; 8 8=<6+ 9 85 98= I<6.1 M 6<=6;

9;65 6=: 6= 58; < ;6 ;. S 9@65:+ =6 6=><6< < [56+ << =

5;69 = =69+ 865;=65+ 6 6>66< < 596 9856; = =;9 :=+ 65

< <69; 65965 =6 :56< 5=: >56= 66 :66< 9 ;55 <<

1*((. P5 <;6<+ =6 6H<6 < =6 U S>;6 ;5 ;6< ;;6=9; 6; 6

859;< 55:56 =6 5=: 859<6 R6+ 85 98=+ 6 5;6@=<

596=9;+ 6 P=6 6 6 78+ 8 6 5@56< = >= 6;55 6=99. # [56+ = 5< 9;H;6 6 :66< ;55 6 ;6 <= =69+ <

=6 56 69;6 ;56<6= 6 ;6 =;96+ 6+ 6 7859;6< 6

9;695 6 <6< 8 6 9@6 5;6 <= > 9;H9 = >

=;. S= ;5 86H 656+ =6 965H6 < =6 56 : < < 65;5 <H:

5;.2 E = O<; =656<+ = ;; < ;55 > =; 85;6= <

6<8;65 =; 7;56 + 85 = :56=+ >6: 956 6 598=665 =6 6;56 < = >

5< 6 ;< 8 7;.

S 6 ;585;6< ; 6 :6@= < =6 856 8@=6 < =6 5=: <9;H6 =6

8+ <<<6 <56; 9 6+ < =6 9<5<6< = =69 ;6@6 <;6< 6

6>665 ;<9. P5 6H. E 5; <=: 6;>;6+ 6H 9 ;69@ 95

;56<5+ @;965 569; = :56< 6;6 = 6= = 869; = < =6

856 9 =656<6 95:H6 < 6 56 =6 =6 5=: 85856@6 =

=:6 <= <5 8@=. D= 99 9<+ @5;965 = 986; 6;;6;> < =6

=656 = := !I! !!+ + 95 <+ ;965 ;6 =6 698=6 566 < =6

96<6< 6; ;<+ 95 698 5;5 7; 6= 85. E =



2

6=+ =6 =656 <= := !I!+ 6= :6= 5>5 8=H;+ = 6;=56=9+

9>9; < >65 =; < =6 =6 9<6 6=;6 < 6;>;6 8=H; 8=@. P5

¿; ;56<5 85;65 =6 6; <@<6 6 =6 <56 85 7+ + 6 ; 58;+

6= 986; <= 9>9; =6 6 556=? T69@ ;<5 6 8665 85 6=; =

<85856< 5= < =6 5=: =6 596 < =6 5< 68;6=;6 =6 =6

985<<56 <= := !I!% = 69 ;7;= 8;;6+ F566 A=966 = @6



2

8H69; :;+ <H 5. P5;65 86 6; 6 6== 8656 = =6

5=:+ 6 56 < ;5@=6 6=+ >5; = M67 <96@6 «6=96 9<

<6=96<». E 96% 6<6 9 = 85;65 =6 ;56 < O<;+ = := !I!+ 9

6 5 < 6>6 < =6 5=:. A ;6= > 56 6H+ ; 6=;56 = < + 6 ;<6

=+ =6 9<56 =6 =656 6 < < =6 96 E586 =6 A956 <56; =

< =;9 := 9<+ =:65 ;6 55< 6H. # 85 = 6 6=56<+ = =;9 9< :=.

L6 >5 < 5< 6 ;5 8< =;65 = <=> ;6< < =6 @=:6

=6 85;6 < =6 5=: O<;+ + :6=9; =6 68;6 < = 96;59 ;5

6;6 <6<5 >=< =6 I<6. D + ;6 ;<6 6 6=56< << =6 <6<6

< 1*$(. E 865;=659; ><; =6 965 < =6 5;66+ =6 I:=6 6;=6

5966+ + 6+ >> 6 5 85<; ;5. A <56 < = <<

= := !VI+ =6 6966 5 @5 ;6 I:=6 56<6 = =6 <<6 5=:6+

=6 <56 =6 <@<6 ;;6% 85 98=+ = < = :5 < =6

95 ;6=66+ << = 6 ;;6+ 66 866< 6 65 9;< 6;8;>. L6 >66;=6 9865 6 9:65 =6569; 9<6< = 6 ;6+ + ==6+ = 856= < =6

;; 5=:6. E E;6< U<+ =6 56 6 6H< < =6 21".((( >6 < 1*$" 6

=6 )".((( < 2(1(.3 E =6 I5=6<6 6;=6+ =6 < < D@=H 8< ;565 =

65<; 6= 5<65 2((". C6< = 8686 B<; !VI >; 6 <6< < ;56< ;6

86<6 9 R6;@6 =6 + 6<9+ = 6@H6 ;< 6 >=6 86=+

: 856<5 6 9 < ;;6 856 < 6<56 6 5@5=.

L6 ;6 < ;56 5=: <;6= ;56<6= 9=65. P5 ;56<+ =6 <;<6<

=;>6 G6=+ 6= 9 ;5 = 6@=6; < :6=+ 6596@6 85 9< < >656 >5

< 85;69 < 85;;6;9 6>56@= 6 =6 ;98=66. P5 = 6 6;6= < 66=9 :6= < H<= 8=H;6 6 >66< =6 68==6 < = 698 :6= 6= 865 =6

6@=<6< 8=H;6 6 <8=66< 6 86 =6. E 56=<6<+ 6 : < 6 56

>5 < =6 56. L6 5=: ;56<6=+ 6;6 55 = < ;9;

< 66= ;5 6=: 8@= 86=9;+ 5=6< 8=6+ 656 @66

56 66 = 66=9 6 8;6 ;<6<. E; 5=;6 =6569; >@=

= 5;69 5;<7+ 6 <>56 5696 <;: ;5 H+ = 6=+ 85 5:

65;5 ;.4 E 98656 986;5;6 ;6<<+ = "+" 9== <

<H < E;6< U< 6=9; =6. C56 < =6 9;6< < == <5@ 6 H

99 9 =6+ 5=: 5=66< 6=: ;5 5<. #+ 6=5 6+ =

5=: 85; 965H6 X= )2 85 1(( < = 99@5 < 6::6 2(((Y 6

>5 9 9 =@56=6<6 < =6 9 = <6H9 5596< =+ 6;6 5;

8;+ = 5>6<5 =6 5;<76 56@H6 566 596." E 6 9<6< 9 =6

6+ 69=6<6 :56 9<<6 95 6<6 > 965 < 96;59 97;+ =6 85;6

5=:6 ;56<6=9; <H6 6 = <H = 96;H6 < 6 8<H6 65= 6H 85

9 ;98. U6 <;6 96= 8=H; X;569; ><Y+ I56=+



2

86< = =:65 < =6 85;6 5=:6 =6 <:696 9 5;5 <= «5 <H». I=

<;5 < =6 95H6 6;56H<6 6 =6 =;565;<76+ ;6 <;6 ;< 6 98=9;65 =6

98=<6< < =6 85;6 5;6=.

C5;69;+ 6 56 56 8656 85 <<6 = 9< < =6 5>=

;6<<+ 566 =@56=+ <<6 X= 5:H9 9;6 79;6Y+

;< ;< 9 =6 = 9< < 6=5 ;5 99; <= 866< < 596



2

:6;>6+ 85 =6 8656 656;5H;6 < 9@; 8@= 6=9; ;56= 5; 6=

9@; 8569; 85>6< 6:6 6 =6 5=:. P5 = 56 <= 9< <;6=+ 85

;65 6 <;66< 785; =6 ; =96%

<6< 6 =6< =6 8=H;6+ ;6;6 = ;= < ><6 =6 9;6=<6< 88=65 6=656< 6 < =

;565 < = := !I! !!. E; 8 65965 =6 :; 66 85<< =6 6@6<6< =6 8<6< X6

9 6+ 6 <=<Y+ = < =6 ><6 =6= 9;656+ ;>5 5: 85 =6 6;5<6< 5=:6+

= 5;6= 6 <> <= ;98 6;6<6 6= 6=<65+ 5985 =6 9>=<6<+ =6 <><66 = 6 < 56

< =6 =;56 = ;5;9; ;6@6 5=66<6 =6 5=: @>5;H6 =6 6;5<6 < ;6.$

P5 ;5 =6<+ O<; = 868= < =6 5:66 5=:6 ;56<6= 6 :<

<=>. E 2(1(+ = 4" 85 1(( < = @5; 6596@6 85;5 6 :6 5=: 865;=65.) E;5 1*'( 2(()+ = 95 < @<6 5=:6 86 < 5 8 9 < =6 9;6< <

=6 =@56<6 6 ;6 = ;5 < ;6= 596.' E C66<+ =6 ;66 ;;6= < 6;6 6

6=5 =6 < 5> 5=: 6 2( 85 1(( 85H< 9=65.* D + ;9

;6 = 6=; >6=5+ = 58;6 6 =6 58;6+ < E;6< U< 6 6;5 6

=6 :=6+ = = 8; 65;5 86< < ;6 58@=6 :56 865; 6 ;5

@66<6 = < 58< 6 ;6 @5 = ;96 76:56 ;9;69;

8586 6;><6< 5=:6. S 6 6==6< =6 6;6 966= 6 = 5=:

E;6< U< 685796 6= 2" 85 1((+ @6 = 6;6 = 21 85 1((.1( A<9+ 8656

= >65 ;6<< = 96= 985 = 7 9 5=:+ 6 < 65; «6;><6< 5=:6»+ 6; 58<5 6 <6< 85;6=+ « : <

:5<6< =<6 6=».

S5H6 6@5< 85 ; 85 < =656+ ;6< 6<6 > 9

58<+ <5 6 =6 <6865 < =6 <> 5=:6 = 5; 66< ==6 9 6+

55 85>65 6 >5 96>6 6= 6;H9. S:6+ @5 ;<+ = 6; <=

9< <5: X 5 6<6 > 9 5; 556 6HY 9 @56 <

;5> @56;56=+ 6 6= 6 =6 56 856= < = <5:.

C9 = < = :56 6;59 L68=6 6 N68=+ 66@6 6@5 =:65 86@6 D

6% «N ;: <6< < 6 8;». ¿Q 8< <;:5 6 :5 < ;5;56+ H =65+ 556+ <6<5 < 9<6 856;6 59; 56< 9

9=9 ;5; 5;6 8;;6=+ < 56< 9 6=>;6 =6 C6 <

M6? E ;56@6+ = < 65 < 5=>66+ 6=> 55 <;596<6 5=:

98:6 =9;6 @5 = = 859; 65 ;6 6596 986;@=

6;><6<. E ; 6+ @ =6 5;<76 6@6<6 ;;69; >;+ 9 S;6= =6

H6+ 656 8656 ;55 6596 =65 : 6556 6 <569;6 6 < -ida y



2

destino+ < V6= G596+ @ = 985 < =6 5=: <:9;6 85< ;669;

;=;6=+ 9 6 55< = =69 << = := !IV.

P5 < 56+ ; 6 ;596< 66<+ = ;565 <= 866< :=+ 85@=96 965

< = 856@6. P656 9865+ 6 6@< 6 @56 6<6 > 9 66 ;5+ 85 =6<+ =6;5H6 =6 85;6 < =6 6 =6 686 =6 <5 <= 9< 9<5 + 85 ;5

=6<+ = 5=6; =6 858;6 956= < >656 5=: 56+ @5 ;< =6 5;66 =6

9=966 86=+ ;< = 698 6;6@6 6 =6 <6< = 5 96. E

:< =:65+ = 9< 9<5+ ;,;H+ 6 866< 6 5=;65 6<6 > 9

985@= 8656 =6 :56 965H6 < 6; >> = < =+ 6 =6 865 = ;96



2

=6 ;56< 5:=6@6 =6 956= =6 5=6 966+ 6:56< 85 =6 5=:+

<9565 85 ; < =6 78=>6 ;56596 < ><6. E= 4( 85 1(( < =

;6<< 5 =6 <6< < =6 T556 55 6 = < 9= 6 << =:+ 6@

6<6 < =6 6;56=6 =6 ;56 96;56= < ;5 8=6;6+ 85 965H6+ ;6 :566

= 8 965 >; 6 = 65 < 85956< = < 6@5

;8=:H6. A = =65: < =6 965 865; < =6 ;56+ =6 <6< 966 6 6< 8@=6 + @6 9<<6+ 56 5=6;>69; X 98=;69;Y :56; + 6=;

85;6+ < 66 ;=:6. S= = := !!I 6 55< = :5 < =6 96<6<+ 6=

;65 6H ;;<+ 986 6 5=;65 @56; 8656 = 5; < =6 85< =6 ;=:H6.

E;5 ;6;+ 9 58 95 < >;6; = 86H <95;+ @6 @56

<< <:96 <69;6=;6+ 66 :56> 85@=96 6 =6 6 = ;5 8@=+ 85

6@=65 < =6 >5<6<. A == 96 + 9 6<6 > 9 6@;6=+ = 6 5@< 6

596 =;56= ; <6 7=< < =6 5986 5<6 85 6 <6<

95;5;6 985<<56+ ; 6 >6< 6 = 7=< = 6 9>=6< 9 :58

< «:56;» 5;6< 6= «establishment =@56=» X=< ;5 @=6 = 9;9 ;6=Y+ 6; + = 6@5H6 < 9 =:+ 9 5;69; < 8@5 ;56 5.

E 6=: 68;+ << =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ =6 5;6 ;5 6 5=: 6<6 > 9

965:6= 6 6 6;66<6 << >65 ;5 6 6:<6< 9 : ;5 85H<

<< A<5J D. ; 8@=656 < >=9 < ! 'istory of the *arfare between 8cience

and %heology in (hristendom X1'*$Y. P5 > 85956 96 <6<6+ 7; 9>9;

9=;6 85 =6 < <= 6;H9+ 6;>;6 9 <;66< 85< < =6 6

6;56=. E 5; + ;=;6=9;+ =6 ;=:H6 6 56< 6 85 ;5 6 <665 6 =6

6 858 ;55 6 ;56< 65:9; 85:65 ;5H6 6:6 =

5=;6< =<6< < =6 6 ;9856 5=; 986;@=+ < 6=: 9<+ =6<><6<. I= 5 =6 >5<6< =;56= <= G @5 656 =6 << =6

6 < 86556 < 6 «6 < =6 C56». L 9>=6 6 5 =6 56 =

6@5< < = 65:9; < 8;+ =6 56 8=H;6 6 6 <9;56< 85

;98 5;.

E = 866< 9 < > = 85;+ 6<6 > 9+ =6 =656 < =6

6;><6< :=@6= 6 < @56+ 6 7=>6+ < 6 95H6+ 865;=65 < 95H6

=;6% = 6=6@;6< 9< < =;56<+ = @6==5 :56<6< >5;65 =

:= !I! !!+ = <;56< 96:H;5 <= := !!I+ ; 6 6= >5<6<5 6@5

65 < =6 <6< < =6 596. A = 9>9; <6= 56<6=+ 88=65

;56<6=+ 99@5 56 @6 865; 6;<<6;6+ ;69@ 6@ <565= 6

95H6 =66 69866 < =656. L6 6 78+ >5<6<5 9>9; <

9<56 < 56H 88=65+ = 98= < 9686 H6 76= < =6 95+

@6 =@565 < =6 5;5 ;56 = =6 9<<6 = 6 859;<

<655==65+ 6 ; 6+ <@ 59; ;;6= 6= X<>5+ ;5= < =6

6;6=<6<+ ;.Y 6 =6 @56 < 95H6 < 6;>;6 =6. E = := !I!+ ;6 95H6



2

=656<56 ;>5 6 66 <85856<6+ 85 >656 56% 85 =6 =; =;6

5965 = 6<5 < = 9<5 ;6<,6 85 = 9>9; <6=

6=;6 <;665 =6 66 < 9>=6 5:66 ;69@+ 8

<;66<6+ 85 =6 56 8586= ;5656 6 =6 =656 =6 95+ = 698



2

;5 95 < = «;56@66<5 8@5» 5:66< ;6@6 7=<6+ :56

865;+ < =6 8=H;6. F56 < = 86H 68;6=;6 <655==6<+ <9 <5 6;6 6= <=

:= !!. P5;H6+ 96+ 6 =6 56 6;55 6 =6 <956;6 < =6 8=H;6.

L6 8=H;6 <956;6<6+ 9 8<H6 5 < ;5 9<+ < 8 965 6<6 >

9 <> 6 =6 966 6 ><6 =6 5=: :H6 <986< 6 9

965 =6 ;585;6@6 ;5 =6 =; < 6;>;6. L =6 856;6@6 ;=:6=6 >6 8=H;6 <95;6 56 9 ; < ;H6 85;65 6; 6 =

;9; 5=: = = < 858 =;56<. AH+ 1*44+ ;56 =6 6H<6 <

M=+ = P65;< C9;6 I;6=6+ 95:H6 < =65: 6 < =:6=<6<+ 5

8<H6 68565 6 >5;5 6 56 =6> 86H 6;6= 6=> 859;56 =6 5856

< 6;= 856;6;. E 6+ <;59 =965 = >; 6= 58;+ 598<

=6 ;56< < 865;< 6H6 68 = 6;H9. L6 =6 85<6

9=6:569; 85<@= < =6 6:5 < 6 G65+ 6; 86;5 < N8=+ < <

85<5 6< =6 <6< ;> :@56<6 85 = 9;6. E = 9< =9+ = =H<5

< 66=9 559;6 ;H6 =65 <@H6 6==65 6 =6 =6 8<6<;56<6= < 986;5;6+ 85 9 =6 9865;56. E= <6<5 < P6]; M. A.

&6+ 56 98=;69; =6 8 9>=65 6 = < 9=96 85; <

E;6< 858 @ 6 ;; <95;6 =@56= ;69; =66+ =6 ;<6 =6

5=: 5H6 6; 85>6< < 6@;6;+ ;5> ;6;6=. E = 6=+ ;6

;69@ =6 8 < &6J665=6= N5+ 9=: =6 I<6+ 86H 6;6 = 99; 6

:< < E;6< =6 ; ;<+ = 99 6@5H6 <5 < = P6<5 F<6<5 <

E;6< U<. T< ;6 6 8@= 86<+ &6 6<5 ;6 858;6

556 6= =69 X ;56< <95;6+ 9859 =6 :6=<6< =6 ;6

6=+ ;.Y+ 85 5 ;6 66 8 8H6 = 6 = =69;6 ;6;6 = 65=;6< 98@= <<5= 9 86=6<H <= E;6< =9 = 6= H 9859;

9 6<=6; 9=;65.

E = <9 =6 < E586 A956 <= N5;+ = =H<5 559;6 =6

966565 6 > 8586 6=;6 < ;69 5=: ==696<6 6 =6 7@6 88=65+ =

6;9856=9 =6 >6 <;6= <= 66=9+ 85 ; >H6 9

=>+ 9=;6= 9=;;. XD + 56 9 85@6@= = 85 <=

66=9 56@ = O5; P579 56 5;6+ 6; 9=96.Y E;6 =6 @6

@5 =6 6=+ 6 > ;596<6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ 98 E:8;+ S<+ S56+ I56]

I5 ;;; 6 =6 @5> :9H6 < G56 B5;66 O5; P579 X= «M9;

B5;»Y. P5 = = 565 6 = = :@56; 9<56<5 <85

<= 8<5 8=H; 9=;65 85 8656 @56;65 = 8<5 ;;6= < =6 5=:

965;656+ =6 85;6 8<H6 96;5 = ;5= @5 =6 966 65 . N

56 9<56<5 ;6 56<6= 9 96= A;6;W5] 6@= = 6=6;+ ;59 85

<;6@=65 = =69 69@ =6 >;9;6 < 8@=+ 6=6@; + 9 7;+

6;;< 66 =6 95 ;; 556<65 85;6 5=:6 = ;; ;;5=6 85



2

66=9 86;5. E= ;5= ;6@6 =6 96 < 6 =; ;6;6= < 9=;66 =66+ 686<6

85 5; ;5:6< 6 = >6=5 < <6<5+ A;6;W5]+ 85; 6 ;5>5 6< ;

86556 <65 6966<. L6 56 6596<6 6 985<< ;6 =6 < 6 >656

6 1*)(+ 1*'( 1**) 6 ; @=:6<6 6 65= 6H+ 6 =6 ;6

6;6= 6 < 8=6 =@5;6< 6 =H<5.



2

L6 <956;6 < =6 8=H;6 8 < 96; = =; ;5 =6 5=: 88=65 <

966 = :@56; =6 T5H6+ 9 =65<6< : ;5 =:65. A==H+ =

865;< 8=H; :58 =69;6 865;<65 < ;;5 E;6< =9 <655==65

86= 6;><6< =6 <6<6 < 1*$( 1*)(+ 8 6 = <>5 ;; < =:6=65=. E =6

6;6=<6<+ T5H6 6==6 5:<6 85 :@5 =9 =; 6 ;; 859; =6

= 88=65 < 85<; =9+ 85 5: = 85:5696 98=; < E;6<5:< 85 =6 65H6+ 6; 85 =6 = =66. D< T 6 <556< 6

:@5 6;5;65 < ;6 =6 =66+ 865;< 8=H; 9=9 < 966 865 85;<5

6 = 9=65.

E= =; 6 < X 85@6@= 6Y ;6; 9 6:< =6 965H6 < = ;5 ;6<

8@=6< 85 6 965H6 9=966. E A5:=6+ =6 =;96 <6<6 <= := !!+ ; <9@

6 6:5;6 :556 >= >5 = 5; =6 =; 9<56<56. E I56]+ 6

>6 7;55 <55 6 5:9 9<56<5 6;5;65 + @6 =6 86 7;5656+

:<5 E;6< <><< ;5 < <69;6=9 9=96 98;6+ = H =

H+ = = 8=H; =6 6 @5>>< @6 965: < 96@56 8656 :@566= 6 7;;. E S56+ ; 99;+ 5:9 =65 6==6 ;6< 6<6

> 9 @> < :556 >= 6=+ 8<5H6 <;55 = 86H+ 6 <;5 < =6 6=

@65H6+ 9 85@6@=9;+ = <69;6=;6 H J66@H. E E:8; ; <

95:6 85956 <= 85@=96+ =6 6865 < = 596 M=96 1*2'+ =

9>9; =69;6 6 < 85@< 6+ = 6 859;< <655==65 6

7;6 de facto 965:6= 85 985 = 6 7=< < =6 ;96 < < 8=H;6.

A56 596 = :58 9 95 < <8;6<+ ;56 =6 = <95;6 :5

6= <5569; <= 5:9 6;5;65.

E = O<; <655==6< =656<+ 9 =6 5: 9;6+ 6 6 <85@6@= =6 <956;6 985;656 ;6= 55:9; < 6 5=: < 966 8=;6<6.

I= = := !I!+ = 95 86H 96= X6;=,596Y <= 5 <

E586 A956 L6;6+ =6 I:=6 585; 6 56 < 8 < 8<5 8;6=

X9 6+ 56=Y+ 96;> 6 566 = 6>6 < =6 56 = =@56=9. S 56 < 9@6;

9>=65 8656 85;:5 = ;5= < =6 <6+ =6 956=<6< = :56< 5;6= < =6

><6 9 865; < ;96 8=H; 8=5865;<;6+ 6 <95;. E = 86H

8=555=:+ =6 I:=6 6;=6+ >;6@=9;+ < ;:56<6 ;96 8=H;

<6@6 86 6= 95 < >; 6 69@ < . E; 9 ><; =6 I<6

6; = 6 < A=966 E;6< U<. L6 5 <= 6;=9 596+ << =6

<6<6 < 1*$(+ 6 5<< 569; = 8;6= 8=H; <= 6;=9 < 966. L6 8=H;6 <

=6 56 =6 =6 I:=6 6 <6< < 6565 =6 5;6 66= 6 =6 8=H;6 < =

865;< 5=:+ 6 6< I;6=6 X P=6 C566Y =6 ;=<6< <= 6;=9

66 =6 5<6 8=H;6 : =< 9. E 6; 6= 8@= 986; < =6

<956;6 86H < 8@=6 @<;6+ 85 9 865;+ = 8< 65 ;56. E =6

6 965H6 ;;6= @<;6+ T6=6<6+ = @<9 865 ;585;65 : 868=



2

<;;6@= =6 8=H;6.

A56 @+ =6 8586= 66 < 6=6596 @5 = 6 < 6 5=: 8=;6<6 =6

95:6 < =;56< 5=: 965;65 9< 56: >56= ;>.

E = 6 < <=:H6 56<6=+ 85 85 = :56= < <56+ = < =6 5=:%



2

86=9;+ <;5 <= 5;69 85;;6; = =69 ;56<6=;6. A9@6 5=:

956 56<6= = 8;6=9; 5>=656+ 6= 9< «<69;6=;6»

;56<6= ;5 =6 «5=: <= =@5» <5+ 859> >=>5 6= ;7; 98= <

E5;56+ = 6 < 8565 =6 < 6 69=6 < 558 66<<. S ;5

; =6 68656 < 866< 5;5<. E E586+ ;9 85<; = <=

5;69+ =6 R596 <= := !VI. D;5 <= =69+ ;9 = = 58;< 5> 6A@6=< 8656 59=65 6 ;5H6 @5 = 69@ ;5% = :555 @<+ =

6;5 9;H9 <= <5;+ ;6 85<69; =6 <6< 56+ =;6 <6<;+

6; < 5=;65+ 6 >+ 5598< 85 ;6. O;56 ;6 < 56<6=9 5=: 8@= =6

5; 6= 58 8586= < =6 + =96 = ;6@=9; < 9<6<

<>;6 8656<6 ;69@ ;585;6 6=: 868= =6 6;6= >5 5;66 < =6

56<6=6 5=:6 85 865 ;5 8 9 <65 =6 =96.

E= 565 <= 56<6=9 =9 98=6 <@< 6 >65 6;5 8=H;+ ;5 =

<;66 ;55;5 ; L6 M6 = 85:56 66<+ < 6 ;6<

=6 965H6 < A56@6 S6<H = ;5 <= =69 >56=+ 9 6 8 < R969=966. D< = 8; < >;6 ;5+ ;6 965H6 ==>6 9 ;98 <;6<6 =

85;69 @< < =6 >5 J66@H <= =69+ 85856 6 = 656

5:9 <= <5; 85 6@=; 6;5 =6 bona fides 5=:6 96; ;6@=<6<

8=H;6. S 96 56 8;5=H56 6 6< 8656 665 =6 >6;6 786 < =

85:56 6 L6 M6+ 6H 9 < 9;6 =6 ;5 >5;65 5=: ;<

= 9< 9 56 < 8565+ @ <= ;56:; <69;6=9 J66@H X6=6HY

>=> =6 956<6 66 =6 :56 <65 = =69. Q =6 :556 5H6 < E;6< U<

<56 586=< 6 = 9=96 9@6;H6 = 99 =6 :556 6:66 < =6 URSS

;69@ 6<+ 85@6@=9; 6 6@ 76;;< 6;6 8;+ 6 =<65 =69 6 < =6 >6 5:66 6<;6 ;566=% =6 A=,Q6<6 < O696 @ L6<.

R=;6 98@= ;965 = @6 88=65+ 85 < ;= >@= <= 6 <=

<69;6=9 =9 =6 5; ;<6 < =6 95 6 ==>65 =6 >;<56 :56 +

: ;6 5;<76+ <@ =;65 85 98=; = 58 9 85@6@= ;6

;<6 ; 6;6< 6 9 = > :=. N 985 55 85 98 69=65.

E 68; 9 ==696;> ;5 = ;<6; < =6 :56 >5<6< 9=966 < A=:65+ =6

I<6 ;69@ 6=:6 >5<6< @5;6+ :6=9; =6 6== < =6 <6<

@5;6 956 8@=6 9=966 X =6 6== < F566+ 6;6 85@

6=9; Y. S 9@65:+ ;:6 6 @6 88=65 <8<;+ = >

<69;6=9 =9 8< >5 9 9>9; < 5596 9<56<56+ =

986569 =6 85;6 5=:6 < @6 ;5@6= 9;656 @5>6 = =69 <

@6+ =; =6= ==5+ 6;+ :H6 6:56< 9;5 H. N @;6;+ 6

<56 < =6 R596 85;;6; <= := !VI+ 6 65< <= 8<5 965 <

;56< >5=6 <= L@5 6:56<. E= <69;6=9 =9 6 <6< 6=6< 6=

56@ <= C5 X= 6 8; 85@=96 =6 8@=6 @5@5 <= M6:5@Y =



2

99 < =6 umma =96 :=@6=. E = 58;6 6= <5 8=H; 9<5+ 85 =

;6;+ = <69;6=9 =9 ;69; 5665.

A ; 58;+ 5=;6 5 =6569; <;; 6 =6 78= <= <69;6=9 >6:= +

9 @+ <= 85;;6;9 8;;6= 659;+ 8+ 85@6@=9;+ =6 9

56<6= < =6 596 < ;56596 5=:6. A= :6= = =69+ ; 9>9; 6



2

698=6<+ = 56<+ 6 @56 =;56= 86H < =6 6;:6 5>= <;56= 586

X 6H E;6< U<+ 9 =6Y+ 86H <= ; 5; < A6+ 5: <

[56+ A956 L6;6 = ;5,; < A6.

E= 59; 9 8;6=65 < ;6 5696 <= 5;69 6 85<< 698=6 6

< A956 L6;6 =6 965 865; < [56+ << = 85;;6; 659; 656 9

95 <9 = 6;=. P5 ;5 =6<+ 986; @5 = 9< =9 6 <<<6@= + = 5; < A6+ :6; X78; F=86 + ;6= >+ C56 <= S5 =6

C6 896H;6Y. N 6 :6< < : 86;5 8=H; 5=>6;+ 6=> 6>;56 6=

;= < =6 CIA+ 85;<H6 9>=65= ;56 = 99. S 9@65:+ = 95 X

:56 9<<6+ 5;6956Y 5 85 < 786 ==>65 : @6 865; <

= 858 8=H; 9 < E;6< U<. A @> = 9>+ <

596 9=;6;+ =6 > < =6 86=6@56 < D = >6=5 < = ;7; @H@=

<69;6=;6 <@ 5 9865;< 85 = 9< ;+ = 659;+

86=9; = 8;;6=9+ <@5H6 5 >; 9 9 6=9; 8656;;6

;65+ 6; >56=.L6 I:=6 >6:=6+ = <+ ; < :5:6 6;96. E X 98

< 6; ;<Y 9>9; < 56H 88=65+ < = 8@5+ 859<+ 965:6=

6=9; <5;6<+ = ;:56 @5 ;< 95+ ;69@ 86 8 <

=<56:+11 9 55 6 =6 ;6 5;66 56<6=. S 85<6 ;=<6< 6 =6

=@56=6 < =6 5=6 76= X<>5+ 6@5; 976=<6<+ 6H 9 6 =6 :;6

< 6==Y ;6= > 585<6 6 =6 9;6 ;9856+ 85 <@5H69 >5=6 9 6

<6 < =6 ;6@=<6< ;56<6= 5; 6 69@ ;5=6@= = 6:;6. S 9@65:+

= 58;6 6= <5 8@= ;985+ = >6:=9 <6 6 5;6

5>6<56 6= 9>9; 659;. T69@ = 6 = < 8586:6 = >6=5 <=85:5 9 =6 6;>6 856=+ 556< 85 =6 > < >5;

6= 5;69 ; <;6< 6= 7;. E; 865 6@5 9856< @59656 6 =6 6;5<6<

6+ + 6+ 5=>5 = 8;;6= 5=;6@6 969;

68;6@=. S ;6+ 699+ < = 9;5 X 66 ;56<<

9@5Y 659 =6 9H6 5H6 6 9 <96 ;< = 56 >6:= X se

non 4 vero3 4 ben trovatoY.

A56 @+ ; 9>9; ;5 ;5 =6 8=H;6 < <6<+

=6 56 X 5596Y < 9<6< @5 =6 @6 < + < 596 =;>6+

56 «565» <@< 6 8<56 7856 85;6= <><6= 6 5;6=

6;6 =6 9+ 6 9< 6;6 =6 996 56. P656 ==+ 5=;6 6= 565 = 96=

85;:5 < =. U ;< @5 = 8;;6= < < 86H = = )),)* 85 1(( X

A956 L6;6Y 6;6 = ') 85 1(( X [56Y < = ;6< 6@H6 < ;;: <

56 <>6+ 9;56 = '( 85 1(( X B56=Y = '$ 85 1(( X 6Y 6@H6

7859;6< < ;;: < 759.12 «6@=65 =:6 <<6»+ : <

856 <>6 9<6;6+ 6=: = 856;6 6 95H6+ 85 ;6 =6 685@6



2

:56=. E;6 =6 < 9<6< @6 7=5 < 6 <6< 6=9; 6;6;56+

6; ;565965=6 6+ 9 5:66 9 956 >> 6 786

8;6=65+ >5; =9; 985;6; =6 8=H;6 < 86H. S 9@65:+ 6

<56 < = 55< = := !I!+ 6< = 959 <9;565 56 6;@=



2

985<5 7< 56= X6= 9+ = <96= 86 6@5; < =6 A956Y+ =

85;;6;9 659; < =6 6;6=<6< @6 =6 >5 < 86H. E= < < 6@6<65

=6 <6< :56= <65 9<6< 6;96 6= 965: < ;6 786=.

E= 5;69 >6:= ; 6 5;6 6;6 6= 5>6<59 9 <<6 < =

:5 =6 8=H;6 6;6= < = ;6< <= «;5 @H@=» < E;6< U<. S

5>6<59 =;56= 8< 9@65 6 :56 <>5<6< < < =6 8=H;6. EE;6< U<+ = ;5 @H@= < = @=6 < 85>6 85 6@=65 < =

656956 =6;6956 6= 6;6 = 56<6=9 6= =6 O]=696

6;55 6 1*14+ = = 6=9.13 ==69 &: B56+ 6 56;56 6@H6

9>=6< 6 =6 :; < 856<56 9;66+ = 965 < = 9>9; 556= < 6=

<= := !I!+ ;56 6== 66@6 «565 6 =6 96<6< 6 5 < 5»+ ;69@

<< =6 >5<6< =;56= <= G ;56 =6 ;5H6 < =6 E>= = 69 « <=

9»+ < 1*2". E = 5; < =:65+ =6 8=H;6 <= 85;;6;9 8;;6= 659; 6

< 9 <>56% << 6 =656 86><6< 58; 6= apartheid + S<56+ 6= 6866<

99 < =6 96 956 < L;6+ = C= 6;55 6 P; << =6 9665 < =6:55==6 G6;96=6+ 85 865; < :56= 8;;6=+ 6 =6 986;H6 =6 5<6 < =

«>6:=» @56=+ 656 585; 56 <= 2( 85 1(( < 8@=6+ 6 >

9=< >65 =; <;6< 6 85865 = ;5 9<. E [56 ;569 6= 5

F5<5] C=@6+ =:< 85<; < K69@6 1**1+ << ; 86H 6 S S5 &5;+

85 6< 85 8 < 86;5 8;;6= =98 < 96= 8H5; =

86=6 85<6=. L6 8=H;6 < =6 9@6 6566 <= 8;;6=9 56

6;:6 <966< 98=6 9 8656 665 =6 6;:5H6 <;6=.

E= 8; <= 85;;6;9 «659;» = 6 1*$2 =; ;6<<.

N 6=: 66=. E 6 <6<6+ =6 < 1*$(+ 6< = 9>9; < ;6 =6+ 865;=65 = 8;;6=+ 9865 :56 786. XE7;H6 << 9<6< < =6 85956

<6<6 <= := !!+ : :56 ;+ 6 I;6=6+ 6 > =<6 =6 :<6 :556

9<6=+ ;> :56 58; 85 66 :5:6. T69@ 55 6H <56; =6 :56

6:;6 <= 6986<+ 85 965 :56< < 6=6@;6+ 85 9 85@6@=9; 85

6@5 86< ;56 < =6 I:=6 6;=6. Q 6=:6 5696 556= <= P65;<

C9;6 85856 9 5;65 =6= 6 8;;6= 6<>;;6 <= 8;9 <H6

<5; 6 = =H<5 66=+ 5 6; 8<5 8656 <=65 ;6 ;<6.Y

T69@ =6 <6<6 < 1*$( 8656 5 9 85+ 6 865;5 < 1*$" 6< 8 <

96; = <=> < =6 >6 65<;6= 6;=6+ =6 6;6 6 96 6 <= '( 6= 2(

85 1(( Q@ XC66< 56Y+ 56 @6; ;56<6= <= 6;=9.14 D + 1*$"

= 8595 6 = =6 <;56 566 < =6 9<6 85<+ 85 85956 >+ 9 86;6=

6=<6. E56 699 = ;98 < =6 <=6 :56=+ @5 ;< [56. E 96+

=6 86 =6 < 858;@= < =6 >6 5;6 >;6@6 56 6 @65 ;56

>6. # = >6:=9 659; 6596@6 6@5=6 ;56<.

E = 85 ; <96@6 «T55 M<»+ 69@ 6= 85<;



2

@5 ;<+ 6 9:56 6 :56 6=6 <= 698 6 =6 <6< 5 =6 < 6<6<6

8656 ;6= >5. E E;6< U<+ =6 965H6 < = =6;6956 8;;6= 865

6@5 >5;< <8 < ==:65 6= 86H.1" E 6=: 86H+ =6 :556 =6 >=6

:56=6<6 = > ;5 < = 9:56;+ 6 9< 86 <:56<6< X9 =6

favelas < =6 <6< @56=6Y+ = 8585 98 8<5. AH+ ;5 = igbo <

N:56+ = 8;;6=9 98 6 665 5 <56; =6 ;55@= :556 >= < B656+ <



2

1*$),1*)(1$ P5+ =6 5@= < = 96H;6 < S<5 L9 @5;6= 85 ;56

: 6 =6<6 < >5 ;5 = 6 < =6 6 6;6<6. E; 85 = 6

<5; 66=6< 96:;56=9; 6;58=: 8579 6 ;6 =6=<6<.1)

E 96+ 6= 865 96 < =6 >6 ;9@5 6 < 6;6<6 85 = 566 + 6

6= <= := !! 858 <= !!I+ 6 ;56H< : 6 5 6 ;56596

96 56<6=+ =6 <6< < 58565 =6 5;6 85<<6 6 ;56< 9 5:;. L6:=@6=6 <96;= ;< = =H9; 95 =6 ;=:H6 =66 5 >6H+ 6:5:6< <

6=6 9<6=+ 596< 85 6:; 8569; <><6= 96796@6 @

956< =@5 X9 6==6 56 < =6 56 T6;5% «=6 <6<+ 9 ;6=+ 7;»Y.

¿C= 56 ;5 =:65 ;6 5<6< 6=+ <966< >6;6 8656 = 8; =:

<9 < «9<6<» «<6<»+ <:69 8656 =6 ;; 596<6 85

856 X 95 :58 ;6<H;Y? ¿A =:65 85;H69+ 6 6=6 966 =

86 = ;98 56=? ¿C 558<H6 ;65? ¿Q 569? E

:6;> + 6=: 99; 8;55 6 = ;6+ = 8; < =6 «5 < <;<6<»+

66< 5: 85 8=: 8656 5=65 =6 5;<9@5 <= <655== 6<=; N5;6956+ 698= 8656 65965 :56=+ = >;65+ 6 <;<6< < :58

>5 < 5=6 966 69@6;. P656 5 9 76;+ <96<6@6 6 <;<6<

859656 ;5 =6 8=;56 < 9656 =6 8<9 <5@5 <6=9;+ 6 =6

=56 5:56 ;<6 6= 69865 < 6@69;. E= 565 5=: 856=+ =6

>5+ 56 6 596 < <65 58;6 6 ;6 85:;6.

E ; 8;+ <@5H6 6@5 <6< =65 = 6 < =6 8=H;6 @66 =

56<6=9 5=:+ 9 = 569; ;985 < =6 5=: 856=+ 6 <

69@ 6 9 < 6= <= := !! 858 <= !!I. P = 6@5H6 85;6<

6; 6; < 1*$(+ 85 8 6@5H6 6 9 < == <8 < 1*)(. A ;<6 =+ =6 <<6 < =6 8;6=65 ;56596 656;5 6 <6<6 6 =6 9H6

9<6= 6 <6< < 6=565.1' 6 8;56< 85<69; =6 8=H;6 < 698=6 865;

<= 9<+ 865;=65 <= 9< =9+ [56+ = A6 95<6= 55;6=+ E;6<

U<. E 6 5:+ 8@=9; ;< = 9<+ 6:5>6 6596 < >6=5

85;6 9 =6 ;56< < =6 956=<6< =6 5=6 < 69=6 ;5 7 5; 6

= == <96 «=@56=9» «558 <;6=» ;585;6 656 868=

<;66< = <5 8@=. C9 6@;6=+ 6=:6 < «;56<» >;6<6 X85

98=+ =6 9@6 < = <69;6=;6 =9 6 5: =6 = 7 ;5

9@5 =H6 5 5; ;=56@6 ;;69; =6 =9;6 < =6 6;6=<6< 6=:6

<6< 6986 5;66Y. 6 < ;=+ 9 9H9+ 8; 6; = 685<6

5H; = ;7; 6:56< =6 >;:6 = 6>6. S 9@65:+ ;+

6 < 9 7; 98+ 6=> = 58;6 6 56=;65 =6 9686 < =6

95+ =6 6<6 < =6 ;56< = 8<5 < = ;6< ;5;.

E =6 8656<6 < <69;6=9 5=: 6 6>>6<+ 85 5: < 9<

= =6 7;6 966 686 @5 <69; ;H,; 986;@=



2

= + 9@65:+ <86@= = 8656 = <>;. S = <69;6=;6

;985 :56 =6 =:6 < 6;5 66@68;;6+ <@5H6 6@;5 < ;<6 =6

>6 ;=:6 8;55 6 <6 X9 55 = amish < P=>66+

: 6@6== 6=6Y. P5 = > >5 8;;6= 56 6=

9< < G:= 6= P+ 85856 =. L6 >5<6< =;56= <= G 8586:6

;5;.



2

L6 6;5<6< ;5;6 < I5 @66 = ;5 < 86H = 8<5 =65+ 6= ;98

;H =65 66< =6 ;=:H6 9 ;6<6+ 966<6 << =6 6=6

< ;5= @= < N@56]6+ 9 85@6@=9;+ 85 865; < >5 6= 5;69. ¿Q

8< <5 9< =6 56 =6 56<6 6;556 7;5 = ;559; tsunamis

5 6 = =65: <= := !!I?



2

C68H;= 1'

ARTE # REVOLUCIÓN

N 6 7 =:6 656 ;5 =6 >6:65<6 586 65;H;6 =;56= =

8; < «>6:65<6» 98 6 65 66 1''( = 865;< < 7;596 5<6 < =

:= !I! !!+ 6 ;6; 6==6 9 ; <56@6 6 H 99 585;6; <=

«85:5» =6 «9<5<6<» 69@ 5 ;5666= 6=6 69@. E

=6 < =;96 <6<6 <= := !I!+ =6 5<6 56<6= = > 6=<956;6 X85 =

:56=+ 9657;6Y 9565 986;H6 6 = 9>9; 65;H; < >6:65<6% = 6;56=9+

= 9@=9+ = art nouveau+ = = 8;9859. A 69@+ ; 65;;6 >5

6;56H< 6 59=65 <=656 6=+ = 8=H;6+ 85 986;H6 66 :58

<<6< 6 = 8@5 859<. L 99 55 6=: 65;;6 6 6;6<+ 9 5@5; 5]95 X8obre la huelga+ 1'*(Y + =6 >6 78+ I= R8 X GH de octubre de

IJK Y. E R6+ = 65;;6 <= :58 <= «9< <= 65;» 585;6+ 85@6@=9;+ 6 6

9=65 < =6 >6:65<6+ 6; < D:=> 965656 6 O<;. L 6 < 1*(" 6 1*()

85 < 96; = 9859 8=H; <= =@5 5;56;;6 S5>.

E =6 <6<6 6;55 6 1*14+ = 6 < >6 >6:65<6 56<6=9; @>5>6

P65H+ M =6 68;6= <= 985 6@@5: 9@5 =6 <> ;5 =6 5696 65;H;6

8=H;6 < =6 5>= =6 9<5<6<. U 8 9 6<=6;+ 6 ; :58+ R6+

98; 786=9; 95 < 95 65;;6+ ;>5 @ 585;6<6 =6

>6 78.B6 ;;6 <>56+ 6 > =686@6 ;5 H @;6+ ;5;6+ @;5;6+

8596;6+ ;.+ ; >6<5 56<6=+ @>5> 8; <= 65;+ @

9 X 9H;+ R6Y 6856+ 9;565 ;5 85 =6 8=H;6 <

5<6 ;>5 :56 ;6; ==6. D8 < 1*1(+ = = 8;6 <5696;5:

@=> V=6<H95 M66]>] 6= < =6 8=H;6 <56; ;98. S 6; < 1*14+ =

65;;6 < >6:65<6 =H6 6 6=: 86<5+ 56 6 M657+ 6= = N;+ 6

98=6 8=H;6 6>5H6 6; 6 =6 966+ 6 =6 =; = «859@5». S= <

= 65;;6 =:< 8656 8; < 586@=<6< 85 = > :@5 >;+ 1*1)+

865 6@5 < 99@5 < 6=: 865;< 8579 6= 6=9% = @<;6 D6>< S;5@5:X1''1,1*3'Y.

P5 ;5 =6<+ = 6=;6+ <6<6 ; < ==>65 =6 65; 85 65; =H6 ;<5

=6 6=;6 =;56 < =6 @5:H6 56<6 6 =6 =6 ;56@66<56+ <6@6 < =6 >6

985@= < =6 >6 >6:65<6. A = 9+ 6@H6 6 < :56 <;66<6+

9 85 98= = 85<;6 @=> A6;= L665]+ + 6 ;65 ><6+

56 = ;9; @= 6 =6 55; ;=;6= 65;H;6 < ;98 8656



2

55 = = 5>=65 65;H; 68=H; 6;8=H; 8<H6 =5 < 6=:

9< @5 = ;5.



2

E 1*1),1*22+ =6 >6:65<6 < =6 E586 ;56= <= ;+ ;5965H6 596< 6 5<

;565;56 ;8<6+ >5;5 966 6 =6 5<6 5>=656. Q ; 9

585<; A=966 R6+ %itanic << =6 :; 6@H6 856@6 = @5: <

=6 5>=. A <56 < = 55< A=966 =6 ;556 < = 6@@5:+ R6 =6

58=6 < =6 G56 G556 865 6@5 5>;< 86= 985;66. D < =6

>6:65<6+ = 8;6 V=6<H95 M66]>] = 8;5 695 M6=>+ 6@H6 85<<85<9 86;5; 88=65 1*14. L = 85 8=;+ 9 555H6 A=966

:5H6+ =6 5>= H. T69@ = ;5: 6 >@=<6< ;566= <

R6+ 6;6 =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ = ;5 <= 9<59.

L6 5>= ; 6 =6 >6 >6:65<6 56 6 8 6 < 8<5 =6+

@6 =6 85> @>=; <= > 965 < I;5 P@=6+ A6;= L665]. S

; 69; = =9;6@6 = < = 5:9 ;H6 96;5 = 86;59 =6

;; < =6 6=;6 =;56+ =6 965H6 < ==+ @5 ;< = ;5;6+ 6@H6 5<

655665. XE 1*21+ = B= >; = 55 85 = 8=.Y A865; < ;+ 5 8 = 65;;6

9859;5 = >;. X«¿E 6 6;;5;6 6 < 65?»+ 85:;L.Y C6:6==+ M6=> L;] XL;]Y <5:5 =6 < 65; = 65;; V=6<H95

T6;= = <5;5 < ;6;5 V>=< M5=<+ <865;69; 65;H; 9;56=. E= 866<

6@H6 95;. E= 65; =6 <6< 8<H6 65 865;< < 5. T< 865H6 8@=. E=

< =6 ><6 = 65;+ <= 56<5 = 8@= 9 =9; 6 8656< 8656@=+

6< 85 =6 5>= < 69@+ 8<5H6 65 656 56=+ <H6 6 <H6+ =6 6== =6

8=66 < =6 <6<+ 85 865; < 98= 9@5 95 56 6 > 56<5+ 9

<9;565H6 =6 8=H=6 >;6+ + 6= 858+ <6@6 < = 6;5 856=.

E= 5;5 5H; >6:65<;6 Ó8 B5] = ;; 6= 5@5% «T< = 9< <@5H6 5

65;;6. T<6 =6 6 8< 5 @==6 65;».L «;5;6» X 8; 9 :5Y+ = 9 6<=6; < ==6965

«;5;>;6» XT6;=+ R<]+ P8>6+ S;8>6+ L;]+ N69 G6@+ P>5Y+

85:5 ;6 9;6 =6 965 56. E; :58+ ;69@ = = XD:6

V5;> E;Y = ;6;5 XM5=<Y+ =6 <6 65;;6 < T6;=+ 5 = 9<

8586= 6 ;56> < = 6= =6 >6:65<6 56 5 7;565<656 =6 @5 =

5; <= 9<. F5 =6 865; 6@ = 9>9; :596,5 + ;569;

;5=66<+ :5 8< = 965 6;5 < =6 ;566= @5 =6 65;

9<56 ;5 1*1) =6 :556 5H6.

E= =:6< < ;6 8 56<6= : 596< 865; <= 6@5 65 6= < ;<6

856 5=66<6 =6 < 96;:56+ =6 98+ =6 ;:56H6 = <. #

5=;6 6 98@= 965 ;5% = 85; < T6;= < M9; 6 =6

I;566= C9;6 =6 «6 56» < L;] = 9;6 =6 ;:56H6 < R<]

l acora2ado =otemkin+ < E;.

E = 8595 6 8;55 6 =6 5>=+ 85>> 86 @56 6. N 6@H6 <.

C9 @ 856:9;+ L 5 = 8;6= 8586:6<;6 <= + 85 <56; =6 :556



2

>=+ <@< 6= @=+ 6 ;<6 =6 7;6 < 8=H=6 <65 56 <= ;55;5 5,

>; 6 = ;<6; <= > I;;; E;6;6= < C < M X<6< 1*1*Y+

<5:< 85 L> =>+ 8=5 6@=<6< = > 65; <= 9;6 5;6< 55;6<

= ;< < =6 =6;6 85>>;. U <5; ;9856+ < 965 < 1*1'+ 5<6@6

<96;=65 = 99; <= 6;: 5:9 598=665= 85 ;6;6 < :56

85:5;6 5>=656 < 6=5 5 <= 9<+ 8<56 5>5 < 856 6



2

8@= 6=6@;65. E M P;5:56< =>6;65 56 < 65;6+ 85 9

;55 <966<6 =5<6<+ 965H6 < 6=6+ 6 85>>< 9 86. T6=

> ; 66 < 6 5;.

L6 >6:65<6 H =6 :; 6= 65; 6==5+ 8; =96 9: @5 865<

8=66+ ;6 < 55655= « = ;5 985 9656»+ 6<9 < 858565 @56

< 65; 8656 =6 =@56 5>=656. E;6 56 < 65;5 ;9856=+ 85 9966;56=6+ 6 6 6 5:66<6 VH;@] 85 M65 C6:6== = 585 56

;9; 8=H;6 L 85;; ;56 ;56 8; = 5@= <= 7;55 <= 59=

6 8;56 6= 56 <H= 5;565. 6 <6< 8 ;56 < H+ 6=> 6 95 <

; < ==696;> < 8=6;6596 85;;= 8656 <5+ + ;6=6 8656

596 @; 9=65+ ;5 = = 6 8;56 < =6 696 T55 < =6

I;566= C9;6+ < T6;=. D56; =6 :556 >=+ 85@6@= = 85;

>6= 56;> ==:65 6 56=65 8=69; <56 = ;6;5+ 96;> ;< =

;98 85 =6 6;6 6 >6; < 85 H+ 6 6 > @5>>56 6=: <

< 65.T56 = < =6 :556 >=+ =6 N>6 P=H;6 E96 < 1*21,1*2'+ 685;56 6=

956<+ < 9 9 86 8656 = 65;;6 56 56=<6< 85;

;5659 =6 >6:65<6+ 86 < 6 5;6 ;86 6 6 9 856:9;6+ 6 6 ;6

< 6 5; 56:9;6. L =;56 <= P65;< C9;6+ 865;<65 6559 < =6

«=;56 85=;656» X=roletkult Y+ 6;665 6 =6 >6:65<6. E = < ;6+ = <5 <

65; 85;6=9; 85 98=;69; 5>=65+ 9 N69 G6@ A; P>5+

<65 6 = «85<;>;6»+ 5H6 65; 68=6< 6 =6 85< <;56= = <

=6 8;56 < 6@6==;. E; 985; > =; 856= 856=+ 9 =

78=65 6 C6:6== 6<] < =6 =6 < VH;@]+ = 685> M6=>.L =6 ;5 =6 R6 >;6 O<; 965H6+ 85 =6 >H6 < A=966

9=;8=65 + <56; 6=: 6+ = 65;;6 < =6 >6:65<6 <8=665 6=<6< 6

;56> < =6 5;56 586. A=: < == X6<]+ C6:6==+ &= E7;5Y ;5965

<< O<; = 7=6< 8555>=65 :5:6< ;5 < D:=>+

9 G65>6 L65>. E ;+ = =:5 56;> 9 85<56@= < =6

>6:65<6 56 ;>5 =:65 9<6<6 =6 <6<6 < 1*2(+ 86=9; = 8595 7; <=

> 5 <= «9;6»+ = C,O < D:6 V5;> l acora2ado =otemkin < E;+

= 5;56; ;:5 < R<] 6=: < = < 65;; X ==:65

6 65 56=<6<Y.

6;6 6= < = 6 >;+ @ : 6;6 5 ;56 =6 >6:65<6+ 6 =

P65;< C9;6 >; =6 956@6 96= + ;5 ;56 56 85 = 6;56;>

5H6 @5 «=6 966» 56+ 6 ;<6 =+ :6;. P5 =6 85;: = =6 685;56 <

956 < L665]+ 9;5 ;5 1*1) 1*2*+ <;596< =H<5 @=>

596 =;56=+ 9 T5;] B65+ ;69@ = < = > 5:9

>; ;6@6 68=665 6 = <86@= «86=;6 @5:»+ 6 intelligentsia =;6+



2

85 :56 865; >5;<6+ ;69@ 596@6 = :5 <= 8@= < =6 65;+ =<6

=6 65; < >6:65<6. E;5 1*2* 1*3"+ S;6=+ 6 = 96;> 6 < 96;56=

5=6;>69; 6>5<6+ = @=: 6 68;65 6 9 ;;6= 6= 8<5. E;6 98=66@=

5>= =;56= 8 = 6= < =6 >6:65<6 < 1*1)% = 56=9 6=;6 ;5

@=:6;5. S;5@5: M6=> 8;65 85 :65<65 = T6;=+ 6= = >; 785+

5;5 6= ;6;5 L;] R<] 6==65 5: =6 5>;6 < ;:56H6 La :R88 en



2

construcci1n D:6 V5;> ;59 < 8 9 <5;5 < ;5. A <56 <

= 55 =6 965H6 @=> < 1*1)+ = 6@H6 <6< 6 85;<6<+ =6 965

865; < =6 >6:65<6 >6= @5>> 6= ;555 < S;6=+ 85 @56+ ;556<6 =6 =

85>6<6 = 9 < R6+ 865H6 =><6<6.

S 9@65:+ ;< ;5 >>9 6 9< >6= + :56 9<<6+ <65

== = < 6 8;55 6 =6 5>=.



2

C68H;= 1*

ARTE # PODER

E= 65; 6 98=6< 8656 5565 = 8<5 < = ;6< = :@56; 8=H; <<

= ;98 < = 6;: :8+ 85 =6 5=6 ;5 = 8<5 = 65; 985 6 =<

85@=96. L6 85; 78 =;56+ 85@6@=9;+ = 9 65;6< < = 8< <=

:= !!+ = 6 <96< =6 «E586 < = <;6<5»+ ;5 1*3( 1*4".

D56; :=+ 6; < =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ 985 =6 66 E586

9>H6 66 = =@56=9 8=H;+ = <5 >= = :@5 ;;6= 85 865; <

6;5<6< =;6 X 6569; ;96 58@=6Y. P 6; < 1*14+ 85< 58< 6>6 < =6 8586 <9566% = :@5 : = >; < ;< = >65 6<=;

6 < =6 95. L6 G56 G556 865 6=565 56<6=9; ; 85. T56

=+ E586 ;6@6 < 5:H9 865=69;65 < 6 ;56 =6+ 78; =6 R6

>;6+ 5>=656 <>6;6<6 85 =6 :556. S 9@65:+ 6 < 9<6;+ >5; =

;< <= 69@ 8=H;. E586 + < + =6 965 865; <= :=@ 6= <=

=@56=9 8=H;. M<6<6 =6 :<6 :556 9<6=+ ;5 = ;6 ;6< @56

<= 85H< < ;5:556+ 9 < < ;6@6 6=: 9=65 6 :@5 =;

;;6=. L 5:H9 < =6 <56 8=H;6 5 = 8<5 ;<6 865;+

6=> R6+ 56 ;= 6 =6 <9566 85 858. E= 99+ 6 =9;6< 6 R6+6596@6 5 <95; ;5H6 9=6;56+ 85 =6 85;6 56 6 <;6<56

=9;6<6.

L6 965H6 < = 5:H9 < = 86 ;6 78 5985 = 866<

9<6; < 9< ; <=@56<. Q ;6 58;56 56<6= 56 << =6 <56

8=H;6 @ << =6 5<6 56 < E586+ 9 =6 T5H6 < 96= A;6;W5]+ ;6

;;6 985 > 6= 6 9 985;6; = < ;6= 5:H9

<56 56 96;5+ 5;6565 = 9565 <6<+

;565965=6 5;55=6. N 56 858;65 < 6;:6 <6+ 65;; <

< >. T69@ 985;6 = < 5:H6 X 66@65 5:<Y ;6=;96 5 =H<5 6@=; 6 5< <;6@6 =6 =. A<9+ 6 56 ;565 6 =6

<9566+ ;< 6596@6 6@5 5:< <= «8@=»+ 6;65 6 ;56> < ; <5:5= <65=

596. P 6 =6 <56 <69;6= =6 9;6 ;=<6< = 8656@6+ ;6

656;5H;6 9 6 = 5:H9 9;6 6;6 < ; ;98 5; 6 =

;6< 9 6;:. E 6== ;96+ = 8<5 = 98 6= 65; 6 7:6

<96=+ 6= 65; = 5=; <H=+ = 98@=+ 6865 < =6 7:6



2

= ;5= < =6 6;5<6< 8=H;6. C9 5 < 7;5665+ 6 78 @5 65; 8<5

; 85H< =6 <96 =6 65; < =6 A=966 < ;=5 X1*33,1*4"Y+ =6 URSS < S;6= X. 1*3(,

1*"3Y =6 I;6=6 < M= X1*22,1*4"Y.

S 9@65:+ =6 85; 9;56 8< 8665 85 6=; =6 65; 8@=6 < = ;6<

:@5 ;6@6 @>5;<. E 6+ 6 =:< 9 8; < 865;<6 <+ 6

9 =6 6 6 =6 ;< = ;6< 65; >5 6 5;6



2

8@=6% =6 E78 I;566= < P65H < 1*3) =6 5 < 9;56 9=65

L<5 1'"1+ =6 < 1*3) =6 =;96 =@56<6 6; < =6 :<6 :556 9<6=. E;6

E78 6@H6 <+ + =6 596 9 656;5H;6 < =6@56 <= 8<5 = 65;

<56; =6 56 <= =@56=9 @5:. A= ;98 85856@6 85;: 6 = 86H =6

5:66@6 9 6 =6 6;6=<6< = &: O=H98+ = 6@H6 =@56<

==6 56 = E;6<+ =6 <6< >= = 8<5 8=H;+ = =:5 9+; =;56= = =;+ =6 7;6 < =6 6. P5<H6 < =6 56 X =6

996 > «56» 6 98=6@6+ 85 98= E;6< U<+ << =6 ==696@6 «56

9<6=»Y @H6 9 ;5;56 8596;+ 6 <65 ;56 < H 6=:

99; 9+ 6 ;5+ =6 T55 E=.

L 86@== «66=» 5 6865 1'$)+ ; 6 56 < 8

;696 85 5 @56< 85;6:9 6;6 <65 5: 6 6 98;6 8@=6 ;5

;6<. E 1*3) <96@6 85 98=; =6 78. L6 ;5;6 78 5>6=

9 :6 < =6 56 85<; 585;65 6 8585 9 =>6<6 < =

;6< @56 <= 9< 6 6; <8. T<6+ 6 ;<6+ 6H6 <=6568=H;6+ 6 = 56 85 =6 >H6 < 665 =6 >5;< < «596 < ><6» 65;. L6

8586 9;56 < 8656 =6 965 :=56 < F566+ 6 =6 6 :@56<6 85 F5;

P8=65 < 5<6+ 8595 9;5 6=;6 55< 9 8596; 85@6@=9;

6 = &uernica < P6+ 7@< 85 > 85956 = 86@== < 6 R8@=6 86=6

;6< < :556. N @;6;+ =6 E78 < 1*3) ;> =6569; <96<6 : >H6 6

; 85@ 6 + 956< 6;5 85 = 86@== 6=9 >;+ 59

<=@56<69; 9@=+ ;6< 5; 6 ;5 6 6<6 =6< <= @=>65.

E= 8<5 = 6565 6= 65; ;5 7:6 8595<6= = 8<5 6@=; =6

55 6 6=6 6 965 =6 6;5<6< 9 =9;6<6. L6 85956 85 <96; =6 :=56 = ;5 <= 8<5 H 99+ 9 55H6 = :56< 65

=96 =@56@6 =6 >;56 @=6 << = I985 R96 = 9<= 9 <;66<

<= 65; 8@= <;6=. M 9<6; ;5 6=6<6+ =6 <9

69@ <= 8<5 =6 56 < = :56< =H<5 <@H6 85 < 96; 9<6; =6 956

6=6 < =6 ;5;56 8=66@6 ==>6@6 6 6@ + < 596 ;H86+ ;6; 85 9< <

99; < + < ; <96=% 9<6; =6 >6 8=66 <

<6< = 5: ;56+ 9 85 98= =6 6;8;6+ < =6 I;6=6 856

8 6= 6 95 < 6;9>= <= 86H. AH 8<H6 78565 95 = 85; < <65 6

>6 596 6 = 86H =6 <6<. E= 5;5 <= 8<5 <6@6 =6 65; 7@56

656;56@6 85 =6 8986 = ::6;9.

L6 :<6 8586= <= 65; @6 = 8<5 56 5:665= 9 6; ;6;56= 8@=. E=

5;6= =6 596 5=;6 6= 8656 = 85 8=H; + =6 <956;6 < =6

8=H;6+ = 8<5 >5; 6<6 > 9 ;6;5 8@=+ = 8@= 9 8;6<5 ;6

=6 >6 8H6 < =6 56 < = <;6<5 9 865;86; 5:66<. L6

;5 < @=>65 698= 5;=H+ 8656 6>6656 =6 85 < =6 7@



2

8=H;6 =66+ = 6= 8586 <= := !I!. E= @=>65 =< < T M6== X1*11Y+ 6

>;6 7;< << = A5 <= A=956;6: 6;6 = P6=6 < B]:69+ 98=

;65<H+ 85 656;5H;. C6<6 > 965 56+ = 99; 66=+ ;5<

8656 ;9=65 78565 = 86;5;9 < =6 966+ =5 ;69@ =6 8=66 <

86 8656 596 86=. L6 P66 V6+ R96+ 56 ;6 6= 8656 = 86;

99; 6 VH;5 M6= II 9 = + 9 6<=6;+ 8656 =6 65:6 < M=. E= 6



2

<= ;5;9; 8@= < =6 966+ @5 ;< <= <85; < 966+ 8 6 ;

6<6= < ;5;56 ;55 8@= X 865;=65+ ;6<Y ;5< ad hoc 8656 =6

785 < 9 < 966. E56 86 6@H6 65 8656 = <= 8<5+ ;

= 8656 ==% ;=5+ 85 =6<+ 6@= = S85;86=6; < B5=H+ 85 ;5+ <@5 =

8;6= 8=H; < = &: O=H98 < 1*3$.

L6 985;66 <= 65; 8656 = 8<5+ ; 698+ 56<6 ;6; = 858 < 86 9 = <655==6@6 == ;5 ==. L = 8<5 ;6@6 56 65;

85596;> = 86 556<+ 596 98=6 X= @5; 5

86=9; <6< 6 >;65 5;6= 5: < ;6 =6+ 6 865;5 < 6= <= := !I!Y + =

86 6@5;+ 85 5:56H6 < 966. E= ;6;5 <= 8<5 < = =H<5+

9@6@6 =9; 9=;65 >=+ 855H6 = 86 6@5;. F6=;6 >;:65

6<6<69; 685; = > ;6=6+ 6; < 1*14+ 6 =6 5:56H6 9=;;<656 < =6

96;6 <6=+ 8;= =6 >6 86 96;:56.

U ;55 5> = 65; 8<H6 85;65 6= 8<5 56 < H<= <6;>6 8586:6<;6%

8<H6 65+ ;569;5 <5 = ;96 < >6=5 <= E;6<. A; < =6 56 < =6865;86 88=65 =6 8=H;6+ ;6 6@H6 56H< 6; ;< @5 =6 :=6 ;56

5:66 5=:6 85 6 = =65: <= := !I!+ 6<6 > 9 6@;6= = ==>656 6

6@ = :@5 =65 X6 ;56>+ 9 9< 9 ><;+ < =6 <6 8@=6 =9;6=Y.

L6 <;6<56 >65 ; 698+ 6=> = 58;6@6 6 85@5 =6 > <<;

65 @=:6;56 =6 5;<76 ;6;6=.

S 9@65:+ 6 6 596 ;56<6= < 65; 8=H; 55 < 5; 9;65+

6 = 56 85 ;6@6 >H6 < 58<6 7;% =6 ;6;6 8@=6 99;6=.

A; < =6 R>= F566+ =6 ;6;656 < =9;6<6 6 = 85H8 =6 :56 6=:56

= := !I!+ @;6;+ >5; 6 8 < 9+ 6= 65 =@5+ < =6 ;56 66=: >H6 6 ;56> < = :56< 9@5. XS6=> 56 9@=6 < =6 56=6+ @

95.Y S >6=5 <6;> 56 86;;. N 66=<6< =6 65;+ =6 F566 <= := !I!+

<8<56 <= M;5 < I;5 P@=6. AH 99+ ;56 =6 5>= < 1*1) 956

6 <65 6 8@= 965;6569; 65; < ;5+ L 858 =>6;65 99;

< =6 856 6<6<6 ;5 ;56+ D6;+ G65@6=<+ M657+ E:=+ 5 6=: 8;6

=:< 8; 8 < =6 <6< @5 ;<+ << = =<6< 8<56 >5=6.

L 6 <6< ==6965 =6 «96H6 < =6 ;6;6» 6=6 6 =96; ;5 1')(

1*14+ 6< P65H 5:5 1"( ;6;6+ 5; 6 =6 = 2$ =>6;65 ;5 1'1"

1')( ;6 =;96 6 5+ 8586=9;+ :56 9=;65 + <8 < 1')(+ 6@H6

=96< 6 85 98=;. XD56; =6 86 6=966 < 1*4( 6 1*44+ = :@5 < V

5;5 ;56 )" < ;6 :=56 < =6 =;56+ = 85:5 =6 <;<6< 58@=66.Y S 9@65:+

;56 =6 G56 G556+ =6 78 < = 99; @=+ 656 >56=+ =6 ;6;6 <

@5 959= <65 =6569; 866<6 < 9<6. S 98= =:6 >6= < H9@=

6=:5H6 ;5 ;6 985@=+ = := !!+ 9 6@H6 866< 6 5=+ 8656 =6 965H6+

= 9; =. E F566+ = C M86= < P65H+ 1*3)+ 785 ;95 < «=6



2

;56H6 < =6 ;6;656 9956;>6 6: 8 7> 85; 8<56 8585

65;;6 <;6< 6<9;56<5 @ :;». S= =6 URSS+ = 6= 98= < L+ 96;>

68: <596< 6 =6 ;6;656 8@=6+ =< 99; 9@= ::6;+

5<6< < @55+ 698+ =<6< 6596.



2

E= 8<5+ 6 ;<6 =+ ;6@6 65;. P5 ¿< =6? E= 85@=96 8586= 5: < =6

5>= «9<5;6» >> = 65; = =;9 6 85> 6 =6 G56 G556+ < =6

5:5 @56 ;= @< 8656 5=;65 68;6@= 6 6=56 :; 9 6

=6 6 = <H6 6 =6 965H6 < 856 <56 56H = := !I!. P5 = ;6;+ 56

68;6@= 8656 = :@5 5>6<5+ = 8656 = =@56= >6=. N

6@5H6 < 5566= 85 = 5:H9 >=;6< < 5985 = 866< 6=<65 ;5 > 6==65H6 9 9< =6 >6:65<6. P5 ; 698 6@H6 < <=;6<

5=;65 5 6=>6@=.

L6 85956 56 =6 >6:65<6 65;H;6 6569; 9656@6 =6 996 <5

= 7;59;6 56<6= < 5<6 <56. L6 5>= >;6 =6 58:66

:56= 5; 6 =6 :556 6;56 6 9 66 =6 5<6 56<6=+ 85 =;56;56+ =

6@ <5@5 6 6=: < = 6;5 < 9 ;6=; 9 9@5 < 7;596 <56. L 6

6=96 556@6 <= ;< 6= <5@5 = 9<59 < =6 R8@=6 < 965 9

«@=>9 =;56=». E 6+ = 66=6=9+ a priori+ ;= 6 =6 >6:65<6.

E R6+ =6 965H6 < =6 >6:65<6 6;55 6 1*1) 6@H6 < 68=H;6 6@H6 7856< <<6 656 < =6 R>= < O;@5+ + 6 <56 < =6 R>= < 1*("+ 6;56

9 6 = ;=;6= >;. N @;6;+ :566 6 A6;= L665]+ 9;5 =6

985<H6+ < 6 =6 >6:65<6 5;6 =@5;6< 6 < < = 65;;6 856

6;>69; 6 =6 5>= 6H <9 =6 6 <56; >65 6+ 6 >656 <

;5==6 =6 9 9859;<6 8=H;69; 5 <85< 8 6 8

O<;. L6 <6<6 < 1*2(+ =6 R6 >;6+ < 6 956 ;55@=+ 85 =;56=9;+

< :56 5>6. C S;6=+ ; 69@ 56<6=9;.

L6 6 <;6<56 5=6;>69; 9<6 = 9<59 =6 < M= X6 < 6

696; <56@6 96 <= 65; ;985Y. R696 985;6; < =6 >6:65<6 =6=X85 98=+ = ;5;6Y <6;65 85 = 69+ 9;56 6 =6 965H6 < =

;=;6= ;6=6 ;6@6 6 5;9; 9859;< =6 5<6 = 5=;6@6

68;6@= 6= 9+ 6;6 =6 :556 >= 86=6 = 99; M= =

569 < ;=5. E 5; =6 >6:65<6 ;6=66+ 9 =6 965H6 < =6 65; ;6=66 < =6

86+ 56 9 @ 85>66 5;566<6. A 6H+ 686 8< <5 <9656. L6

@5==6; < =6 65;;56 ;6=66+ <@5;6 9 6<=6; 85 = 5; <= 9<+ ;H6 86

6 < 95:5. C9 =6 A=966 < ;=5 =6 U S>;6 < S;6=+ =6 65;;56

6= <= 69 9;5 9 6>;55+ <6; 85 =6 5;56 8986.

L6 :<6 <=;6< + 9;56 = 9<59 = 6;56H6 6 6 95H6+ =

:@5 56 88=;6. P5 56 85;6 <=:6+ ; 855H6 65; 8<56

6;565 6= 8@= + 6= 9+ = 5=;656 =9; 985@=. R6569;+ ; = 6

855<6< 8656 = ;6=; 56;> >>H6 < >65+ 7859;65 + 9 6 9<+ 85>65

6 = 6<956@6 = 65; 7@< =6 66<96 = 6= 6=. E= <65< 9

@> ;5 = 8<5 = 65; <6@6 =6 8;56+ 85 = 5:H9 696@6 6 ;56@665 =

;= 9 6;: 66<9 X+ 6=5 6+ 56=;6Y+ 855@=9; 698=6< 6 :56



2

;696 58=; < ;8 5 ;9;6= A=966+ 66<< 6<9 5;6 6;6H6

5;6 96=6. E I;6=6+ = = 859 6= 9 6@5; < 956+ 9 = <

C596 < 1*3* X ;;6 > 865;86;Y+ :66@6 = 85;69; 8<5H6 5>5

9 5;56; 5@; < =6 8;56 8@=6 < 6=5 86H <;6;56=. T698 <@5H6

7;5665 9+ 6< = ;96 56 «O< 85 =6 56< <5 <= D».



2

L6 65;;56 85< =; 6H < 56<6= ;5 = 8<5 = 65;+ 85

8=6;6@6 = 85@=96 < 9 585;65 9 56=<6< =6 < 996 @56. S 9@65:+

5; ;< 985;6;+ = 8<5 =6 65;;56 9<5;6 X¿ 85=69 A<= L =

«569; <=;»?Y :5 < 865; <= ;59;65 65;H; ;6; < = 5:H9

88=;6 9 < 85<H6 956=9; 8656 = 956< < 966. P9 =

9;5 < L<5 M = @;55 < M+ 85@6@=9;+ =6 965 < =6 985665;H;6 < =6 U S>;6 < S;6=. E= M;5 < L<5+ :566 6= 96: 6 <

< :;5 =;56<+ >5; :56 68656; X= 965 < =6 G56 B5;66 <

;5:556Y < 9<59 <86< < 7+ 98=+ =< 6=+ 55H6 9

85 <=6; <= :; 8@=. L6 ;6 <= M;5 < M+ 6 858+ 6=:6

6+ 6 5 <6<6 85 85>>; <= ;5;>9+ 5 >5;< 6<6

> 9 86=6 @;55 == < 959=+ 96=6;6 <56 :56<6. E 5;

;<+ 56 >6=; X9 9 69@Y < = ::6; art déco @655

=>6;65 =6 <6< < O<;+ <56; =6 <6<6 < 1*2( 1*3(+ = 99

@;>% 859;5 9@5 95 6 6= = 856= >>56 =6 7856 < +<56; 99; =;>+ = = 56 .

C6@5H6 <<5 = + 6; 9 56< 56 = 8@= < 966+ 965 56 =

6;56;> < =6 <56. E; 6=6 8; =96;+ 85@6@=9;+ =6 65;;56 <=

;6=9 < 8:556+ < =6 6 6@H6 ;596< < 785:65 = >;: <= 8595

9<59 >;+ 8656 85<5 6 8 < <= :; <9.

¿C9 <@9 :65 = 65; < = <;6<5? L 6 < :@5 < S;6= =6 URSS

<= T55 R A=966 9;56 856< <=> = =:5 =;56= < 69@

86H+ 98656 =6 R8@=6 < 965 X1*1*,1*33Y = 85H< >; 85> 6

1*3(. E I;6=6+ = ;56; ;6 985;6; 85 = 85H< 856;6 9;5 ;6;6@5==6; 56;>6 6 <56 < =6 A=966 =6 R6 < = 6 >;+ = 86H ;698 6@H6

<;66< 9 98=5 < ;= ;566=. T69@ 5; + 6 <56 < =6

A=966 6+ =6 R6 ;6=;6 =6 E866 < F56+ =6 I;6=6 6;6 78= 6= :5 <

;6=; 56;>+ = @=: 6 :65<65 = = 86H + 9 = 85 6 < S;6=+

= 96;. S 9@65:+ 98656 = =:5 =;56= =6 =6 ;566= < =6

I;6=6 8;55 6 1*4"+ =6 56 6;6 66 985.

AH 8+ = = 8<5 <;5 6: =6 56 < = <;6<5 5=;6 9 ><;

= :. E; 5:H9 <;665 9 85 98<5 = 65;;6 <6@= 5656

@56 <6@= 85 6==65 65; < 6=<6< 785656 6856. N 5 =

8595 85;<5 = < 99; =@5656 :=56 8<5 66<5

9 6 =6 596 ;56<6= < 56=65 ;6 9;6. # 6 6H+ ;698 865 =6 56 < =

<;6<5 85<56 >;6+ 86 < 6= ;:6 =6 98656 +

<:69+ = P65H < = < N68=+ = S6 P;5@5: <= := !VIII :56 6;

>;5 <<6< 6= =@56=9 @5: < 9<6< <= := !I! =6 R:;56 <

V6.



2

P656 = 65;+ 9 <H= <9;565 =6 ; 686<6< < = <;6<5 < <65 6

>6 596 6 86H. L6 6;:W<6< < =6 >=6 586 = 85>6@6 < =6 9656 9

@>6 < 65= 6H% ;55 68;6= 98=;69; >6+ 9 6:; = := !I!

B56=6 = !!. XE= <;6<5 ;> ;6= 85;<6< 96= A;6;W5] A]656.Y # ;6

8@=<6<+ =6 9@=6@6 95 = :5 = 65;; =;5. E= >5<6<5

H9@= <= 69@ 9<6= 8=6;6@6 =6 U S>;6 = «D85;5»+ =6 :56 856 <=



2

D85+ ;6;6 > ;:566<6. E= 55< 9 85<56@= < =6 56 >;6 X6865; <=

M6= < L+ ;69; 85;6=;6+ 6 @5>>< =6 P=66 R6Y + 6 ;<6

5;6+ = M;5 < M. E 6; 6 =6 65;+ ;5@ 9 9856; 6 =6 785

< 6==6 6856 = >; X85;6=;6Y < = 6 >;% =6 8=H=6 <

E; P<>]+ =6 %urk8ib < VH;5 T5+ 8=H=6 86 ;69; =><6<6 @5 =6

;5 <= 55655= < S@56 6= T5];.A56 @+ = <;6<5 ;69@ 5H6 = 65; 785656 <6= <= «8@=»+

855@=9; = 99; < <> ;69 85 = 5:9. E; :5 6

6;<6< 8;6=65 < 8;56 86;6+ 686 <;: ;5 H 85 = 5;5 = ;56

<= =H<5 66=. E =;56;56+ 6 = 5=;6< 5 9 <6;5+ =6 6;6=<6< 6

6 95 =6 86 <<65= 6;. E 69@+ =6 ;:56H6 + @5 ;<+ = 85;65

5; 7; 6 = @;> <= 8<5+ ; ;<.

P5 =;9+ = <;6<5 66@6 9>=65 = 866< 66= 6>5+ =6 56 <

9; =6 > 56 656. P656 = 69 ;6=6+ = 8; < 556 56 =6

6;:6 R96 =6 A=966 < ;=5+ 9@65 = @5@65 < 7;596 856 < =@ ;; = 6@6==5 9<>6= =6 E866 < F56+ 68 =6 56

<= ;5 < = @56 6;= 78=65 6 = = 5;65 6 L;5. L6

U S>;6 ;H6 9 <=;6< 8656 685>65 =6 56 < = 65+ <6< + 6 <

;6+ =6 5>= 6@H6 = < <;55= 85 6 =6 8;5+ S;6= ;69@

<5 >; 9>=65 ; 866<+ 865;=65 ;56 = 6=96. A56 @+ =6

==696<6 6 =6 ;<6< ;56 6 = =65: < = := 96:6< 6 85< =6 996

6;56=<6< =:5 =6 <;6<56 < <56.

¿C; 65; <= 8<5 6 @5>>< 86H? A9@569; 8 A=966 9

I;6=6 =6 965 865; X=<6 =6 96:H6 5;656 < 8:556 < S6 P;5@5:Y R6. S= 6 6 6 <6865< ;< ==% = 8<5 ;6; 9>=6<5 <= 65; =

8@= 9 ;6;5 8@=. E;+ + ;5 1*3( 1*4"+ = 986; 9 ; <= 8<5 @5

= 65;+ <6865 = 5:H9 6@H6 6:56< 85>>6 9<6; =6 58;

5:=65 < 5;6= 8@=. L :5 < N59@5:+ = DH6 <= T56@6 = 6>565 < =6

5>= =6 P=66 R6 596@6 = = < = = 8<5 856@6 <= 65;. M55 8656

985 ; 8<5. L ;6< 5 56=<6< 9 8=H;6 8;6=65

<9;565 =6 55=>66 ;6; < == 99 9 ;6 8=H;6. S = ;6< ;6;56= <@

85>>5+ «= 8;= <@ ;65» 85 6= 6=+ = . E= ;= 6 @66<

>=>5 6 =>6;65.



2

C68H;= 2(

DECADENCIA # FRACASO DE LAS VANGUARDIAS DEL SIGLO !!

L6 <>56 55; < =6 >6:65<6 65;H;6 6 <;:< <56; = :=

66@6 865;H6 < 6 8 <69;6=% =6 5=6 ;5 = 65; =6 <6< 6@H6

69@6< 56<6=9;+ =6 >6 9656 < 9565 = 9< 56 6<6<6 <@H6

6==65 ;56 >6. E6 8 56 55;6. # = 9% = 9< < 9565 = 9< <

685<5= 9;6=9; 6 7859;6< 6 85<6 5>=. S 9@65: ;6 =6

; ;56= < 9 65:9;6+ = ;55 < =6 65; >6= = 85; < =6 >6:65<6

6=665 @;>+ 8<5H6 6@5= 6=66< 69.E:<6 ;565 6 <565 85 =6 65; >6= 8569; 6 55< 85 5;

=6 <9+ 85 566 :6@=. E ;+ ;56 9< := < 7859; 6

;56;6< < 5865 5>=6569; = 65; <:69 ;5 1*(" 9<6< < =6 <6<6 < =

;6 6@6< = 85;+ <6< =6 ;6 >6:65<6 @6 6 >5;5

67=65 < =6 956<;6 + 9 859; ;65 = 5@H 9 =@5 'istoria del

siglo MM + «=H6 6 95; 9;». E =@5 ==: 6 8=6;659 6@H6 :6< ;6

= =6 95; < =6 >6:65<6 ;69@ =6 < =6 65; >6= ;<6+ ;6= 9 =6 59

>6=9; <= 9< 6 >< 856;6< << = R69;. P5 >

6 8659 6H < 6 ; 9 698=6.P656 >;65 96=;<<+ 859H;69 <65 =656 6 6 << = 858. E;

6 @5 8 ;;6 656 < =6 >6:65<6 X = ;6 86=6@56 :Y <= :=

!! ;56;6 < 6<<65 95; 686<6<. T698 > 6 6@=65 < 9 858 :;

65;H; 8556 856=. S= 86 <= 566 ;5 6 7859;6<

;5 := 6 =6 < 65; >6= M=,N6:+ < =6 B66+ <5@ 6 > 9

«6<6 6= 965 6= 8<;6=».1

E;69 6@=6< < <@= 566. F+ 8595+ 566 < =6 «9<5<6<»+ ;59

98 6 65 66 9<6< <= := !I! ;H6 85:5696 = 65;

;985 <@H6 5+ 9 P5< 6@H6 < <= < C5@;+ «6 785 < =;98». O+ 85 <5= =6 86=6@56 98=6<6 85 = 9>9; > S% «D5 KH;

H5 ;+ <5 ; H5 F5HH;» X«6<6 86 ;6 65;+ = 65; ;6 =@5;6<»Y.2 #

=6 =@5;6< < = 65;;6 8656 65 = 56+ 6569; = 5H6 =

<9+ 56 ;6 56= 8656 =6 >6:65<6 9 9<5<6<. L6 7:6 < 9<5<6< 6; 6

;<6 =6 65; 85 :6=% = 65; < 6<6 86 ;H6 5 <5; < = 85<5+ =

< ;98 ;6@6 7859;6< 85:5 ; >6=H6 6 695 =6 6=6



2

66=:H6 < =6 6 =6 ;=:H6 = ;< < 6<6 >6 596 < 78565 = ;98

<@H6 5 855 6 = 6@H6 6;< 6;559;+ + ; =65+ 985 6H. P5

8; 6@H6 6=: @5 = :6@6 «785 < = ;98»+

;698 @5 9 78565=. I= 6< = 65;;6 ;6@6 < 65< = := 56

6=9; 6 «56 96» 6< 6596@6+ 9 P6@6 N>6 #5]+ 1*1"+

«6 ;56> < =6 96656 = 65; <@ 6==65 6 785 9 ;6»3 @ «= >



2

9>9; 65;H; 8< 7;5 = 6 <6< 6 69=6< = ;98 < =6 :56

<6<+ =6 6=<6< 9;=6 < =6 <;56» XM6=>Y+4 =6 965H6 < =6 58;6 6 ;

8=6;69; 56 ;5>6= 5;56.

¿S:6@6 6 785 6=: 9 8656 = @;6 8555+ = <:; < O5;:6

G6;+ = 96 :9;5 6 =6 6> =H6 < = 58 >>? ¿O 8656 = =6@6

65;6; < =6 <6< <;56= 8;56 < 6@6==;?¿S:6@6 6=: 9 8656 = <6<6H;6 =6 6;H56 98 < & 65;=< ==696<6

0orma electromec5nica %atlin+ 6 6 865;5 < 86 <;56=+ 7@H6 6=@56< 85 =6

;6 < > «65; 96» < = ;5;>;6 5?" ¿O :6@6 = 8;65

85< =6 96656+ 9 L:5 < 596 8=<<6? L ;5;6 56 = @6;6;

6>86< 9 8656 <65 6 =6< =6 96 56= ;565 565 =6 985 <

5;9 < >=<6< <5+ = ;565 < = 6H6 &6 C;6+ 6@=6@6 <= 5;9 < =6

96656 ;59 < 9;5 596 858 < =6 8H6.$ E 59+ =6 956 596 <

78565 =6 9<5<6<,96 =6 8;56 =6 ;5 ;=;656 ;H6

6@=;69; 6<6 9 78; =6 86=6@56 «96» 8@=9;+ 6 985+ 68556 85 =6 =H6 5;6 @5 =6 5>6. # 6@H6 :6 =:6 <656

=6 >6 596 < 785+ 85 == 8<5 7;5 <>56 =6 ;=+ 6 ;<

H95+ = 99 65;;6 8<H6 69@65 < ;= 9 < 586. L6 «9<5<6<» 5<

= ;98 69@6; =6 65; ;56;6 < 78565=.

E= :< 566 9 9 :56> =6 65; >6= 6=56 ;56% =6

=9;6 ;6+ 6<6 > 9 ><;+ <= 8586= 9< < 8;65 << = R69; =

6<5 < 6@6==; 8656 «78565 = ;98» + 6=5 6+ 8656 98;5 >6

596 < 56=65 96 < ;56<6=. L6 ;56 < =6 >6:65<6 >6= <=

:= !! =6 =6 ;56 =6 @=6 ;=:6.T69@ 6@5H6 66<5 ;6; =6 8;56 9 =6 =;56 85<5 ;55 ;5

68;. E56 = 98; 9 985;6; 9 <;66< < = :56< 8;=

9=;8= =;>+ == < 9>9;+ 6<6 > 9 585;6;> < =6 7856 =;56=

<= := !!% << =6 :56 856+ 7;59+ 6;6 =6 8=H=6+ = >H< = 5; < 5]

= ;5. N6< 56 9 ; < == =6 >6:65<6 996 6 << = art nouveau+

85 59 > << = ;59+ @6@6 = 9< < <55@65 =6 @65556 ;5 =5+

<+ 596 86=6@56 <5+ @6@6 =6 6 < =6 65;. A= :6= =6

&esamtkunstwerke < 6:5+ =6 96+ =6 86=6@56+ = :;+ =6 = 5:H6 =6 6+ 9;56

=6 9: ;;6 866@6 6 :< 8=6. E= 555 6 = =@5 << = 858

8; 6 5;5 6@H6 :66< 6 @6 58;6 F6=]5+ 9:J6 6

86 > 5;6. E= 986; < =6 8;56 <= := !! = X56 < 8=H=6 5;6

< >6:65<6Y =9;6<% 6=: < 7859 = < 965 =6 =6 < =6

8;56 < E<J65< 885 = <6<5 < = <56< < ==J<. N 66=

= H< 6=6@; < =6 5; 'istoria del cine mundial + < O75<+ 68656 =6 ;56<==6

«96»+ 85 :6 55; 6 =6 8;56 78;69 =6 > «696» X+ 6 >+



2

:56 !merican -isions < R@5; :+ 6 @56 <56<6 9 «=6 86 ;56 <= 65;

E;6< U<»Y. A <56 < = =;56; < = 98;5 < 96 =6+ 6@

< : 8;5 < ;<6 =6 ;56 <= 65; 66 ;96< 865; =6 65556 85

O65. L6 6 596 < 65; =;> = 8;5+ 86=9; << = 8;5 >6:65<;6

D6:=>+ 6 < <56< 56=9; 9 :6= 9 @5<6< = @6==;.



2

N @;6;+ 6865; < ;6 8@= <>;66+ ¿= 56 =6 <=;6< 8H6 < =6

65; >6=?

C6=5 ;< 985<6 @5 =6 65; >6= ;=;656 <= := !!

;< 9 ;6= =6 8;56 =6 =;56 <@ 865;5 < =6 @5>6 < <85;6

;5 95;65. E 1**4+ = 21 85 1(( < = @5; 6@H6 >;6< 9 6 :6=5H6

< 65; 6 > = =;9 ;59;5+ = $( 85 1(( 6@H6 =H< =@5 85 = 9 6 > 6 =6966+ = "' 85 1(( 6@H6 6< < 6; ;69@ 85 = 9 6 > 6 =6 966+

6 = *$ 85 1(( < = ;=><; >H6 8=H=6 >6=; < 9< 5:=65.) E 6; 6

=6 85;6 < 6 65;+ 1*)4 = = 4+4 85 1(( < = 56 <H6 8;6@6 =8H6

9 ;5;9;+ 5; 6= 1"+4 85 1(( 6596@6 ;65 ;59; 96=.' L

85@=96 < =6 8;56 = < =6 =;56 + << =:+ 6=: <;;. L6 <96<6 < 6<5

85< 6=9; <= 9 85>6<+ 9;56 =6 8;56 8@=6+ 9 = 956=+

= 6 ;< ;5 := 6 985;66 66=+ 86=9; M7. E 6

5;5:< = 956< 8656 =6 @56 < 65; >6=+ 78 < =6 6 ;=6< 8656

==:65 6 8@= 9 698=+ 9+ 85 98=+ 6 ;56> < =6 <6 < = <+ =6 5>;6 =6 @5@5;6 < = =@5. #+ 9@65:+ <6< =6 8@=6 69;6@6 =6 :; 56 6<6

> 9 56 7;H6 a priori :6 56 8656 956< ;5656. # 85 56

8+ =6 <96<6 < 65; 8=;6 85<H6 < =6 6;>6 8@=6. E= 85@=96 =68 =

956< < 8586= 85<;% = 99; 8@= = < = 86 <56<+ =6

65;;56 9<5;6 566@6. 6 55<65 =6 56 < A<= L% «= 6<5

59». D< = ;98 6;55 6 1*14+ 6< 5:H6 P65H 859< < 3" >

99; 6<6 <6<6+ 85< >5<6<5 =6; < =6 ;6;656% )" <68655 <

P65H <56; =6 :556 + ==+ 69@ = 68; < =6 <6<.* L6 59 <96<6 <

99; 9956;> < =6 :556 <8 < 1*1' = 6: ;9856= < =6 =;5685<:6<6 6=:59; 85 =6 <;6<56 <;>5 = <=> =65. D 9< =6 5 <

=6 65; 8=;6 6=: <;;6 < =6 5 < =6 8;56 + 6 ;<=+ > 656 6

7;<59 9 @5 6==6. T698 = 65+ 6=> < 9< 66=+ @5 =6 65;;56+

6 < 85;69; 9 6 = 85@=96 6 6<6< 6 =6 <9 65; >6=.

P5 ;69@ <@9 865;5 < ;56 @5>6. M 9 6=5 ;56 596 < 65;

56;>+ =6 65; >6= 6 5< =6 6 < @=6 ;=:6. E6 65;+

86=9; =6 8;56+ 6 < 686 < 6<65 6 = 6=;5 B69 ==69 «=6

86 < =6 585<@=<6< ;6». D< 9<6< <= := !I! <5+ << =6 86

8<9 55 =6 8;56 9>9; < >6:65<6 ;+ 6 = ;59 99

@56 ;56< 6 = <5 < =6 65;+ =6 65; >6= 6 < ; ;6; < =6

98;6 < =6 ;=:H6+ 596 < 9656 ;:56+ 9 < 686<6< 8656

@5>>5 6 6 98;6. U 5H; < ;:56H6 5>6<5 6@H6 <+ 6 1'"(+ =6

>6 ;6 @6 6 85 8=:5 «86=<6< ;56 <= 65;+ 9 = :56@6<+ =6

=;:56H6+ =6 8;56 < :5 = 5;56;».1(

A=5<<5 < ;6 6 9 ;65<+ = ;5;6 ;6=6 B ;H6 = 65;



2

;985 <@H6 78565 ;59 6@;56;+ @ 6 ;56> < =6 85;6=6 <=

@;+ 85 «=6 585< ;56<6= 6 < ;6<6 85 = 9< 9» X«

=: <==6 585< ;56<6= 596 ;6;6 <6 9 96»Y.11 E= 9>9;

D6< 85=69+ 6H = 85 = 9 =6< 5=<+ 858H6 98;5 =6

9656+ 56 5 6 9656 6=96+ 9 56 = 6 < = 985;6+ 6@H6

6< =6 9 6@= < =6 =;+ = 96.12



2

E 1*"( &6] P==] < = 65; ;H6 78565 ;9;+ 85 585<5 =6

6 6 = 6H6 =6 9656 ;:56.13 P<5H6 ;65 98= 9=65 < 6 ;<6 =6

<6<6 < ; :=. C9 < = 85<; <= C;5 P98< 1**'% «E= := !! 85;

6 =6 ;:56H6+ 6 =6 8;56».14

C9;65 < ;6 =6 69=65 6 6=56 66 6< >;6+ 85 95

6+ 6 =6 =;56;56 @5 65; 85 = 9 = 55 6 =6 ;56< <;6= <<= R69;+ 6 8< 68=65 =6 ==669; 6 65; 5=66 =6

9H9 ;5 9< < 585< 85: ;5 . S 6596 < 6

@><6< 68=6;6;. S 9@65:+ 6+ 9 8+ ;56 56 ;6 8<56 9 =6 6 <6 8656

78=65 85 =6 65; >6= ;56<6= 6 85<< =6 @6;6==6 ;56 =6 ;=:H6 ;5

:=. # = 9< < 85< <@ 98=65 = 65;;6 >6= <= 6= = 9 <H=

= 98@= 6865% =6 85<+ 9<6; = ;56@6 966=+ < @56 6+ 8<

5 86<6 =;56=9; = 99 9;<. E 56=<6< =6 @56 < 65; <6= ;

<6<6 6 5 ;;6=9; 86@=+ 8; 6=<6< < 6 ; 6>6=6<6 85 =6 596 85

5:. N 6 <<6 < 6@H6 :56 8;6=+ = :56 8;6= 9+ @56 86<6 8656 =6 585< ;6+ 85 = 85<; 558;@=+ <@< 6 6;5+ = 6

+ : < = <69; < =6 6;:5H6 <= 65; >6= < =6 6=;6+ <= «65;;6» < 6=;

>=+ @ <56< <= ;56@66<5 65;6 <= «8;696». # 8569; = 8;5 <

>6:65<6 <65 < 65 68 86= < < 65;;6. C6 6;6 = <H6 < +

=6 ;6;56 < = 8;5 > 6 5 85856= 6= ;696 < = 965 < 6<5. E;

9< < 85< ;H8 < 6 <6< < 86;56: < 8 :58 98;

>5 :6;6 9+ 6 ;<6>H6 =6 @6 <= 95 < 65; 56=9; =56;>+ 85

85<69; 6<6< 8656 6 9H6 <8< < =6 <96<6 < <><+ <

6 86 <6 < ;65+ < =6 <96<6 < 9= = < 9== <<>< <5+ < =6 9H6 < 966 < ; :=.

N:6 < =6 <9 65; 6 5< ;6 <=569; ; 85@=96. L6 65;;56+ 9

6@9+ ;6 < 65; <8< <= 86;56:+ 85 = ;6

85<< 6=:59; 85<: 7=> ;696 9@ ;=:H6 9<56. P5

56 @>6 ;69@ 9 6 =6 6=6+ 86<==6 < =6 8;56. L6 65; 6+

6 6 ;69; 6;<=>66+ @66+ 85 6;56=6 996+ 58;5

585;6 6; 8@= 698=+ <5+ =6 585<@=<6<. L 99 8< <5 <

=6 96 6 6; < =6 ;=:H6 9<56 < 585< <= < =6 56 6@=

9 6== <= >= < 96 @6,56. L6 >5 55; < =6 @56 96= 7856

<: < H9@= 6 6= 65 8@= 58;. P5 8; 6;

<= := !!+ 6< 85 : =6 585< 96 <6<6+ =6 58; >656;

56 8@=+ 56 9 6856<6 ;6 65;. F6=9;+ =6 =;56;56 6@H6 5=; =

85@=96 <= 65; =6 86 < 585<@=<6< ;6 << 6H6 :=. L6 985;6

968 =6 =;56;56 < = 6=H:56 < @6=;5+ = 8;6. L6 @5==6; > <=

>=9 6<56< 6 ;696 < @=== = := !VI <; 8656 985 6= =@5 < 65;5



2

85;;= 9=;8=6@=+ 6 856< 6;6 656 ;< = 5; < =6 ;=:H6 9<56

8H6 @6 6 ;;5=% = + =6 56<+ =6 ;=>+ = >H<+ = 6< + 78; 8656 ;

9 8H6+ = CD,ROM =6 86;6==6 <= 5<6<5.

L6 5 < =6 65; >6= + 85 ;6;+ < 6 8 <;;6 < =6 6 6;6< 6 =6

<9 65; = := !!. L6 =;56;56 6 5 6= ;56<6= <= =:6 + 8H6+ 6

=6 ;6; <= 9;5. L 7859; @5> 6=6< < 5985 ;6 ;56<+ 9



2

= 6 < 0innegans *ake+ 5 965:6= 5=;6< <56 8=69; 9

=;56;56+ ;6= = 6 <= «65;=,896 ;» <= <6<6H;6 R6= 696. E ; 6+ =6

5>= 9<5;6 986;@= =6 ;<6< ;6. P5 865;+ =6 >6:65<6 96=

598 < 9< 9 <5; = =:6 <= := !I!+ 85 = :5 <= 8@= 9=96

8596 = 6 = =+ 6 = 66<5 = >6<5 8J6:56 <= := !I!.

E; 6;5 5965+ 6 596 =6 85;6 ;;6=<6< <= 585;5 88=65+585;5 85< 6 85 98=; <= 6986;. T6 = =6 65; >6=+

86=9; =6 8;56+ <6865 85;69; < =6 >;6 =6 ; 56 596

>6= < 9H9+ = 65; < 6= <= := !I!+ 9 6;;:6 =6 6H<6 6 86< < =

85 = 956< < 65; < ;5:556+ 85 + 8 6 ;< = 5 < =

9656;+ 6 6 5856<. L6 656 < =6 8;56 < >6:65<6 >5;

= 65; >>; <6@6+ 85 =6 5 6= 8@= = :;6@6. L6 8;56 6@;56;6

98 6 ;65 6 85 =>6< 6;6 =6 :556 5H6 6<+ 85 5;+ @ < =6

;=<6< ;=5 S;6= 6@H6 9;56< 66 ==6. # 6H >5; 6 5; < 65;

6= <= «9< =@5» ;56 = «;;6=;659»% 5 <; 8656 = 9: < =>6=9 @5:.

M;56 6@6< =6 6 <= 65; >6= ;56<6=+ 6+ =6 585<+ =

6; 86 6 965. E ;+ 6;6 6= <= := !I! =6 >6:65<6 ;6; 96= 9

>6= 985;6+ 9@=;6+ 8;985;6+ art nouveau ;56 55 =

> =:6 > < 6@6<65=+ 6= ;98 698=6@6 =6 :696 < ;96 = 65;;6

8<H6 6@5<65. P656<69;+ 6H =6 98;6 < =6 ;:56H6 ;9=6;. L 8;5

;;6@6 ;<6>H6 = <5 7=> 6= =5+ 66= + << = 985;6 6;6

= 6>;6+ = =5 56 6<6 > 9 >>+ 6< ==. T69@ 865H6 5>65

= 98= <= «7859» ;< 9 :56=+ 85 = ;6; 78=;65 =6 686<6<< <;65 < 9 6 =6 56=<6<+ ;6; 9 = 5 6; 9 5=665 =6 6;6<56 <=

6;56=9+ 9 6;;:6 V6 G: M. T98 9 ;65<+ =6 ;=:H6 < =6 8=H=6

@6 6 <9;565 ;69@ 56 686 < 98;5 .

P 6 ;<+ = 65;;6 6 8<H6 ;56;65 < 6565 9 6 =6 56=<6< 85@<6 < =

8<H6 65 =6 96+ 68=6< 6 =6 6 ;56 =6 ;=:H6. O+ 6< 9+ =

85=696@6 65;;6 9 C6+ S56; P655 56=6@6 8586:6<;6 9 K=6

A8==65.1" E= >; < ; 85<5 56 <8=66@6 =6 8;56 < = >H6 =

<5+ =6 858 H6 <= 69@6; : < =6 = @5 = @;+ =6 5=6 <

8=6 596+ =6 ;5;56 :=:6 6 = <: >6= < = 8H6

865H6 = =+ = 5@= =6 856. 6;6 = @;6 =6 6 9 :56>% =6

>6:65<6 < <= := !I!+ =< = 8;9859+ 5965 865; <= 58

65;H; 68;6<. D + 65;;6 :65 < 6 6;;6 88=65<6< < 966+

;6 785 8< 68=65 6 =6 8;56. E =6 ;6 B5< ==> 6 6@ @5 = :;

56 < = 6 ;;6+ R5 V6 G: <;66 9 = 65;;6 9 88=65 ;<

= >= 856=+ 78;6< 6 66<9 producteurs artistiques ;



2

;6 6 ;+ G66 B5:= 5=:6 6 R5 6= 65; 8;.1$ L6 6;;6 58;56 ;5 =

8@= = 65;;6 ==: = > :=. E =6 9;56 < B5<+ 85 98=+ V6 G:

:H6 < 6 6;5 > 9 88=65 B56 = ;5 = :58 9 =;>6<+ 8 6=

6 6= <= 65; 6@;56;+ 855< 85 43 85 1(( <= :58 ;6<. P5 6<6 856



2

< =6 ==696<6 «=6 88=65» : 6= 9; @;6 56+ < :5 6=

=6< =6 =6 9<6 = 5 ;+ = =6 =6 6=;6 V6 G: <55;

=9869; 6 B56 85 " 6 1.

N 6@5H6 58<5 6<6<69; 85 ;5 1*(" 1*14 =6 >6:65<6 598

<=@56<69; 6 ;<6< = 866<+ 85 = ; =65 + 6 > = @ +

985< 59< >6 6 :6 865;. ¿Q 8<H6 65 =6 8;56 6 > 6@H66@6<6< = =:6 ;56<6= < =6 585< 6@H6 6865;6< < =:6

>6= = ; 9 8656 65= 985@=? ¿Q 8<H6 965? ¿66 <<

@6 = > 65;? D56; ;6 6+ = 8656 = 6>9 <= P8 A5;+ @

<856<69; =6 596 < 58<5 6 ;6 85:;6 6 ;56> < 6 ;596@= <

> ;= >;6@= 96;+ 6 985 98;56@=. C;56 = 5

99;+ @ ;H6 6<6 9 78; =6 > < 5 65;;6 56

6=: 985;6; + 6 > =6 585< < 8<5 < =6 9656+ < 6=5

6 8<H6 =:;965 9 65; 9;56 65;;6 =6 5><656 9 56 856=.

S 78;69 @5> 85H<+ 56 8@= <5 6 ;<6 :56=+ 9 5H6= 86 < =6 585< 6 =6 6@;56 <= ;< 6 =6 596 = =5. L6 Aeue

8achlichkeit = 556=9 85< 6= @9+ = :. U 5H; 8586 6

< < &6] P==]+ = 785;6 6@;56; 85 7=6+ «;6= > @56 >><

6;6 = ;;6 6 ... = >5H6 656+ @5 ;<+ 9 6 65;;6 < 9: 7859;

6 6 6@;56;6 85956 96<5».1)

E;6 5;<9@5 85856 6 =6 ;56 < =6 >6:65<6 = 65 < 6 96=<

86=+ 85 <@6;H6 ;6;9; ;5 =6 > < 8<H6 6@5 ;5 8656 =

65; <= 866< 6 56 <= 866< 9 9<6; 6=5 =6 < 65; : =6 >6

< =6 5;6 < = ;6@6 6< 6= <9865 = > 5= 6= <«65;;6» «:» 56 985;6; ;56@6 =6 :56 ;56< <= 866<. D= 9< 9

6;56= = @;6 X :56 <:; < M65;;Y «6<56 = ;56<6=9 < P+ I:5

C5;».1' # < 596 ;<6>H6 9 56+ #> =+ =;96 6 =56@6 ;<6 ;=6

;5 @; < 6= 59 6 =6 9656 < 8;5 < @56 :5<6+ 8< 5 >; 9

6reductio ad absurdum < =6 6;><6< <= 65;;6+ 6 = ;656 << =6 ;

< =6 8;56 < G;; C96@ 6@H6 < «959;6».1* E= 5; 6;=: < =6 9;56

«S6;» ;56;6@6 < 96@65 = 56: < G56=;+ M6;+ G6 = B 6>5 < =

6<=;5 < &6] D C6896.

S 9@65:+ =6 >6 =@5;6< 698= ;6@=9; =6 :696 < = 8<H6 65 =6 65;

>6=. F ; < 856 < 9686+ @5 ;< 8656 5H6 :=

85<; ;6@6 5 7856< < 9< ;69@ 85<;. E 6 98@=

9865;5 = ;69 = @= 85<H6 = ; < 6 86 56 =6 65; 9

< =6 :56 78 «B5=H,M» < 1**$,1**). S 9@65:+ ;9;

8< =;65 < 6. L6 85956 = > =:6 98@5< < =6 8;56

«96@6» 9 9 = >+ = 6= 6H6 9 <H= = 98@= «78565



2

= ;98» < 596 ;565@=. M 5 «596 :6;>6» =6 696 56 <

B=9@5 =6 785 <= ;9; @;>+ = = > =:6 ;6@6

< >5<6< 56 @;H;= 9;65;6 <5+ ;6@6 86=6@56+ 6 ;H6 :6<

>6=. C9 8;6+ . B. #6; ;H6 :56< <=;6< 965 >

7;566+ 8; ;56+ 85 86=6@56 98@= <@55 M<56 6<]

; 65;;6 <6@6 78565 8 @5 = 9< ;6 59 7;56 9 =6 <



2

#6;. E :< =:65+ = > := 8<H6 6==65 6 785 9 9 6 6 ;56> <

> 9<. E H;+ 6=5 6 56 65 =6 >6:65<6 8;56 56 98@=

8<H6 65 95 85 6=: ;5 9<. D 6H =6 965 865; < =6 5><6

5>=656 < =6 >6:65<6 5;56 9;56.

C<59+ 85 98=+ = @9+ =6 >6:65<6 6 < <5;6 9 < 6 >

9 «=6 9 5>=656 =; <= := !!».2( E; 8< 5 5; 8656 <;596<8;5+ 6= 9 = 85H< 985<< ;5 1*() =6 85956 :556 9<6=+ 6 5

+ = 5 6 =6 65; 9 ;<+ = 556=9 ;> 9 =6+ ;6= > 85

856 56 9;9; >6=. P5 ¿ = @9 = 9>9; 5>= =6

596 ;< ;5 = = 8;5 856= >9 = 9<? P5

98=+ = @9 6596@6 5H6 <5; 68; < = @; <6< 9=;69;

6 > 9=;<96= < = 56=<6< 56% 6 6;56=6 95;6 = 5;5 96+

85 98=. XL6 >5<6< 6< ;98=69 =6 8;56 < =6 6 66=H;6 <= @9

6 ; 78=65 8569; = ;56;6@6 < 65.Y P5 6 6= 99

;98 = @9+ <5+ 6 865;5 < 1*()+ =6 8=H=6 9865 6 <655==65 6 ;6< 858;>6 9=;8=+ >656@= ;5 < 9;6+ 56=9; 69=6565 6= :56

8@=+ < 6 ;< ;5+ 596 < 685<5 =6 56=<6< 85 9< < 858

9=;6 6 9=;6 < <5; 68; <6< < 9;65.

A<9+ = 6< =6 856 56 <5;69; @;6+ 9 859@=9; = 6 <

=6 ; < R<]+ =6 ;:56H6 =6 + =6 ==669;+ 96 = ;< < =6

>6 9 66 6 8;56 98656@= < P6. P5 ;6 56+ = ;9;6

@6 6 5>=65 9 6 8<56 5569;6 < 8586:6<6. # 85 8; ; 98656<

= >6=5 ;; <= 86 <= 5<].

E 59+ 98@= :65 =6 >5<6<56 5>= = 65; <= := !! =6==>65 6 6@ =6 >6:65<6 <= 9<59+ < 56 <= 9@; < =

5 596=9; 9 «65;». E6 5>= @56 < =6 =:6 9@6<6 < =6 ;=:H6

= 956< < 966+ = >6= 6 <5 < =6 <956;6 <= 9 ;;. #

8595 =:65+ <<6+ @56 <= + < =6 ;:56H6 65; 68;6= <= := !!. E= &uernica

< P6 + 9 @56 < 65;+ 98656@=9; 9 9856; Lo que el viento se

llev1+ < S=]+ 85 << 8; < >;6 ; ;6 6 @56 9 5>=656. P5

= <@ 696< < D+ @ 55 6 =6 6;56 @==6 < M<56+ 5 9

5>=65 =6 8;56 6= = 9 6 8656 ;569;5 = 96 5H6. L

6 =6 8=H=6 :565 56;>+ 9;6<5 ; = 986865 =6 ><6

<656 < 7856 ;;6+ 6;9@565 6 =6 966 6 6;5><6 >6 =6

858 >6=+ < 6 = 5>=65 <= 6@6==; 56:6<+ 6=6< 6. U6

9656 @5 56H= 8< 965 =6 6 < >=<6< 95 = ;5;6 <

B6==6. L 6 ;5 ;6 < =6 65; >5<6<569; 5>=656 5

68;6<6 85 =6 966 85 ;H6 6=: 965=. S= = 65; < >6:65<6 = 9<

= 96. E =6 ><6 56=+ = 9< 7859; 6 5>= 6>5 <= 96.



2

L6 >6:65<6 5 55 ;6 ;6 6;6 = ;5 < =6 <6< <

9 9<56+ =6 <6<6 < = ;6+ + 6= 6<9;5=+ <65 :6

;6.

A =6 =6 >6:65<;6 68655 =6 <6<6 < = ;6+ 6+ 6 865;5 <= P8

A5;+ = 8586@6 5>=65 = 65;+ = 5H6 56 <=6565= @6655;6. D 6H =

5 5;5 6= 65; 8;6= 6= <6<6H9. N6 8 9>9;+ =6



2

>5 5:6= < 1*14 8;55+ ;56;6 < 5>=65 = 65;+ < 6@=5=+ 85 =

9 < <=6565 9<6<+ 85 98= 8;6< @:; 6 =6 $ona Lisa ;56;6< 6 6

5<6 < @=;6 9 «@56 < 65;»+ 9 M65= D698. C6< = 8@= =

;<+ D698 7@ 565 6 596 < 65;;6 >;6<6. D698 ;> =6 5; <

65 ; N>6 #5]+ << : 6 :56 696+ P65H+ << = 56 9 <

= ;=;6= :56 <= 99; ;H6 :6 58;6 9 65;;6. XC9 <C65;5,B5% « 56 8656 6<6 @ 65;;6».Y D6< 5 = @596 9

<656<6% 6@H6 56=<6<+ 5H6 8;9 =. Q5H6 <;55 = 65; ; =6

@5:H6 9 865; <= 9< 6@H6 <6< 6 = 6 =6 G56 G556. D6< 68;6@6 6= 9<.

C6< G5: G5 965 6 E;6< U< ;5 6==H 9< <= 6@96@6+

85< 56 9 65;;6.

65= = 65;;6 88 5H6 5>=65 <;55 6<6+ 9 9 = 9<.

T< = ;565% 68;6@6 9<+ = = :;6@6. L < <5 ;6

< =6 <6< < 9 6 6@H6 =:65 8656 = 65; >6= ;56<6=+ 78;+ 85

8;+ 9 596 < :665 <5. U 9< 56= 85 = =H6 6 6<6 56 6 <<+ 9: H9@=+ 8; ;:56; < 6 7856 9+ 6@H6 <@66< 6=

65;+ 9 6;><6< 86=. L6 985;66 < 65= = =6 :56<6 < 6 :56 7;566

6;8;6 56<6 =6 56 < 56 6 5 ;56 6 = >H= 86> <

9< 7859;6< 6 ;56> < =6 6;56 < = 9< < 96. E @56 6<6 ;

596+ 6 : :; 98=+ 6 5H6 ;9;6=9+ ;698

9;65 =65+ 6=> = ; 98=H; =6 = < 58;

969; M6+ M65=+ =6 =6;6 < 86 C698@== 66 85<6 8586

85 =6 95;. P656<69;+ = ; < 6 @56 ;5@6<56 85 6<6 @56

5;6 6==69 6=: 9 865< 6 6 «785 < = ;98» 858 < =;6<< < 86. P5 ;6= 785 6=6 9<6; =6 56 < @56 < 65;

= ;< ;56<6=.

D< ;+ 6 =6 8;56 < >6:65<6 = 6 <6< 6<6 65. 6 5:56< =

<6<6H9+ 85 ;6 > 9 6 85;;6 <856<6 5; 6 9< 85;6@=+ 8656

< = 5=69 8@=;65+ 8656 = ;6@6 9 @ <;6< << 985. L6 8;56 <

6@6==; @6; 5;56<6. E= 8;6=9 ; < 9<6 85 = 85 6=:

6;6 =6 856 6@=<6< 8< 65+ 9;56 =6 9656 <5+ ;5 <6+

@5 ;< 6< 65 6 @6 @5==6;. Q5 <5 < 86 =6

8;56+ 9 ;6=+ 6 <6865< 85 98=; <= P59 T55 < ; 6.

AH 8+ ¿<@ <5 =6 ;56 < =6 >6:65<6 <= := !! 6 < ;569;

;56? S ; ¿6 ;6< <= ;< 6< 6 9< 65;H; 6;9? ¿F56665

98=;69; 85; < 78565 ;565965 = := !!? N <= ;<. 6@H6 6 596

< 5985 =6 6;6;56 ;56< <= 65; 9 85< < 65;6; 5585<@= 85

65;;6 = 98=6 6 H 99. S ;56;6@6 < 55 =6 =:6 < =6 ><6 < =6

85< =6 <6< <;56=+ 6 @> =6 <6< <;56= 8<H6 55 =6



2

<6< < >6 ;;6 6= :6= =6 <6< < >6 ;6+ 85 =6

85< =6 8586:6<6 8656 = 956< ;6@6 < 69@6. L 5;5 «9<5;6»

;H6 >6=5 85; 8656 = < <;56= =6 85< < 966 966<6. L6 ;6

< >6:65<6 56 6 = ;55 < =6 8@=<6<. E =6 9<<6 ;6 <6 85<

< =6 >6:65<6 < 858 < := >>9 ;5 >6= :56< 85 ==6. C

56 6 < 6H+ 6 985 6569;. L6 @56 <= 65; < >6:65<6 9



2

5:6= < =6 G56 B5;66 < ;5:556 @<6 9 6 @56 < 65;+ 9 6

6 = ;6 8656 5=>5 85@=96 < 596% ;56;6 <= 8=6 < =6 5< <=

M;5 < L<5. D5 < 86 =6 @6655;6 < =6 >6:65<6 <9;56 =6569; =6

;= 6<68;6 < 8=6 6 S9 P6;;5 =6 78 «S6;» < ;

6.

U6 ;56< < >6:65<6 =6 = 9< <= := !I! = !!. M 55 6 =6 ;56< 9 6 5< 65;6<69; N]=6 P>521 ==>6 < ==69 M55+ A5; 6<

C56; = art nouveau 6;6 =6 B66+ 85 = 9 6 > =@5 < ;=<6< 5:6=

66 =6 85< <;56=+ = 969 =6 <;5@+ 6 6 858 < =6

<6<6 < 1*2(+ 9 6 <9;56< & ==;;. L6 56 < ;6 ;56< 556<6+ 9

< =6 B66+ 85 = ;5;>9 5 5<H6 6=9;6@6 < =6

6>=6 < = 65;;6 9 : 56<5 <><6= == < 85@=96 ;

;5+ < 8586 9 ;5;5 < 6 <6< 95. A= <5 <

M=,N6:+ 7=6< < :5H6 ;56 =6 <55;6 < =6 H956 R8@=6 >;6 :656+ «=

;5;>9 = 6=9 < =6 >». E;6 =6 < >6:65<6 8;55 6 1*1) < 6=;6;5 @5 =6 >6:65<6 68=H;6 = 6;8=H;6 < 1*(" 6 1*14 6;6 ;65 =

9>9; 6=9; 9859;< < =6 <6<6 < 1''( < = 8595 6 < =6 < 1'*(.

E= 65; > 56 6 > 9 8656@= < =6 ;5 < 6 <6< >6+ + 85 = 9+

95. S 98= 56 ;6; 6= 6; ;;. D 6H =6 985;66 < =6 ;5 =6

86=6@56 6=966 < 9@5 6 =6 B66 8656 ; 85;.

E ; 6+ =6 ;;6 < =6 «56 96» H 56 6=: 9 5;56. E =6 <6<6 < 1*2(

= 85; 8656 69@65 =6 ><6 < =6 :;+ 6;56;> 8656 = 65;;6 8<H6 ;5@5

<5;69; 6 ==+ >5 6 5 6 9@6 < 8=66 8@=6 ;8H6 ;=:6.

F 96;59 ;5 5 F5<+ 5H6 85 6;9>= << 6; = 6@H6+ =66856 < = 6;69; 6=;6+ 5H6 85 65; < @6 << 6; =

6@H6. A9@+ 6 9<+ 85=696@6 785; 6@H6 95 6< = 6@H6

65 69@ <6@6 6 956 >56= : < == <6@6 855<6< 6 = :;

856= X«8< ;< 98565 9 6=5 =5+ ;6= < 6 :5»Y. L6

66+ = =6 <6<+ 6= :6= = 6;9>=+ L C5@5 <5 9 =

9<= 8656 ;55 >><6+22 @5 9 85<; < =6 =:6 >56= < =6

85< <;56=. E= 858 @ < =6 «56 96» 8<H6 68=65 6 =6 6@;6

86 96 X«6 96 8656 >>5 ==6»Y 6==6@6 =6 = 6= 85@=96

9@6< < 8;965 = < 86 =9;6<+ =6 5:9H6 =6 5;6@=<6<. E56 @

<6=+ 95 =6 ><6 < 96 856+ 6 =6 6856 ;86 < C;

R6< 85; 6 6 86 + = = 86H 9 5 <= 9<+ 56 < <6<

9<;6 < 9< =9;6<+ @ = < =6 @56@<66 < 6H =6 8@=<6< ;

= 9<5 < =:5 < ;5 ;98.

S 9@65:+ 9 = =6 B66 <@5+ 69@65 =6 <6< 6=: 9 < =

8< :5 =6 =6 < 65; < < 85 H =6. # 6 :<.



2

P59H;69 =5 ;6< =6 =;96+ ;5;+ 56 < =6 56 < P6= = «S@5 = 65;

9<5» 85 = < =6 =6 < =6 B66+ 99; < 965 56;><6<

X1*24Y% «N ;9 = 68 < =6 :;. P5 = ;69 @6<. AH 9 9869+ 6H

=6 B66. L 9 6 9<6< 6 =6 <9 ;< = ;H69. N 8<H6 65

9».23 S 9@65:+ ;.



2

P65; IV

DEL ARTE AL MITO



2

C68H;= 21

/POP0 EL ESTALLIDO DEL ARTISTA # DE NUESTRA CULTURA

L6 ;56 6= < @= 696= = 6@6== 65 < 5=>66 8656

;<6 =6 65;. S = 9< ;> 6:56<6+ ;5 ;98 ;6; + 6;6 ;5

<H6+ 85856 =6 9<<6 6= < ;< 8<5. T5685;6@6 6 9@5 ;56@6 < 6+

868= 9 @> =6 ><6 966 5 H9@= < < 6= 8656 = ;556;;

5+ 6 76 8656 = : >66 8656 = 8@5 858<6<+ @; <

6<956 8656 8;5 =;5+ ;. <5>6@6 <= < + =6 85;6+ 56

<86@= 8656 =6 ><6 55;. ; 6 <6865<. S6=> 6 86 6 86= 86H @<655==6<+ = 6@6== 6 < ;;<+ < 596 98=;6 6;6;56+ 85 =

6;9>=+ 55 9 9+ = ;56;5+ ;56 < 65:6 9 86<6. S@5>> ;569;

9 @ < =. E 6+ = 869; 96 @5+ 85 =6<+ = 85@=96 <=

;5685; + 85 ;5+ =6 <= 6@6==+ = 6 ;< 5>65+ 6

69@6< < 6 596 <69;6=+ 8; @6 865; < = 86< @5 ; ;96 =6

56 <= 6@6== 6 ;56< 55=>6; .

L6 ;6 >> =6 65; = := !! 6=:6. T69@ 6 866< 6 5 5<<6;

85 ; <= 85:5 ;=:+ =6 85956 ;656 < =6 5H;6 <@5H6 5 <@55 9 6

8<< 8665 6 < 76;69; = 6 86< =:65. 6;6 656+ =6 965H6 < = 856;6 =6 65; 5@ @5 ==6 6 9;56< 5;; 6 6@5<65 ;6 ;6

566+ 865; 85 ; =6 76 < =6 >=6 =6 5@ 6 = 5<6<5

56 = thrillers+ 85 @5 ;< 85 6@ 96:65 6< 9;5 ;69 6

=6 56 < 5@5 8586 5=:6. A<9+ =6 65;6H6 =6 65; 966= 6 =6 6;:6

: 85856< 9 @ < =+ 6= :6= = pony + 6; 56 5@6 = 65;;6

65;6 6 =6 6;:6 66 6 6@< 6<68;65 95 = 6@6== 6 =6 85< 966

966<6. S 9@65:+ = 9 =;. E= 5;5 856= < =@5

6==6 =6 8 <= ;<5 966= <8 < =6 ;5> < =6 96 ;<56% ;5

= < 85+ =6 < ;556 ;5 65;6 865; =:56 :565 9 <5 696:566+ = 95 < 5;5 8< >>5 ;569; < =6 >;6 < =@5 6@5H6

6 6=6 6 X 865;=659; 7;6Y. C9 @ 6@ ;< <;5 6:; 8@=;65+

5@ =6 ;656 9 6=;6 = ;:56+ = «65;;6».

L6 5>= <;56= 6 >>< =6 85< < =6 9;+ 9 =6 < =6

85< 96;56=+ ; < 66% 6+ = 85:5 ;+ ;; 6 =6 6@=<6<

966= <+ =6 <96<6 96>6+ =6 6 6<6<6. S 68; 56= =69; =6



2

686<6< < 585<5 56 <><6= :56 6;<6< =6 >656<6 596 < =6

985 = 6 :< 6 9 ;98+ 85 == 69@65 = 6= = 65;5 < =6

5;56 = :569 6 9<6< ;66=9; =6 96+ =6 686<6< <

598=665 =6 56. L6 65; >6= 6 >; 6H ;56596<6 85 =6 ;:56H6+ ;6

9>9; 6 9 5;+ =6 96 6 ;56< = 5 <= < 65;6= X98656@=

6 =6 @56 65;6= = 9@; ;7;=Y =6 5;56 6 5; 6 =6 6;;6 966+



2

8 6 =6 ;>6 @<6 ;H6 < 96 ;56<6 66. E =6 85;6+

9@65:+ = <;596 = 65;5 «<;56=» < 65; =6 6<8 < 65;=:

9 5;+ =6 58;56 <= 85 < 56 <><6= :9; 86=6<+

9 =6 696 966;56 < 6==5 < A<69 S9; = < = 85<;5

<><6= 66 <=; =;>+ 5<6< 85 :;5 <5;5. L6 >=6 ;

6;5+ 6 <56 <= 85<. E = 6 < 85< 6 «;56» 55;+55;56 98= 98=6 < 96;56= 9 9 858656<+ 7;6 56

6<6 8<6 <5@5 9 6 8=56=<6< < 6;5. E; 9;< <;56=

6= 8656 6@6;5 =6 <96<6+ >5<6<569; 85<;+ < 8@= 96> ;

6;9@56< 6= ;5;9; = 65; ;6; 6;><6< 66=+ 9 = ;6

;5598< 9 = 6:6+ :6= 55 = 85<; 9 =: < =6 =;56 ;=:6%

=6 < < 9 < < >H<. E 5;6 5696 < =6 =;56;56+ 9 =6

;=;656+ 8< 85;5 85< 65;66=+ = 85 =6 <96<6 6= 58; 95+

9 85<56@= 9 ;59;;+ ;69@ 85 = 956< 8< @665 :56<

6;<6< < ;56@6 596=+ 6 ;98 8656=+ =6 85;;< =6 5;5 856=8< >5;5 :6;==5. A 6H+ = 65;6 <><6= + :69;+ ;;6

85<5 =@5 6 5;9 <;56=+ @ <6 = 866 85 6=;+ 9 E<:65 6==6+

@ 6@6<6 = ;; ;56 ;98+ 9 S9. L6 65; = > 85<; <

=6 56 <;56= = + =6 < 85 ;=> 56<+ =6 96 88=65 6<8;6 << =

858 6 <> <= ;56@6 98=6+ 9 < 6 985 5;6 65;

6=9; 856;>6 =;>6+ 865;=65 =6 65;;56 =6 585;6 6.

L 5: < ;6= 85< <;56= 9<;56= + @>69;+ 6=: 9 <;; <

=6 «@56 < 65;» <= ;8 966= ;56<6=+ = 8< :65 < =6 996 9656. Q

6 7;6 «@56 <;6@=» < 6 =6 5>=656+ 9@65: 8<6 :65 6 =6>6 66 85 ;698 ; =65 ;6 6 =6 95 596 < 9;5=6 6 . Q 66

@56 < 65; 6= > ;=+ 9 <+ 85 6<;+ 9 6< 6;5 ;6=;

=;565 <><6= 9 699;; S9 95: < :5 6=9;

8@=6< 85 :6;==5 85 =6 9<56 >=6 :56 8< =6 9865 S69 S86<+

P55 M6+ <= ;< 9 6 =6 5H;6 ;56<6=. E = 6 7;59+ 6<6 > 9

69=65+ <= 85<+ =6 5 < ;=>+ =6 ;56 96 =6 @56 < 6=: 56<5 < 96

88+ 7;6 56 ;6 596 <= 866<. S5H6 5<H= :65 = 56=

56< &unsmoke : = 5;5 >569 9:J6+ =6 ;56 < A< C688

= 5;5 < :65;+ 6 = R==: S; = 5;5 ;= 8656 : =

= C= P5;5. A =6 >56+ = =:5 <= western > 6;6< 85 =6 @5>6 <

:6 8=H=6 >=6 5;6 @5 = O; 6 5:< < 9656 :6@= «:56»

@56 < 65;+ = ;< >6=. E 56=<6<+ = 55 = 5H; 6 =6 6;:6

;6 5<<6;+ 85 ; < =6 <;56=6+ 9 = 656 = 65;;6 6 =6 6;:6.

L 8595 <@ 65 6= 58; < ;6 ;6 68;65=6 X= 8 <65=

;56 685@6Y. D65 6 <;;6 6 56 6;56=+ 85 ;5=. U9@5; E 6



2

78; =6 ; =< =6;6%

E= 85@=96 9 >=>5+ 6+ 6 ;6< 85<;56=+ 85:;65 5;66 =6 5=6

<= 9@5 = = 85<;> @5<6 = 9@5 6= ;96 + 6 =6 >56+ 9 <@5H69=6@565 6 >6 96:

<= 9@5 5=6 = ;96 = <6% 6 96: < =6 96<6< =@5 < =6 96+ =@5 5=6 =6 96.1



2

N 5>5 :65 6 68;65 = 9< < = 9< < 96 < 966+ 68;65=

65H;69;+ 6 ;5 =6 < 6;;<+ =6 :<6 8; 9 ;=+ 8; 98=6+

6= 9+ =6 686<6< < 55 65 65 > 6= < 6 ;6

65 < 85<;. E;5 = 6 ;;6< ;<5+ ;=;6=9;+ =6 =;56

<;56= 6 6@<+ 6 :56< 56:+ ;5 596 < 6569;. L ;6<< =6 6

<@5;+ <5; 9<< = ;; 58 =6 6 9;< 6 6= ;5H6+86=9;+ = 56 ;6=6 = @5; 6 956=6<. E= ;56@6 ;6<<

; 698+ @5 ;< =:+ @6;6; @ <. E= ;56@6 H;6=,56+ =6 8@=

78 <= @5==6; Les 8tars+ < E<:65 M5+ 6 << 85 98=;. L@esprit du

temps+ 6 8@=6< 6 6 9 < < 6+ 6 866< 85;69; <685@< G56

B5;66+ ;; ;6= 9 = < R=6< B65;+ 6 8556< 66=65 = :6< < =6

5:6 < =6 9<6 96+ < >= S==5;+ 6 7696< La presse féminine XP65H+

1*$3Y+ << <= ;<. !pocalittici e integrati+ <= 858 U9@5; E = ;H;= 6

6569; ;5+ 56< 9 6= < S;> C6+ S8596

C65= B5J+ =6 <;56 < =6 6 88 =6 ;=>+ 5>6 8656 85;65 6= =;5 =98 ;=;6= = 6=: 5H; ;6=6 6 ;<6< =6 =;56 < 966 =

=;9 6+ 685796<69;. E 965 865;+ ; =@5 ;6 69@569; 686

;6 < 5985 < ;< 6 8@=6< 6;55<6<.

L6 5H;6 @5;6+ ; 698+ 6 < <56; 9 ;98 = 98= >5;6= < =6

«>6 5<6» =6=% <5+ 5=6 9 < L6> X85 = 56 < ; 6 =6 =;56

8;<;56=Y+ 9 9 < M657+ 985;6; =9; < ;6=:6 66 =6 «=;56 < =6

=6 ;56@66<56»+ 6 86 985; 85 =6 <9566+ 98= 8<6:: ;

98= 9 ; < 65 = @. E 96+ ; 9 British. P5 + ;5

;< @5 =6 =;56 < 966+ 8 6 ;=;6=9; 6;9; + 6+9;56 56: < 66<+ 986 =6 56 85;6 =6 <6 ;56. N =

>5<6< 9 685;6< 6=: 6 =6 956 < ;5 9< < 96 8656 985@65=+

@6;6 986565 =6 ;=> @5;6 =6 7;5656+ ;5 @5>6<5 6 <

; 6;55<6<+ < 9< 9 566@=+ < 5;6 ;<6 85 98=+

= :; 6<=;+ = 85@ = =: < F566 E;6< U<+

66<969; 9 ;;+ 85 9 6= 6.

%he =opular !rts+ < S;65; 6== P6<< 6= 6 < =6 85956 8@=6 =6

;6@= 65556 < 6== 9 ;5 < =6 =;56+2 ; =6 996 >5;< ;6 ;56<. E

6 @56 6=9; 5H;6 8<6::6+ 98=9;6 = «;96 < ;<» 596 =

= 96;56= 85; < 66. L ;96 8586= = ;< < 65;;6

596 88=65 «@6» X= blues+ = western+ B== =<6Y+ <= ;56; <6< 6 =6 >=6+

«6@» <;;>+ = 596;9+ = 695+ =6 «:;»+ = 8@= 6<=; ;96

6@;6= ;6= >;:6% =6 <;56 8@=;656. 6 6 @@=:56H6 6 =;6

865;=659; ;= < 8=H=6 :56@6 < 6 >6=6. L 6;5 8 = 56 <<

<@ 65:9; = 6<956@= :; 7=;+ @=<6< 66



2

= 69@ 6=+ ;6@=. P5+ 9 ;6; ;5 6= @5; < =6 =;56 < 966+ =

56569; 5;6 6 =6 85:;6 < = «5;5» < ;8 ;56<6= 66 < >56 =

;96.

E 7;59+ ;< 6 @65 =6 >66 < 5 + : = ==5+ 6==6 6= 6= <=

65H5+ >6=6 6; <;;6 <= 96= 65; < 966 6 >+ <;66 6 @56 = <<

6=6;> < «@ 8». P5 = 96;5 < 6 =6 =>6 86=



2

7:6+ = =;5 <6= < %he =opular !rts+ 5@6 6:56< = 8656 8<5

65:9;65 6 6;6; 9 A;6 O^D6 95 = S685+ 6 > 95

S6 M6:6+ <@5H6 8555 =6 5 ;=>>6 "(ars 6(ompact + 9@65: 6

=6 < 5 =6 56=<6< =;6 B== =<6+ = 9< < =6 96 88

6;6=+ 9 9 =; R9@6< ;5 = 6;5 < >5 < =;6

= 96= 65; < 966 8< 5 ;6 6 9 @ X<< «96=» «@» 6;:5H6:6=9; 55=>6;Y 9 6 @ X6< = Y.

E = ;5 7;59+ = ;< @5; < =6 =;56 < 966 8< ;<5 6 =6 68;6

65H;6 < = 5=6 6 «=6 :;»+ <56 @ 85 <. R65< ::65;+

69 %he :ses of Literacy + 6 <6< 56 < ==+ 6+ 9 6< <@5 =

6@596<5 ;5 9;56 =6 5>;6 =eg@s =aper 85 <;6== 5; < =6 < 966.3

E 56=<6<+ 6@5H6 65965 = 99 < 6=: 6 < <;5:;. L6 <@=<6< 6= <

69@6 596 < ;<65 = 65; < 966 =6 59 >=;6< < <@55 = >6=5 < =6

96<6< 85> 6 =6 85< < 966 6 ;6 =6 + 6 = 9+ 5=;6

965:6=. N 6 : 6@6== ;; =>6;65 =6 6@6 << <@6 <= 68.P5 6 6@6==+ ¿ 6? E= = < =6 <;56 =;56= 85< X = 6 = 85

66=<6<Y =6 «@56» 7: 6; <><6= ;56<6+ = 9< ; 65;6=

<= 85<+ =6 ;56 96 =6 ;596@= < 8< 596= < >65. N

85< =6 6 8H6 <= @6==; 596=+ = = ;6; < =6 6=6 < @6= =6

86+ = ;6< < 9 = @ <+ =6 <6< 56 =6 7856

8H6 7=>6+ =6 9=;8=<6< 9=;6% =6 7;68 < ;;=65 ;5:+ =6

96 < < <= 6+ =6 @56 <569;6 6 < 698 ;56=6<. E;

;569; > 6=;5 B69 6= 5;6 6 6H 9 7859;6

;56<6=9; =6 65;;56+ <5+ 9 ;5 < ><6 :56=+ 9 9 6 96< < 8H 85 =6 596 <96;. L6 5H;6 ;;6 ;56<6= 55=>6;+

6 ; 58;+ 85 = 85<; < =6 <;56=6 =;56= 6 6 9 < =6 ;6

<= 65; 85< <5;69; 6 6 ;=6 6:<6<6 < =6 ><6. N >6+ =6

«856=<6<» = 85;6:;6 656;5H; < =6 86 ;<66 =6 856 =6 56<<

<655==6 <6 <=6; < ;5+ 65;;6 88=65+ 985;6 9 = ;6=; =6

;6 =6 «6=<6< < ;5==6». L6 5 < ;=> «@66<6 » 6=: 856

;56<6= 98=6 ; 85.

D 9656 8 8656<6+ ;6 ;56596 =;569<56 <>=> 6 =6 9

6566 < =6 65;% =6 =6@56 <= 9; =6 956=<6<. C9 6 5; M5 6=: 866

<Les 8tars%

L6 ;5;56 < =6 96:6 : 65;8 6 9<= <= 8H5; 96 5<6 + 86= =

566=6<+ = ;96 <= 9; = 596;9 ... L 6 =6 <;56 =;56= ;<6565 = :56< ;96

59; 6= >5;5 = 65;8 ;5;8.4



2

E= ;59 65; 8<+ + 68=65 6 ; 85. A ; 85;+ = > O=98 8<

;65 596< 85 = = < 856 85;6 =6 856 6<6 <H6. P< 8665 < =6

96: 9>9; 6= 868=+ 9 =6 ;5==6 ;56 =6 =96 < ;==. T69@

8< 9 =6 756 S566+ 656 =><6<6+ + 6 ; 58;+ =6 856 D66+ 9

8;55 9>5 = ;< 8;.



2

A 865;5 < ; 6= 5: < ; 56=% ¿9 <@9 :65+

9565+ =6 85< <= = =;56=? # ¿ 86 <6 ; 8656 = >6=5 <= 65; 8656 =6

56 <><6=? L 98656 8=H=6 «@6» «96=6» <= 88=65+ = 8<

6 =6 6 88 6 «@6 8»+ = 9;6 = <; < <8

;= < = 85< ;< 6 <5 ;6 < 85:;6. E =6 85956+ < = ;56;6

<= ;< 86=+ = ;< 956= < =6 =;56 < 966. U6 96=6 ;56 96 >5; 6 ;5;6 @6 85 =6 =;5 <@6; 96:;56= = >=> 9

68;6@= 8656 = 5H;. L6 5H;6 <69;6= <= P8 A5; 55 6= <6= =6 6=<6< < ><6

859>. C9 <9;56 6== 6=+ =6 @ 6 6 5 < ;=> =><6<6

9 %he %hird $an Xl tercer hombreY 9<5<6<+ 9 <6=6 = 8<5

6<;> 6@5H6 <5 6<6 <;; = = @56 66<< 56 6 956=

>;9; 9 6:56<6@= X85 98=+ =6 <6< < 965 ;=566 566=Y. # = 8=:5

56= < =6 =;56 <;56=6<6+ =96 6 ;< 98;<5 8656 5:5 =6 6

96 85;6= 6=66 6 =6 965H6 < =6 :;+ <6 6=;56;>6 :6 6=

9< < =6 85< 966+ 9< <6@=. N 56 6< 85<; 68;6 =6 6;;< 9856 6=9; 9 =6 ;5;6 ;6<< <

8uperman+ = signor E 66=6 < 9< ;6 @5==6; 9 6;556<5 8< 6865 <

==. L6 ;56 < Li@l !bner + 8H5; < ;56 < 6 =:6< ;=;6=

;6<< ; <=;6< 8656 6==65 9 9 =:65+ + 9 68;6 = signor

E+ «= 95 9 85:5;6 < = 56<6= ;>6+ :6= 6;5. E @<6

< =6 856+ =6 6 6 6 86 =6 856 8<5H6 6<8;65 =6 596 <

@>5 ;;6=+ =6 :6 <= ;96»." L6 8586= 66 ;56 =6 =;56 < 966

56 9< 556< + 6= 65= 6H+ =96 =9; 6= =6 96<6<% = 6= <

9< @ 85;+ =6 :56 8566 <= [email protected] 8566 =96+ 85 =6 =;56 < 966 6<8;6 =6 596 :6;>6 >6>6 <

=6 6;6H6 :56=+ < =6 6;6H6 =;6. L <6<6H;6 556=;6 6 = 6;865+ = =

>5;+ 85@6@=9;+ = 585;6; < =6 =H6 ;56<6= < <655== < =6

65; 5 6 685;6 56= 6 =6 9<56 =;56 < 966. A 865 < 9 9

= 596 M657 T G+ < 6=: <@ 696< X85 ;<Y ;56

;;6=6 < ;6 =6 ;56 < 65;5 5>=65+ =6 65; < 966 6 6

5=6< 6<6<69; = 98; X6<6 > 965Y < 856 6;6H6 :6<56 < =6 56=<6<+

9@65: 6 >5;< 865; 9 ><; < =6 ><6 88=65+ @5 ;< =6

@=;56 86=6<6 < = >. S= = 66; 6 985<< 6 = 85 <

6;56 6= 58565= 6.

L 6;;+ = 985<@=+ = 8656=9; 5566= ;69@ 6 85856< = 5:

9 @>+ <;5 < =6 =;56 < 966+ 8656 = «65;» 6 =6 6;:6 66. C9 <6 < 5

=:+ 6 ;<< 6 5;565 6 6==6 6;><6< 6 8< 9665. L 9 <

6 985>6 5; 6 =6 96 < =6 «96 < M] M» 5 = 8595

78=565 ; 5. 6 ;96< = 5=> =6 9656 ==>6 =6 96+ =6 <



2

: 85>+ = 85:5696 < ;=> 8=66< + @5 ;<+ =6 985>6 @5

= 65. D + = ==696;> 565 < =6 65; 6 =6 <6<6 < 1*"( + 9

;<+ =6 <=@56<6 58;6 <= 65;;6 6= ;5 < =6 <;56=6. P = 65+

9 =6 < 6+ = 56<5 8< <65 5<< 6 =6 956 86 < :566+

85 : ; 8< 58;5 85 =6 5=6 ;5 = 65;;6 = 8@=

8< >5 85>6<6 < 9<6; 8=:56+ 96; 985<@=.



2

#+ 9@65:+ =6 985>6 8< 55 =+ = 86=6;>. S

5=6 =6 =;56 <;56=6<6 =6 <= 5; 6 =6 ><6 <;56=6<6+ 9 =6>

< =@5;6< X6 >+ 65;6=Y >6; ;55;5 < @=:6 5;6. L 6;: 55

<= 65;;6 =6 856 = 5:== < =6 ;6 65;H;6 5=;6 9 6;6;5 85 8<

6;65 <;5 < =6 =;56 <;56=6<6. P5 =6 95 < =6 = <8@= 8656 = 65;;6

; =6 8586 <;56 ;6 = M5 6 <96< « =;5< :6;> 865665 8;>» <5+ 5; 965: 8656 =6 56 :6+ =6 6 8<

858565 =6 96;56 8596 6==6 8< 8565. E; 68=6 865;=65 6 =

9;5 < > 96;56=+ <6 6= 65;;6 9 8 965:+ <;5 <= 6;6= 85

85<;>+ 85 :5 9 7;+ 6; ;< = + 985 6 859;< 5;6 =@5;6<

965:6= = ==J<+ ;56 <;56 96;:56+ =6 ;5;56 656 6

<< 6 9 965: 6 =6 56.

N @;6;+ = =;9 6=+ =6 65; 88=65 8< :65 : 6 =6 66

< 6 =6 65; ;56<6=. E= western 985;6; 85 & F5< 66 56=6<

@6 8=H=6 <;5 < >. E;6 = 6 <656 < 9<6.L = :5 6 =:56< 866 < =6 9;+ 6 9;=:H6 >5 956=+

5 56< 85 ; < 8< ;=>>+ 8=H=6 5=6; < 96=6 6=<6<+

@5>> 85 66 < ;+ 85 9< < ==. E= 8; 5; < =@5 9 = < 6==

6= 55 ; 8; <@= 6= 9+ = 6 ;6

>6=65 6; = 98=6@6. S:5 < :H6 < = «@» «96=» =6 65;

88=65 85 6 =6 6@H6 68;6<.



2

C68H;= 22

EL «VAQUERO» DE ESTADOS UNIDOS% ¿UN MITO INTERNACIONAL?

E9865 9 5=7 @5 6 @ <6 ;56< >;6<6 E;6< U<+ =6 <=

cowboy >65+ 6+ 9 @ <+ 85:;6 =66<6 >6 9 9 6== < T76.

¿P5 6 8@=6 < 9@5 6 6@6== <6 < :66< = >5;5 6

6 985 ;96 < 9; 8<5+ < 596 ;H86+ < 9; 5? ¿# 85 +

;5 = 9 9; < ;6 8+ :56< 85 :58 6= 969;

965:6= < >6:6@< 85=;65 <6556:6< 6< 6 = ;565 <

865 < < = E;6< U< <= := !I! 6 ;< 6 5;6 >56= ;67;565<656+ 9 6+ 6?

N 9 ; 686 < <65 58;6 6 =6 85956 < ;6 85:;6+ 85 6

6<;565+ 8:+ 6=: ;@ 65;H8 85<+ < 5; :6+ =

5;69; 9 85<5H6. L6 686<6< < :565 ;6= 9: 56 ;5 = >65

9;6<+ < 6 < 86+ 8569; >56=. E;< 6@;6=

7;<6 6 = 86;5 96<6+ 9 = + 9:= @<. D< =6 858;>6 < =6

8@=6 <;656 =6 ;6= 86;5 96<6 ; 7;5 6=<6< <

9<6< 8656<6+ 85@6@= = >6 6; ;< 9 8=:5 8@=% 65+

85 6966<5. L :58 :56 = 9; 5 9 6=<6<+ : 85;<:55 6H+ 8@=6 86=6<6 = 96 <= 6@6== 85+ 6=: ;<+ 6

5=66<6 = 5; < =6 <6< 85 = 9+ = ;< 698

6@;6; < =6 <6< 8<6 865 < H 99 >6 6 >5;5 >65+ :6 6.

¿E @@= 56 < ;59 556= = 96<65 <= 985 985;656

9 6@6==5 9:=? P5@6@=9;+ .

P5 ¿85 = 9;? ¿Q 868= <986 9; = 6@6==+ 696= + =:65 6

<<6+ 85;6 6 8<56 65:6 96= 9@=6? ¿O 868= 558< 6= ;65+ 6

585;6 = 9@5 >> 9;6<? U 68; H ; =65+ 9@65:% = 9;

6=9; >5=. A = 8;= 5< < = 6 < ;5:556 68655>656+ = ;>5 ;6; < 9<6 < 85 9 66=:H6 =6

65@6;6 5+ 8; =6 9@6 < 9<6< 655 ; 6;56;> =6 ;6==6

+ << ; 6 >6856<. E= 5<+ < + 6 >=; 9 7=> < 96. L6

95 < =6 6=;6 = 6@H6 ;< @5 = 6@6== 66@6 = 55 ;6;6 @56>56 9

= 9@5 56=<6<+ 6 >6=;H6 6 965+ 8; <@H6 6@6=:65 6 95:6

56 @6;6; 88=65 =6 G56 B5;66 >;566+ @5 ;< I5=6<6+ << = ;=



2

9856; =6 66 <= 55 56 865;=659; <6. N6< <<6@6 < 9<6<. I=

6@5H6 :55 6 6 96=6 ;65 5=66<6 = 6@6== 56 6;56;>

8656 =6 >;6 < =6 9<6< 6 =6 =6 + 6;6 = <H6 < + < = 9@5

<655==6 9 86 85 = 6@6== =6 @@<6 85 = 7. A 6H+ = 9; <= ;

<69;6=9; >5=+ 6 =6 @6 ; =6 96@6 9865<=6 =6 9H;6

:5556 6966. E= 9; ;< 6 585;65 6= :555 6+ 6= 6:55+ 6= @5@65+ 6=



2

>=6<5+ 6 5 =6 >=6. E < = 9 :6;> = < < = 59 <

6@6==5H6 = := !VIII !I!+ @56 6=9; < 85H8 < 6= 65;5;+

856 6 9< =6 >;<56 < ; 9@5@65 + < + ;;H6 <6<

67=65 55:=65 9 < ;6= 5;% 6+ 65+ 86<5.

E =6 6;6=<6<+ 6 8@=6 < ;6= ; 86;5 9;6< :56 95 <

5: < ;< = 9<. A=:6 ;5;69; 6=:6 6 = cowboys < E;6< U<+9 = gauchos+ =6 ==656 <= C S5 = llaneros+ =6 6 < = L=6+ C=9@6

V=6 8@=9; = vaqueiros <= 5; @56= + <<6+ = vaqueros 976+

< = + 9 @ 6@<+ <5>6 56=<6< ;6; = ;56 <= 9<5 9; <= cowboy

9 9 >6@=65 <= 95 >65%mustang _< mesteNo + lasso _la2o`+ lariat _la reata`+

remuda X966<6 < 6@6== < remuda+ <5+ «5=>»Y+ sombrero+ chaps XchaparrerasY+ cinch

_cincha`+ bronco+ wrangler X< caballerango+ «9 < 8=6»Y+ rodeo = 6 6<68;6

<5;6 < «>65»+ buckaroo. 6 8@=6 9=65 E586+ 9 =6 < csik1s < =6

==656 :656 X=6 pus2taY = ; 6<6= < =6 6 < 5H6 < :66<+ 6 <;6

7;56>6:6; 85@6@=9; < ;< 8595 6 =6 86=6@56 «=69» =6 <>569<6< 66 < =6 ==656 <= 5 < R6 U566. D 6 =6< ;56 >656 596

< 86;5 9;6<+ 9<6< 9 5<<6 < >65+ = =6 985;6;

8@=6 586 < 6555 6 76;69; 6=:6 6 =6 < = cowboys+ ; %

;56=6<65 = :66< << 8; < 5H6 59; 6;6 = 956<. E = := !VI+ @ >6=;

76; < =6 696 <6 ;6<< < C=9 @6 << =6 ==656 :656 6

<6< < 956< 9 A:@5:+ N59@5: V6. # 65 6=;6 = <:6 6<6

@5 =6 7;6 6 <= ;55 < A;56=6 + = 6=+ 6 < 56+ 6 6

8656 >6+ 9 8656 5.

AH 8+ 6 65;H6 < 9; 8;6= < =6 >65H6 = 9< <;6=. #+ <+ 85;69; ;< = :58 96< 6 :56< 9; 9@5@65+ >5=

5 < 6 8 ;56+ 858 86H 6 > = 9 6==. S8

= C=9@6+ = =;9 < = 86H 6@5H6 <5@5 9 S6=>6 O; ::6;

6@:6556<+ = ; < =6 ==656 5;6= 8565 6 = 5;5 85<;5 <

8=H=6 @5 ;< 656+ ; <6865<. S 965 99; =;565 6;6 =6 6

96:H 5=6; < =6 :556 < :55==6 + 6 =6 5< < 565 <= P65;< L@56=+

<655==65 <56; =6 «>=6» < 1*4',1*"3 @56 < + :56 6@6==5+ @6+

5< 86;69@ + :65<686=<6+ 6; = 6 866< 6 =6 56 < 785;

@5 =6 >=6 B:; 9 55 6 E<65< F56 I66 Las guerrillas del Llano.1

L 9+ 9;56 = 6;; cowboys 655 < ;<6 5=>66 8=H;6 =6

;56 < E;6< U< 85 ;+ =6 <6< :56 = 9; <= S6=>6 O;

<6< 56=+ 56 68;6= < = ;6<+ 6:5 < 5 59;+ 9

A@= D<: C;+ = ; 6=>6 < ;5 86H 5 =9; 56= +

6+ <> = <655== 66=. L :56< 6=69; < 698 5 < =

:= !VII !VIII 9865 =6 5;56 66 + 6 =6 >56+ = 6 >5;5 =6



2

:65<6 85;566 <= 659 8;55. L 985; haiduks @6= 56<

=6<5 6 =6 865 :55==6 66=+ @5 = 5; ;56 8:6 <5>6

9@5 < 6 86=6@56 :656 :6 «>65».

E A5:;6+ = :6+ 5:66< 9 ;9@= 5; < 6@6==5H6 6 =6 5< <

:56 6<==+ R6+ ;5=65 = 86H <56; 6 :56+ <8 < =6 <8<6.

C>5;5 A5:;6 86H 9<5 >=6< >H6+ = 6=+ 9 6 @6;6==6 < =6



2

<6< ;56 = ==6+ < =6 =; 956= ;5<6 ;56 = :6+ < =6 =;56 ;56 =6

@65@65. C9 =6 E6 < 6=;5 S;;+ =6 A5:;6 < S659; = 98; ;5: <

;6 @6;6==6 ;69@ 6=;6@6 6 =6 >;6+ 85 = 6>6 < =6 >=6 98=6@6 =6 <;5 <

>6=5 5H6 9 @=+ 5 6<956@=+ 85 ;6@6 <6< 6 =6

7; ;56. E= @ = 86:6@6 6 85<<6. U5:6+ 9 86H+ = 59 56=<6<

6 5>= < >65+ @6 A5;:6+ ; 5H: 78=6 =6 6 =6 =@5;6<<95;6 = @;65 88=65+ = >5;5 =6 ==696<6 «S6 =6;69566» 6;6

= :56= 85 6 ;< == =6 <6<6 < 1*)(. E 9=65 = 6 < = ; <=

5; 5>=65 < P6 V==6+ 85<H6 < =6 5;56 956 = :66<.

A;56=6+ 6= :6= A5:;6 U5:6+ >5; 85; 6 <6< 5@66<6 <

+ 85@6@=9; 56 =6 <6< 9 5@66<6 <= := !I!+ =6 6=><6< < 6 6

8 7;6 < E586. S 9@65:+ = 6;6H6 8569; 6= 56 ::56+ ;6@6 <

S6=>6 O; 865 < :56< <6< 7;59 6; 6 9H6+ 686@6

= 85<; < = 56 < :66<+ 6 9<<6 9 855 6 =6 6 6=6

E;6< U<. P5 ==+ < 7;5665 ;6= :58 :56 9;% 85 98=+ = ;556;56=6+ :66<5 =6<5 ;5 >6:6@< ;5696; < H<= 85=;656+

6 85856 =6 6 <= 9; 66= 6;56=6. D + =6 6 66= < A;56=6+

*alt2ing $atilda+ 6556 =6 ;56 < < ; >6:6@<. P5 6<6 < == 6 :56<

9; < >5<6<56 88=65<6< ;566=+ 9 6 8<6 986565+ 56 <

=+ =6 5; <= >65 5;6956. ¿P5 ?

A; < 85;65 ;56 9 58;6+ <9 <5+ @5>9;+ 6 < 86=6@56

@5 ; ;5 9; >65. E 865;+ 5>5 8656 ==6965 =6 6; @5 = ;

9 85 @5 ;<+ 8656 55<65 6= =;5 =6 =7@=<6< 8=H;6 <=:6 < ;6= 9;

«;56< >;6<6»+ ;96 @5 = >=>5 <;5 < 99;+ 6 = ;7;5;6956. L ; 9 6=;6 6 =6 >;6% <56+ >6=;H6+ 6596+ 85;;< 6 665

55 86=<6<+ <8=6 5; 98; < @65@65 + 85 = 9+ 6 85

6<6 8=<6 9@56 66@6 ;59=6< =6 <= @ 6=>6. T69@+ 85@6@=9;+ =

<85 <= 9@5 6 6@6== 85 = >6 6 8+ <= >65 85 = :565 =6 >;9;6 =

;= 655:6; = <6 855<6<. A == 6 66<5+ 6<

6;;=;6=9+ 6 =656 66 < ;=;6=9. T< ; 6 6;56H< 6 9 < <

=6 =6 9<6 56<6 < =6 <6<. L >65 6H = = cowboys <

9<6 96 5<. P5 9 6== < ;+ 5=6 = 9; =6 56=<6< <

<6<. L 6+ 85 98=+ 9@5 6=>6+ 85 «;6<» 56H 6=.

N 6@ @5 6 «S6». E= 9; =6 56=<6< <= ;55 6;56=6 = <

85=;656< 5:66< 6 < =6 9 <569+ S6=>6 O; @56

< 5:66< 85 = «J@@=» X= ;56@66<5 <= <6; IY. L :66<5 @

8<H6 5 6@5H:+ =:65 < @=6+ 85 = >6=; =6= <= cowboy =

=6<5 ;5696; 56 <6=;6. C6< ;5 :58 < 9@5 68; <

>6:6@<+ 556@6 85 = ;55 6 6@6== X @5 9=6 > 6655 6 9;5Y+



2

;56;6@6 6 6 9 : 6< + = 8595 6H6 9@5 56

55 =:5 6 85;6> :656 = . N 56 6H 9 6H6 =6 6 =

O. . C556= 6=5<<5. T698 85;H6+ 56 66<5+ 6 =6 5<6 <=:6.

C6< 1*1) :58 95 < ;6= 856 5:6+ = ;55 < Q=6<+

;5 8656 6=<65 =6 R>= < O;@5 8<5 >;+ 655; 6 >65 < ==

<=;6< = 6 @6 < =;56;56 5>=656. P5 =6 6;5<6< 6==65



2

96 :6 =;56;56 @>5>6 < + 6==65 =;56;56 6=:6+ 6=> 868=

>65 ==>6@6 = @===. C;H6 = :; 96% «S = 6:6 8<5 ; @;6+ ¿

= 65 6 ; ;96:?».

E 96% = 9; <= >65 85856 96 8@=<6< < >656. & 6 ;6

= 6 >5 86=. C9 >59+ = E;6< U< ;6 = 6 >5 86=

<= 9; =6=.¿C9 8<5H69 <@55 85 = 9; <= cowboy ;6<< 6 < ;6; 9

8<5 = <9? S= 6@ ;56. N;5 8; < 865;<6 = < + <;5

56 < E586+ = 9; <= cowboy = western+ ;< 9<5 6 >656; ;65<H6

< 6 96: 9 6;:6 6556:6<6% =6 <= S6=>6 O; :56=. L6 >5 9 <6 <

; =6 < F95 C85+ @;> E586 6 88=65<6< 9<6;6 85956

>=6% VH;5 : = <56@6 «= 6=;5 S;;» < E;6< U<. # C85 6 95;. S

= 55< < L6;5;]: X«C6=6 < C5»Y+ ¿66 = 8] := 6@5H6 >;6< =

86< 6 = 96?

L6 96: 5:6= <= S6=>6 O;+ 6 9 ;<5+ ; < =9; < 5;69;%= < 6;56=6 >=6+ 85 =6<+ = < =@5;6< 5;5 6=+ 85 ;5. L6

>=6 = 6966 =6 6;56=6 X9 8< >5+ 6 ; <6 ;6 =65

858Y = 86 < =6 6;6<56 =9;6 6 =6 <8<6+ ;; =6 6 <

E;6< U< 9 <6= 58 56<6= = := !VIII 858 <= !I!+ 56=<6< =

==>6 =6 >=6 6= <= S6=>6 O; = <;5. E= 656< < =6 ==656 8

= 6= <= @6= = <. P @+ :5 =6 96: 586 5:6= <= S6=>6 O;

85;69; 85;6 6 6; :6 6 =6 @<6 =;>6 < =@5;6<+ ; + 6 =6 5;56

<= 6;69;. L 959+ 85 98=+ ;56 =6 ;56 8586=9; 9 96= 6=

9+ E586 X55< 6 S5=] =9Y.E ><; 9 85;6:;6 @=6 < =6 86 <= S6=>6 O; 5:6= +

6=: ;<+ 6<68;6< < =6 «>=6»+ :; @6 5: < ==6 85 ;6 +

: 5+ =6 6 8586= < ;6. B69;+ 7; < ;8% 78=56<5

>;6; @6 6=: 8< 6==65 ;5 =:65 X = =;9 @6+

<56+ <5Y 9@5 + 8569+ 6 ;6@=< 6 9@ =6

6;56=6+ : ;6 7; 596 966 966. N ;56 : = 9< 9<5+

6=> = ;< < > =9; < ;% 85;5 6 < H. E=

98= 9 7;59 < >;:6<5 < >;6 = <= > 6@ :6= + =6 <6<6 <

1)*(+ 858 <;5965 = < mandan 6@=6@6 < >56 :6= + 6+ 56

<<; < 5; 85H8 M6< 6@5H6 <@5; A956 9 6; C=. XA

;6 ;56+ 6 66=6< < 9< 59 GJ ==69+ = <6@6 9 5<; =6

86 = &5 5H6 ==6.Y & E>6 59; =;65 = M8 = M5+ 6==

;5;9; 6==6 :; < 68; @= 5;56; ;< 9 >; 6@=6@6

:6= + 6= 5:565 6 N>6 O5=6+ 6 =6 <6< < >;> 6+ < 95;6=9; 6 =6 @@<6.

E= 9; 5:6= <= O; 6; < =6 8586 A956 56+ 85 = ;6;+ ;8 85 =



2

6 <= O;+ =6 ;8H6 56 =6 < =6 556 <= 85<< «;6< < 6;56=6». L >5<6<5

5 <= O; 56 <+ 66<5 685<5 6 >>5 9 = < < +

= L6;5;]: C:6:] < F. C85. E56 6 ;8H6 =:6. L >65+ 85

<;6<+ 8<H6 6<5 6 ==6 9;56 = O; 56 = <= > N5; X;5 M<

O; < E;6< U<Y. P5 = 6< = >65 6@H6 < 6= = <= 8;=

;6;56= <= O;+ = 6@H6 9 6 9 < =6 :56 <= 65+ ; = 95+ =



2

66<5 < @6=+ = =<6< < =6 6@6==5H6 ;6<<+ = ;5;5 < 55655= ;6;

;5. L ;96 @ <= 9; ;566= <= O; = =;56 @ =6 >=6 < 65= M6+

=6 6 5< ;< = 6>6= < =:6 6=966 << =6 <6<6 < 1'*(+ 6<

8@= 59 ;5=:H6 < *innetou. 6: 556 6 65= M6 85 =6 6 + :

<+ 9+ =6 9 =; < =6 >5 586 <= S6=>6 O;. #+ < 6 <

86+ = 59 7; =6 8=H=6 @5 ; ;>5 = 8595 6 ;6 A=966 X 56=<6<+ :56@65 #:=6>6Y = < 6 = 85<;5 ;6=6

86= =6 <6 < 85<5 966 = «86:;; J;5» 5 =6 5;6 < C=;

E6;J< ;565965 < > =6 96: <= O;.

E= O; < M6 = <@ ;< 6 ; =;5656+ =<6 @56 5:56+ < >6

;=:6+ = 6;5 = 6< @@=;65 < 85 56 6;6;6 < 59

;6=;+ 6 686<6< < 98;56 = ==> 8595 6 =6 <=6+ 6; 6 =6 =;56;56

56;>6. E = 6=+ ;56;6 < =6 6<6< ;5 = 58 =; 8586 685< 6

5;65 = O; 986H6 <= @= 6=>6+ 5;6< 6= 6 8566 <;5 =

8656H =: 686 < 985<5. E= 5 6=9 = :555 686 >5; 596 < 6:5. L6 ;56+ =:69;+ = 8< 66@65 ;56:<6.

;+ @= 7;565<6569; @==+ <@ 955 85 = O; H ; <6< 6

955% 6;6 6H+ 56: = 9; 58 9865; =6 >5 8;55 <= O;

5;6956. P5 ;6 >5 <= 9;+ = 6;; @5@65 < 8= 56+

@=66. 65= M6+ 85 <;6<+ 8 = 8 A956 6;6 9 <8 < 6@5 5;

@5 ==6. N 6 : ;96 6=: = 5=6; < 6>;56 69@; ;56 865; <=

9<+ 86=+ =6 6 =96+ 6 =6 << 95 >=9.

D =6 66=<6< < =6 59 9<6 < ; X= >=9 1 5@ 1'*3Y

< 6 76;69; = <@59; =6 ;5 <= >65 <6=6< < =6=6 <5:; < E;6< U<% = cowboy : = >5 OJ ;5+ F5<5] R9:;

T<5 R>=;. P5 ; < 6 ; 6<6 9. A = 9+ 6@5H6 5=665=

6 69@ = 9856=9+ 85+ 9 ;5 856;6; 58 < ;6= :5+ 65= M6

X+ 8 6 =6 >6:69; 86;6+ 9 6<956< 85 ;=5Y <5;6@6 < =

65 7; + 56 596 < = 8= 56+ <<6 <6@6 85 ;6<6 5;6

855<6< <= 9@5 @=6 + 95 <+ <= 6=9.

S 6 6=: >H= ;5 =6 9<6 <= O; = <;; ;; =6 =;96 <6<6 <=

:= !I!+ = 85856 6 ;<6 5;6 B6= B==+ 8;= <= S6=>6 O;

98 >6 ;566= 1'') + 6==H 85 << 866@6+ 59;6@6 < :=8 = ;5

8@= 85 = >65+ < <9. 65= M6 9 = 585;6; 9 7; <

:5 69=65+ 85<;+ 965H6+ 6 =><6< 6 9+ 9 85 98= =6

>=6 <= 56 G;6> A965<+ ;H;= 9 Les %rappeurs de l@!rkansas.2 L 9

;6 = 8656 @5665 = 9; 58 <= S6=>6 O; <5>6@6 <= ;6<<+ 6

<56 < :56 865; < =6 96 88=65 :=6+ <5>6@6 < = 7; < B56<J6. F

;985 <= 9; ;6<<+ 6; = < F95 C85. E= O; 58



3

;5 6<6< 6;6 858 <= := !!+ 6< = <965 865; 9 =6 @>=6

<= O; < C=65 M=5<+ M67 B56< + @5 ;<+ K6 G5 X1')",1*3*Y+ 6H 9 <=

:5 96;:5 <= western. S8: 98= ;9856 <;:< < ;6

85< <5>6<6 =6 85956 6 @56 >5<6< 955H6 = ;H;= < horse opera 9

55 6 La fanciulla del *est + < P X1*()Y+ @66<6 6 @56 ;6;56= < B=6.



3

¿Q 8<9 <5 @5 =6 ;56< >;6<6 <= >65 ;6<<+ + 9 9

>;+ 95: =6 =;96 <6<6 <= := !I! + = ;98 6= 9+ <56; 56 <

9< :=+ 6: 6@5@ =6 ;56< ;566= 6;>6 5:6= <= O;? O 9 @+ <

=6 ;56< >;6<6+ 8=56=+ 85 ; 865;=65 ;8 =;565 @=;565 <9;5

5 599; 96=6@= =7@=. E @ 6@< 95: 99; 56= < =6

;56 < E;6< U<+ ;6;56=6+ ;< 5+ =6 <6 =6 E78 <C6: < 1'*3+ 6< T55 = ; < 5;56 6; =6 5 6<6 A6 ;56

A9566+ 9;56+ = 7;55+ B6= B== 7@H6 «665 865]» < 6 66 <= O;

6@H6 <6< < >6:65 =@59;+ < 6;56=+ 85 6 ;556.

E= cowboy 6@H6 >5;< 6 ;96 6@;6= < =6 >=6 @656;6 = 9< <

96 88=65 =6 <6<6 < 1')( 1''( 85 9 6 <9;56< L T6=5+

96:+ 6 7=H6 = 5H9+ 56 <:6=. # =6 < 1''(+ 6=: 69@ 5+ =

< ;565 9 6;6=% «8<5+ 8=:5+ 65+ 6=; < 58=+ <><6=;6»3

85 = 9+ 6< 5=66@6 =6 8@=6 6;6<6 =6 <6<. L6 >6 96: =6

565 =6 =6 9<6 5;6=+ ;5 =6 6@<6@6 = 565+ 56 6 96:<69; =;5656 6H = ><6 = =6 98656 < = >65 = 6@6==5

9<>6= < T96 M6=5+ ;69@ =6 88=65<6< <= 5;69; 6 9<<H6 < <

86=6< 6=6< 9 56 <= 6@6==5+ ;69@ = 5: < >65

;8 <= O; 6 56=<6< 58. E= 8;=5 @= =;65+ ==:6 < =6 6<6

866< 9;5 ;56 < H+ 6 = ;6@6 78=;6< = >=;6 5=6< M6 R<. L6 <6 <

« 9@5 <@ 65 = <@5 < 9@5 65» ; 785 >;566 =6

896 6;6 9 69 X 6H Y+ La vengan2a+ < T+ ;6 9 5 R65<

G5>== =6 =;65 ;56 ;<6 6 =;6 86=6.

E = 58;6 6 =6 =6 =;5656+ = cowboy >;6< 56 6 56 <=596;9 ;65<H. P5 = 6;6 6= ;< 6=+ = >65 <986@6 6 <@=

% 585;6@6 = <6= < =6 =@5;6< <><6=;6 + = 55 < =6 5;56 =6

6865 < =6 :56< 5856 985656=+ >H6 986< 6 6 8 < 85

=<@=. C9 < 56<5 < = 65;H= < R9:;+ =;56< 85 = 99 1'*"+

= >65 >6:6@6 85 «<< ;6<< 6 8< <=;65 =6 :56 =@5;6< < =6

696 56+ 6 986< ;6 56 < =6 956==6 < =6 9;66 6966 78565

85; =6 9<6 < 9@5». A= >=>5 =6 956<6 6;5+ = O; 8<H6 ;5 ;

68;+ 9 = 865H6 ;69@ 6= ;9;6=;6 85956 :56 ;5==6 <= <= O;

==69 S. 65;+ 8656 = :66< =6 5;56 956 «:6 ...

8656

86H =6 6

996 < =6 ><6 66= ... 6 686 6 :56+ 8 9+ 85;69; ;< ; 86H

56 5;56. E 6+ 8H5; 8656@= < =6 <6<6H6 ;6<<».4 C9

6596 6;;6;>6+ ; 6@5<+ 85 H 8 985;66 9@=6. # =6 ;56<

>;6<6 <= O; <= ;< 9@=6+ 8; :56=6 =6 7856 < = +



3

98656;>69;+ 56 = 86< < 965:6=. A < ;6+ ¿6 = 985;6 =

;;6= < 95; ;5;+ ;6< ;< = 85H< < 1')( 6 1''"+ =6 96 < =6 8586=

<6< :66<56 ; + ;6 9 A@= 9 D<: C; 9 E==J5;+ 56 < =

65;6 X6 9<6 < 1+" 6<6 ;9856<6 < 95 :66<5Y?" ¿Q 985;6

= 85< =6= <= O; 6@<656 =6 ;56 @5 8=6 < @65+ = 65;H=

@5 85;<6< < : >6=5 9@=65?



3

A56 @+ = >65 ;69@ 585;6@6 <6= 9 8=:5% =6 <6 < =6 596

6;>6 <= ASP ;6<< ;56 =6 >6 < 9== < 9:56; < 566 55.

P5 < 65+ 6==6<69;+ 6 = ;:56; 976+ < :5 6 6865

= westerns 5:6=+ <=: 85 98=+ = 8;= < B6= B==. E ;

;6<+ < ;6 596+ = >65 >5; 65 6=; <:65@6<. E ;56 86=6@56+ =6

;56< >;6<6 <= cowboy 596 865; <= 6 ;6; < =6 :5:6 9 <= 569;565 6 = 9:56; ;6 6 56 8=:56. E= >65 65+ 85 <;6<+

<= ;< 9H;. E 85@6@= = 85;6 < 976+ < :5 <956 < >5<6<

6 9<<6 = S6=>6 O; <6@6 < 5 9 6=9; 5<;6= =

;76 + = 99; < 965 6:+ 7;<H6 6 6 9 M;66+ 9: =6 <

D6];6. E = 85H< 8;55 < =6 78= :66<56+ 6 = cowboys 95

8 <56@= < >65 58+ 965H6 :=+ 6 = :5 >

>5;65 < 5: 5;6=. «C6@ 65965 :5<6< > <96 865; < =

<<6 6= : :66<5 = =6 O; 6@6==5.»$ D 86+ 6 <5 6H

68; < =6 56=<6< < =6 9H6 <= :66<+ ;56 9 =6 ;56< >;6<6 <=cowboy + 6 6;<6< 985;6; < =6 >5 < =6 G56 B5;66 >;566 5 6

86565 6 = 56 <= O; < E;6< U<.

E= >65 65+ 858+ 5>;H6 86= 6;56;> 8656 = 58+ 8 6 =

westerns 6<55 6 59 88=65<6<. D + 95 985;6; < ;6 8=H=6

5< E586. L 58 6 ;56@6 85 = <+ = 85 = >65

6=: 55< = 6=96 85<5 6 >5 96;:56 < l ,ltimo mohicano

6; < 1*14 X585<;9;+ = 868= <= 5 < = ;585;6@6 B=6 L:Y.

L6 >6 ;56< <= cowboy 6@5 86 85 = 6 9< 6 ;56> < < >H6% =6

8=H=6 <= O; :5 ;6 @;96< 9 = < =6 >=6 X @>=6Y <= O;+ + 8656 9 7;565+ = =6 ;5:6 < <;;> 6 ;596< < ;5 <H6.

S5: =6 > <= > O;. N <5 6<6 6= 58;+ 9 6== < ;65 = 98= <=

9=;6; <= <6; 95 @5;+ 9;<;6 6== 1*3( < ;56 < H 6

9H96 6;<6< < <5+ 85 6 :56 = < =6 >=6 < K6 G5. D:69 < 86

Los jinetes de la pradera roja+ < G5+) < 5: 6 6;5 8=H=6 ;5 1*1' 1*41. E

6; 6= + 6@ = :5 <= western 6 ;6@6 6;6< 596 66 1*(*. C9 =

8;= 8656 8@= < 966 = + 585<5 6 6< 6= <5 = >65 <=

==< ;< 6 <655==65 < @8% 85 =6<+ = 9@5 < 6 =+ ;H9<+

5; 59; 98=6 . S. 65;+ G65 C85 & 6 85 ;5+ = >65 <

;5;9;+ 6 = B6= B==+ + <65 < 5 5+ = 6= <<6 6 7@5

6@=<6< + 9 ;6=+ = 665 6 6@6== 865;=65. T9 M7+ <<6+ =

85;;8 + 9+ = 9 7; < ==. D9 @5>65 6 > 9+ < 86+ =6

=6 =;5656 @5 = western 69@ 9 9<= 5;6< 6= 585;6@6

; G@ 6==6+ 6 ;<6 =+ =6 5;56 ;9;6= <= := !I!. E; @6;6;

@> La caravana de ;reg1n X%he (overed *agonY+ < 1*23+ =6 85956 @56 86 < ==J<



3

56 < G5;+ 5=;6 9 ><; La diligencia X8tagecoachY+ @66+ 85

<;6<+ Bola de sebo+ < M6866;.'

P5 5 55= ;5 59 9 @5 = <655== <= <= O;+ 56

;5665+ 6 56 @5>9;+ =6 ;56596 <= western 6 8 < 86 66= X

5:+ = 56Y. L westerns+ 9 @>+ ;;65 5 6 D. . G5;+ 85 6@

<<6 < 6 La caravana de ;reg1n =6 ;56; 9 6=: 9 98= ;5;9;% =6



3

>;:6 85>6+ 85 98=+ 9 96. # =6 <6<6 < 1*3(+ 6< = 58

;565 85 ;96 <= O; = ;585;65 8H5; 6;68;6=;6+ 9

;ro en el =acífico X8utter@s &old Y+ ==J< 56 8<< 6= 6;5 < La caravana de ;reg1n

56 6 >5 9 86;5;6 <= 99 ;96+ ;56<6 1*3$.

L 5+ =:65+ 6;565 =6 6; 56 6 < =6 = < ; 68H;=

@5 5% =6 5> < =6 ;56< <= >65 ;5 ;98+ 6;9; 6;6< < = E;6< U< < R6:6. E; + >5<6<+ 9 5;. P5 98=+ =

>65 >5;5 6;5 < >;6 <;66< 6;6 =6 <6<6 < 1*$(+ 85

585<; 8<6 8655% = «86H < M65=@5» 5>= 56=9; = 59 8;6= <

<;6 < = >65 ;6<< = >65+ 6 + 85 <;6<+ = >

6<6 > 9 9 6555 < :66<+ 9 8;=5. ¿Q < 6== <% «S985

6;6< =;65+ 9 = >65 ... = >65 ;56 = 8@= =6 <6< =;65+

@5 6@6== ... = 6;6+ ;<»? P @+ = < 5 :5 6 O566 F6==6

1*)2.* ¿P<9 96:65 6 + 6; < =6 <6<6 < 1*)(+ = <5@6 =6 856

<5: 9 6=: «:H6 :66<»? D9 ;65 =6 reductio ad absurdum < ; 9;+ 59;6 6 1*)*%

E= O;. N = <=:6 ;86 < 65;96. E 6 96: < 9@5 56= 5:==. D =6 =@5;6<

<8<6 ;< 569 ;5. A56 R6=8 L65 6 7856< ;< ; C68+ >6 =6 8656 9@5.

C68 6 =6 9@5 8< 85 ;6;6 6;56=<6< 9 6 6;6 < 5:6;6< 86;6=

>65. C68. E = O;. E= O; ; :;65H6 ;5 <;5 < ;.1(

L6 6;;6 ;56< >;6<6 <= O;+ 9 9 < 966 <96 =6 8=H;6 <

E;6< U<+ 85<; < =6 56 < <+ &+ N7 R6:6. D< =:+ R6:6+

= 8595 85<; + << T<< R>=;+ =;> 6 96: < cowboy 6 6@6==+ 6@H6 =

;6@6 6<. ¿6;6 8; = >65 56:6;6 5=6 =6 56 ;6<<

6 >56< 6= 5;? E 6 ; <@ <65 : ;5.

E; 9; 56:6;6 <= O; ¿ 66 6 ;56< ;566=? E;< . E 8595

=:65+ 85 = 8586= < = 9< < 8586:6 ;6<< <= O; >;6< 6

7;:<. L6 >=6 @>=6 <= O;+ : 68;6< 6;+ 6 <6< < 5 = 9

;566= 585;6@6 = <H6 < K6 G5. L <;;> 6 96;6< 6= >5:6.

A;5 9 L655 MM5;5 9=65+ 6 6= 6 =:65 =6 =;56;56 ;6<<+

85;69; << 56 < 86H 6;6=. E 6; 6 = westerns 96;:5+ =

96; =6 ;=> =6 5 <= O;+ 85@6@=9; 5 = =;9 ;5 >5<6<

;566= 6 :56 6=6 <= O; >;6<+ 8665 6 5 95 6<; <= 565 6;=

+ = ;98+ ;69@ 6 <>6<. ¿D< ; = 86=: C6<+ L R6:5+

R R:5+ L6569+ G9] = 5; < 856 ;6; 96@6 6 = 6>6= < =6

<6<6 < 1*"(? E 6 <6<6+ = 56= <= O; ;5 <=@56<69; ;=;6=+ 6



3

65556 < :6 8=H;6+ 956= 6=+ 6;6 6 > ;69@ < @6 858

8 = < =6 <6< < 56=6<5 ;5==6% F5<+ 6+ C85. N = ; 5;6<+

6; 6= ;565. P5;69; ;< = westerns 6=56 < ;5 55H6 >=>5 6 >5

8;55 6 La diligencia X ;5 1*3*Y. P5 = ==> = O; 6 = 56

:65 < = ;; 5 =6 8=H=6 6856@6 6 :665 = O65 = 68=6

< = 5H;.



3

L 9% 6 > = =;9 <= O; < ;6< 85 = 56:69 85

=6 <=:H6 < & 6 ;5 ;6 858 < E;6< U< = 5; <= 9< =

985< + = + = :;. E G56 B5;66+ 6= 9+ = ;59 «J@» ;

;< <5>6< 9 9 6@;6= = ;< 85965 <= ;8 < = 6 < M65=@5.

S 55+ 6; ;<+ 6 ;H 6= < =6 6<6 8656 55 5>+ 9 85 98= =6

58656 < ;6<+ 85 56=<6< 6@ <= ; 9 ;5 <8=965;%> 6 5 9 «856;6» < =6 ;65H6 =6 ;5. D 6= =;5 ;5% aY 9

6 8<< <5>65 ; :< ;< 6 865;5 <= ;5;8 < «S6» & 6+ X@Y

; 5=6 =6 56=<6< < ==>6 9@55 S;; = «;5 <= =» 596

= ;6< <= 5 5; < E;6< U<. N < 6865 ; 85 85956 >

G56 B5;66+ 85 << =:+ 6; < 9<6< < =6 <6<6 < 1*$(. E ; + = <@5

< 9@5 <6 <8=965 <68655 = 58=.

D + E586 85< 6 56 ;56 =6 96: <= O; 8586 < &

6+ < 6H = 565 58 < = westerns. F56 6= 56 = ;< < = spaghetti

westerns+ < = 6@ <<6 < 5;6@6 @59656 = 9; <= O; : 5=6@6 E;6< U<+ ==+ 8656<69;+ <9;56@6 6;6 8; :H6 7;<+ ;5

= 6<=; ;6; < E586 9 < E;6< U<+ =6 <96<6 < = > 8;=5. E= <=

O; 5>> 85 >H6 < S5: L + 5+ 56J6+ <5+ 85 >H6 < ;=;6=

;6<< H6 9 @ =6 ;56< =6 8=H=6 <= O;+ 85 56 8;

58; 6 =6 ;56< >;6<6 E;6< U<.

E :< =:65+ = 7;565+ 98=9;+ 5 =6 66 <= 9; <=

O; =6 <56 ;6<< + 9 6+ = ;6<< < =6 6==. T< = 9< ==>6

86;6= >65+ 85 = 98= 8; X6 ;Y 9> 6 9 >

;6<< 6+ 6<6 9 >;H5=+ <665 = 8 @5 8; < 6;65 6@6==5H6 = ;5556< 6= =. F56 < E;6< U<+ 56 = 6856 6 =6 56 ;

;;6 6=:6 < 7@5 9@55 < ;= ;76. P< >5 l cowboy de medianoche+ <

& S=:5+ ;9; < 8566. E 96% = = ;6<< >> =

«86H < M65=@5». G65 C85 6 6 @596+ 85 H = &. R. ;5 6@;6;

686< 8=6; <= :56 56 5<6= < =6 ;=5 9allas. E ; ;<+ = O; 6

<6< < 5 6 ;56< ;566=.

P5 ;5 ;98+ H = 56. # 6= 6= < ;6 @5> 5=7+ 5 >=>5 @5 =6

85:;6% ¿85 ? ¿Q ;H6 = >65 ;6<<+ = 56 ;6 86=? E

8595 =:65+ 6 ;<6 =+ >>5 86H < >@=<6< >56= 6 8

;56= = 9< <= := !I!+ << 585;6@6+ 85 6H <5+ =6 <9 ;86 6= 9+

= 85H< 6;55 6 1*1)+ 56 6= ; ;8H6% = >>. C6=5 6

<56 E;6< U< 865H6 965+ 9 7;596+ 9 <569;6 =9;6<6+ ;6; = 56

9 85 <;6<+ 6 9< = 56+ 85 = 6 < = cowboys. E :< =:65+

85 =6 9<6 8569; =6= <= 9; <= O; 698= ;566= 6 ;56> < =6

=6 9<6= < =6 =;56 88=65 ;6<<+ =6 9 5:6= 56;>6 <= 9< 5@6



3

<;56=+ 6H 9 6 ;56> < = 9< < 96 =6 ;569;H6 E;6<

U< <96@6. # <9 @5>65+ < 86+ 6@5 69 85 = 9< =

<5;69;+ ;69@ < 596 <5;6+ ;6; 85 9<6 < = ;=;6= 58

6;56 6 E;6< U< 9 = 6;56H6 << =6 <;66.



3

E;+ <<6+ 78=65H6 85 = cowboys 9 < = >65 < M7

= :6 < A5:;6 85 + : 5+ ;< = 8;5 < >@56 ;566=

<85;6@6 X =H6 <85;65Y. E;+ :5+ <@ 6= 6659 5; 6= 68;6=9

;6<<. N 9 55 = 6= 6659 <= 956<+ 6= <6= < <><

;5=6< 85 :6 5;5 98;6 85 =6 6;5<6< ;6;6=. E 9 ;<+ E;6<

U<+ = := !I!+ 56 6 <6< E;6<. C985 = 9; <= O; < E;6<U< C66<. E= 8595 9; < ;6< < 6;56=6 @@6+ = 9;:6

85 9< < =6 8586 6<6+ <><6= =;>6% 8;=5 X =6 ==6Y+ 865;<6 <

;5 + 6+ 65:6 < 6@6==5H6. E= ;5 = 9; < =6 98 <= :@5 =

5< 8@=+ : = 9@=6 = 59 < =6 >5 66< <= 5 6 6@6==% =6

R6= P=H6 M;6<6 <= C66<.

E= 6659 <><6=;6 ;H6 < 656. P656 = 5 8<5+ 585;6 =6

855<6< <= @ @5 = <5 = E;6<. N = 85 6 =6 = = E;6< =

8< 98565+ 85+ = 6< 8@=+ 65 < =:;9<6< 956=

98656 = :H9 = @. P656 = <8 < 56 < 8<5+585;6 =6 <8<6 = <5 <= 9@5 8 6 @;5 58; 9;565 <

686. N 5 56 6 66=<6< = 5 ;H8,<6= < = cowboys+ = O;

>;6< =+ 56 solitario <@H6 6<6 6 6< ;698 56 66=+ : 5+

8656 = = <5 no ;>56 985;66. E 86=6@56 < T9 M7% «E;5 =:65 6 6@6==+

9 858;65 < 9 8586 9;56+ 9 ==6 9 @5<6. N 9 8=6+ 85 9 9;

85@=96 6= 65 = <@ 8656 6=: ;5. C6< ;< ; 5=;+ 6 @;: :6

5986 < <5».11 N < 66=65 6H = westerns 9 5;+ =6 68;

<= <>< =;65+ < =6 @6<6 < 96. S6 6= 6 :6< 6@5H6

7=5 = 98; 976=+ 8 6 ;56596 <= :5.E 5; ;<+ = =;65 85; 6 =6 <;6 96:656 856=

8569; 85 56 =;65. P656 5 G65 C85 6 9<<H6+ S69 S86<+ @6;6

96:65 9@5 9;56 8656 5 D C5= R T6;;6:=6+ 85 6@=65

< ;=5+ 85 96:65 =;> < 856 ; : @<+ = 9

8=6@=. S:5 8 >65+ 8569; 85 56 9; < 6 <6<

=;56<><6=;6 =6 6 <6< < =6 56 @5:6 6;;6 56H 85@5:6+

8H6 ;59; < 6 66 ;6<6+ 6 =6 56 < 65 ; 698+ = < = +

= 5 = 979 6 = =6 965H6 < ;5 ==:6+ = 58;6 6 =6 85;<6<

=9;6<6. C6@6=:65 =;65 9 985@6@= 8565 6 ;56 9=6 6:6

56=<6< @6; < 9656=.



3

FECAS # FUENTES DE PUBLICACIÓN ORIGINAL

1. M6;T7; 85;6< 5:6=9; 9 ;5@ 6 6 «M656; < 96;» 5:66<6

85 6 U=5 O@5; =6 G6=5H6 S58;+ < L<5+ 2(('.

2. ¿A<< >6 =6 65;?

C56 856<6 = 965 < = «D=:» <= F;>6= < S6=@5:+ 1**$+

;56<<6 <= 6=9 6= := 85 C5; S;;=J5;.

3. ¿U := < 9@ =;56=?

C56 856<6 = F;>6= < M6 < S6=@5:+ 2(((+ ;56<<6 <= 6=96= := 85 C5; S;;=J5;.

4. ¿P5 =@565 ;>6= = := !!I?

C56 856<6 = 965 <= F;>6= < M6 < S6=@5:+ 2(($+ ;56<<6

<= 6=9 6= := 85 C5; S;;=J5;.

". P=H;6 =;56 = > :=

T7; 856< 5:6=9; 9 «C56 » = F;>6= < A=<@5:+

2((2.

$. I=;56 =:5% =6 9686 <= ;6=; <H << 1'((

TH;= 5:6= < =6 56 856<6 = 1( < 96 < 2(("+ = 6:9

6>565 <= I;;; L B6]. S 8@= 85 > 85956 9 «B; D6856»

X«V;66 < =6 D856»Y =6 London Review of Books X>=. 2)+ .m 2(+ 2( < ;@5 < 2(("Y.

). L <H A=966

T7; 5; 9 56 < P;5 P=5+ +ews and the &erman 8tateE %he =olitical 'istory of a

$inority3 IOHO"IJPP XO75<% B=6]J==+ 1**2Y R; G6+ %he +ews of &ermanyE ! 'istorical =ortrait XNJ 6> L<5% #6= U>5; P5+ 1**2Y+ 8@=6< =6 London Review of

Books X>=. 1"+ .m )+ ' < 6@5= < 1**3Y @6 = ;H;= < «9]».

'. D; < =6$itteleuropa

P@=6< 5:6=9; (;$=!R!RE (omparative uropean 'istory Review + A6;

;56;6= < 9 <^;5+ P65H+ 2((3.



3

*. C=;56 «:5» =6 <6< @5:6 586+ 1')(,1*14

P@=6< 5:6=9; D6>< O= M6= C= X<.Y+ %echnology3 Literacy and the

volution of 8ocietyE #mplications of the *ork of +ack &oody XL6J5 E5=@69 A6;+ 2(($Y.

1(. !rt nouv



3

P5956 8@=6. E 5:+ 85 9 56 = V;56 6< A=@5;

M9+ = 2" < < 2(((.

11.Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad

T7; <; :=+ ;56<< <= 6=9 85 C5; S;;=J5;.

12. P6;59

A5;H= <; 6;6 =6 85; <+ 5; 2(11,2(12.

13. I;< 85 = ;5

P@=6< 5:6=9; = ;H;= < «C X5 C5Y» =6 London Review of Books X>=. 31+

.m 1"+ $ < 6:; < 2((*Y+ 9 56 < =6 @56 < R65< O>5 %he $orbid !geE Britain

Between the *ars XL<5% A== L6+ 2((*Y.

14. C6% 6= 69@ 9<6=

P@=6< 5:6=9; = ;H;= < «R< S» =6 London Review of Books X>=. 2'+

.m "+ * < 965 < 2(($Y+ 9 56 <= ;< < A<5J B5J +? 9? Bernal3 %he 8age of

8cience XO75< U>5; P5+ 2(("Y.

1". U 96<65H :55 5:% &8 N<69

P@=6< 5:6=9; = ;H;= < «E56 <5» =6 London Review of Books X>=.

31+ .m 4+ 2$ < @55 < 2((*Y+ 9 56 <= =@5 < S9 ;5 Bomb3 Book and

(ompassE +oseph Aeedham and the &reat 8ecrets of (hina XV]:+ 2(('Y.

1$. L ;=;6=% 868=+ 8656<6T7; @66< 6 ;5@ 8656 I= F5 I:@5: S59 X<.Y+ 9er

#ntellektuelleE 0estschrift f7r $ichael 0ischer 2um Q? &eburtstag XP;5 L6:+ 2(1(Y+ <;

:= 6;6 =6 6 ;56<< <= 6=9 85 = 6;5.

1). P58;>6 < =6 5=: 8@=6

I<; 6;6 =6 6.

1'. A5; 5>=

P@=6< 5:6=9; = ;H;= < «C6:: ; A>6;,G65<» R! $aga2ine+ R6=A6<9 A5;+ .m *)+ >5 < 2(().

1*. A5; 8<5

P@=6< 5:6=9; 9 856 6 D6J A<+ D6>< E==;;+ T9 B; I6 B<

; X<.Y+ !rt and =owerE urope under the 9ictators3 IJPK"IJH XL<5% T69 6< <+

1**"Y.



3

2(. D6<6 566 < =6 >6>65<6 <= := !!

P@=6< 5:6=9; Behind the timesE %he 9ecline and 0all of the %wentieth (entury

!vant"&ardes XL<5% T69 6< <+ 1**'Y+ n 1**' E5 @@6J9. S 585< =6

;56< 6;==66 < G6= P;+ ! la 2agaE decadencia y fracaso de las vanguardias del

siglo MM + B65=6% C5H;6+ 1***.



3

21. /P80 E= ;6==< <= 65;;6 < ;56 =;56

P@=6< 5:6=9; 9 «P8 G ; A5;;»+ %imes Literary 8upplement + .m 32))+ 1)

< <9@5 < 1*$4.

22. E= «>65» < E;6< U<% ¿ 9; ;566=?

T7; <; 6;6 =6 6+ @66< 6 56.



3

NOTAS

1. V6 &6,P55 V56;+ La volonté de comprendre XL6 T5 <^A:% <; < = A@+ 1***Y+ 88. 3)

3'.



3

2. I6 B596+ «T@; D6;<» XAew York Review of Books+ = < 2(((Y+ 8. 24.



3

3. L6 7856 @5;6 = &: O=H98 < 2(12 5565H6 6 9 ;6 <56.



3

1. &6@ 6;+ ;ut of the &hettoE the social background of +ewish emancipation IK"IOK XC69@5<:+ 6.% 65>65< U>5;P5+ 1*)3Y+ 8. 2$.



3

2. 6;+ ;ut of the &hetto+ 8. 34.



3

3. S9 D@J+ 9ie neueste &eschichte des j7dischen -olkes+ >=. I! XB5=H% &W<5 V5=6:+ 1*2*Y+ 88. 23 .



3

4. D@J+ 9ie neueste &eschichte des j7dischen -olkes+ >=. VIII XB5=H% &W<5 V5=6:+ 1*3(Y+ 8. 4(2 >. I!+ 88. 1)( .



3

". S;86 T5;59 X<.Y+ 'arvard ncyclopaedia of !merican thnic &roups art XC69@5<:+ M6.% =]68 P5+ 1*'(Y+ =96«&J»+ 8. ")3.



3

$. D@J+ Aeueste &eschichte+ >=. VIII+ 88. 2$3,2$4.



3

). P;5 P]5+ «6; 6@; ; &J ,;==;6= G596?»+ S. F5 X<.Y+ Braun Lectures ithe 'istory of the +ews in =russia XR696; G6% B65,I=6 U>5; P5+ 2((1Y+ .m )+ 8. 1(.



3

'. O]65 A== ;6< 6 F;6 ;ssiet2ky? weiwochenschrift 24 XO=<@5:+ 2((4Y.



3

*. 65= E9= F56+ -om 9on 2ur 9onau XB5=H% RW;; \ L:+ 1*)(Y+ 88. 3'3,3*".



3

1(. D@J+ Aeueste &eschichte+ >=. VIII+ 8. 4(".



3

11. A5;5 S;=5+ &esammelte *erkeE r26hlende 8chriften Band ### XB5=H+ 1*1'Y+ 8. '2. _6 < >5 6;==66% (amino a campo abierto+ ;56< < P6=6 S < M6+ S>==6% E= O=> A=+ 2(() n busca dhori2ontes+ ;56< <M:= [:= V:6+ M6<5<% C;<56+ 2((*.



3

12. S=69; V=]>+ «T <69 <9=6;% O;< 6< G596 &J»+ &. R65 . S;@5: X<.Y+ %he +ewish Response to &erman (ulture from the nlightenment to the 8econd *orld *ar X6>5 _N. 698. L<5+ U>5; P5 NJ E:=6<+ 1*'"Y. P656 @ 98= X=6 5=6 ;5 = 9:56< 6=96 ==J<+ >6 M6= 6;5+ «D>5;5@ M»+ . L96 O. G. O7= X<.Y+ Aationalso2ialismus in den <ulturwissen

chaften+ >=. 2 XG;:6%V6<] \ R85;+ 2((4Y+ 88. "(","($.



3

13. G56=< S;5+ «G6=; < &< 6= N6;6=;f; A=;;55?»+ 8tudia +udaica !ustriaca ! XE;6<;+ 1*'4Y+ 88. '3,'"+8. '4. V6 ;69@ =6 ;6 2*+ 8. *4.



3

14. #5 S=]+ %he +ewish (entury XP5;% P5; U>5; P5+ 2((4Y.



3

1". U6 =;6 < 3(( ;6<< 9;+ 5<6;6<6 1*"3 XR65< B. M55+ ncyclopaedia !merican 'istory + N>6#5]% 6585Y = 6 < <H X4 85 1((Y+ 85 ;< ==+ 6=> ;5 X9656< 6;5 85; 6 =6 9:566;55 6 =6 <6<6 < 1''(. S ;56;6 < 6;5 ;H XB6+ C+ M=+ R6@Y+ < 5; XB56<+ C65<Y+ <

<;5 < 856 XO+ P=;5Y+ «<6<5» XF=75Y+ <6=;6 XG985Y+ 96:6; < : XG::9Y 98;5 XG5JY. U6 =;6 < ;6 =6+ ;6 6 <8+ ¿6@5H6 9;< 6 ;< = <H < =6 =;6 < 8=H;+65+ 5;5 65;;6?



3

1$. (f . D5. A. >. G;;5+ &ali2ien3 Land und Leute XM L8:% G. MW==5+ 1*1$Y+ 8. *3% «< W< I;==: ; >==: 9P=;9 6::6:+ ; > <5 8= G==6; 6:99 J5< < :5; ; 9 :5 T= < :6;;M;:=<5 <5=@».



3

1). C556< V>6; X<.Y+ inaudi 8toria d@#talia3 !nnali II3 &li ebrei in #talia XT5H% G56< O85+ 1**Y+ >=. II+ 88. 11*(+ 1$2".



3

1'. D6= SJ96+ %he 'itler émigrésE %he (ultural #mpact on Britain of Refugees from Aa2ism XL<5 P9=+ 2((2Y+ 8. 32$.



3

1*. G5< 5;+ &W5: ]6 G565< A. R;;5+ 8o2ialgeschichtliches !rbeitsbuchE $aterialien 2u8tatistik des <aiserreichs IOK"IJIH XM% B] 1*)"Y+ 8 1$4. 6,U=5 =5+ 9eutsche 8o2ialgeschichte3 Band P3 IOHJ"IJIH XM% B]+ 1**"Y+ 8.41* .



3

2(. =5+9eutsche 8o2ialgeschichte+ 8. $1".



3

21. A; < 99;+ = 6@H6 ; H6 H96+ 5; 6 = ;5 2" 3( < = ;5;6 6 :;.



3

22. L6 <596 <6;>6 Xnumerus claususY 6@6< =6 85;6 ;56 =6 5>= < 1*(" 85 = 6;+ = 13+4 851(( < = ;<6; < =6 U>5<6< < > = 14+" 85 1(( < =6 < O<6+ 56 <H. G. L. S;=6+ #storiya 888R+ 1*)*+"+ 8. 114.



3

1. & C. B65;=9J+ %he dinburgh *orld !tlas XE<9@5:% &. B65;=9J+ 1*)(+ ).o <Y.



3

2. I>6 T. B5< G5: R]+ conomic 9evelopment in ast (entral urope in the IJth and GKt

(enturies XN>6 #5]%C=9@6 U>5; P5+ 1*)4Y.



3

3. A;56+ :5H6+ =6 R8@=6 C6+ E=>66+ P=6+ U566+ R96H6+ I;6=6+ E=>6+ C566+ B6 S5@6.



3

4. P5 F56 & 56@6 9 9856<5 =6 865; 6;5H66 < <9+ 85 9 5 =6:656.



3

". 65= E9= F56+ !us 'alb"!sien? (ulturbilder aus &ali2ien3 der Bukowina3 87drussland und Rum6nien>=. 1 XL8:+ 1')$Y.



3

$. G5:5 > R5+ $aghrebinische &eschichten X69@5:% RJ=;+ 1*"3Y in 'ermlin in %schernopol? in maghrebinischer Roman X69@5:% RJ=;+ 1*"'Y. _6 ;56< 6= 86=% l rey sin trabajo? 'torias de $agrebinia+ ;56<.& A; A=96+ B65=6% PH=6+ 1*'* :n armiNo en (hernopol + ;56<. C659 C6;656+ B656% A6:5696+ 1**3.



3

). V6 G56=< S;5+ «G6=; < &< 6= N6;6=;f; A=;;55?»+ 8tudia +udaica !ustriac! XE;6<;+ 1*'4Y+ 88.)4,)*.



3

'. C65= E. S5]+ 0in"de"8i4cle -iennaE =olitics and (ulture XL<5% V;6: P5+ 1*'(Y+ 8. 31. _6 ;56< 86=6 <=56%-iena fin de si4cleE política y cultura+ ;56<. I5 M<+ B65=6% G;6> G=+ 1*'1.



3

1. E ; 68H;=+ =6 86=6@56 «=;56» 98=6 = ;< = <6@6 6@;6=9; = < @5: <= := !I!% =58 < = =:5 @;< =6 >656 65; 56;>6+ <56@6 ;H6 >6=5 ;; 956= X<;; <= 98=«;5;9;»Y+ 9 >6=56 6<6<6 = 58 < 9; 65 8656 6 >6=56 <6<6.



3

2. &6: P65]+ «9 ;5 ;9% T :5J: 5:; ; < 7 V;56 6< E<J656 E:=6<»+ +ournal of 8ocial 'istory + 21 X8;9@5 < 1*')Y+ 88. 4*,$).



3

3. P65]+ «9 ;5 ;9».



3

4. E<9 C655+L@évolution intellectuelle féminine XP65H% A. M=]+ 1*3)Y.



3

". A S65+ Rosalind 0ranklin and 9A! XN>6 #5]% N5;+ 1*)"Y.



3

$. M65;6 V+ #ndependent *omenE *ork and community for single women3 IOK"IJGK XL<5% U>5; C6: P5+1*'$Y.



3

). D6>< M65+ %he (hanging 8ocial 8tructure of ngland and *ales3 IOI"IJQI XL<5% R;=<: \ :6 P6=+ 1*$"Y.



3

'. &6: P65]+ «T B5; 56: 65>; 1*13% A 66=»+ =ast and =resent + 12( X6:; < 1''Y+ 88. 14),1$3.



3

*. L6 95 ;5< 6 ;6 <6< 5;6 ;6 8@=;6<6 8< 6==65 P6= L>+ $oreE &? ? $oore and the (ambridge apostles XT5;% O75< U>5; P5+ 1*'1Y R@5; S]<=]+ +ohn $aynard <eysE 'opes betrayed IOOP" IJGK+ >=. 1 XL<5% M69==6+ 1*'3Y. _R@5; S]<=]% +ohn $aynard <eynes3 I? speran2as frustraas3 IOOP"IJGK+ ;56<. &6C65= K686;5+ M6<5<% A=66 E<;56=+ 1*'$.



3

1(. T<5 K=<+ 0rance IOHO"IJ + >=. I XO75<% O75< U>5; P5+ 1*))Y.



3

11. %he nglishwoman@s 'andbook + 1*(".



3

12. S]<=]+ +ohn $aynard <eynes.



3

13. N596 M6 &6 M6 X<.Y+ %he 9iaries of Beatrice *ebb XL<5% V56:+ 1*'3Y.



3

14. E= 85H< < 1*((,1*14 + 85@6@=9;+ = =6 ;56 < =6 =;56;56 :=6 = + < 1'((+ =6 =;6 < =:56< >=;6 <:69+ T96 65<+ &8 C56<+ . G. ==+ A5=< B;;+ R<65< 8=:+ E. M. F5;5 G5:G: 6=;6 6 =6 >;6 :6 95.



3

1. R965 ==+ «dG5:+ 6< 6 J @; >=:65e% F59 &esamtkunstwerk ; d=;=e% ; 96= <65: A5; N>6»X%imes Literary 8upplement + " < 96 < 2(((Y+ 8. 1'.



3

2. E5 @@6J9+ *orkersE *orlds of Labour XN>6 #5]% P6;+ 1*'"Y+ 8. 13$. _%rabajadoresE estuios de historia de la clase obrera+ ;56<. R65< P;65+ B65=6% C5H;6+ 1*)*.



3

3. S;8 E5;;+ !rt Aouveau XL<5% P6<+ 2(((Y+ 8. )).



3

4. C65= E. S5]+ 0in"de"8i4cle -iennaE =olitics and (ulture XL<5% V;6: P5+ 1*'(Y+ 8. 3(4. _6;56< 86=6 <=56%-iena fin de si4cleE política y cultura+ ;56<. I5 M<+ B65=6% G;6> G=+ 1*'1.



3

". D@56 L. S=>596+ !rt Aouveau in 0in"de"8i4cle 0rance XB5]=% U>5; C6=56 P5+ 1*'Y+ 88. 13',13*.



3

$. E5 @@6J9+ !ge of mpire XL<5% <=< \ N=+ 1*')Y+ 8. 1$". _%rilogía 'obsbawm? La era de la revoluci1n IOJ"IOHO3 La era del capital IOHO"IO3 La era del imperio IO"IJIH+ B65=6% C5H;6+ 2(12.



3

). E5;;+ !rt Aouveau+ 8. )(.



3

'. E5;;+ !rt Aouveau+ 8. )2.



3

*. S=>596+ !rt Aouveau in 0in"de"8i4cle 0rance+ 8. 1'*.



3

1(. @@6J9+ !ge of mpire+ 8. 1$*.



3

11. E5;;+ !rt Aouveau+ 8. 32*.



3

12. «L6 B65=6 <= 1*((»+ L@!venS X;@5 < 1*)'Y+ 8. 22.



3

13. «L6 B65=6 <= 1*((»+ 8. 3$.



3

1. R65< O>5+ %he $orbid !geE Britain Between the *ars XL<5% A== L6+ 2((*Y+ 8. 3)$.



3

2. O>5+ %he $orbid !ge+ 8. *2.



3

1. A<5J B5J+ +? 9? BernalE %he 8age of 8cience XO75<% O75< U>5; P5+ 2(($Y.



3

2. F5< S;J65<+ «P=;6= F596;»+ B5<6 SJ6 F56 A856696+ +? 9? BernalE ! Life in 8ciece and =olitics XL<5%V5+ 1***Y.



3

3. V6 = 856 < ; 6;5 6 SJ6 A856696+ +? 9? BernalE ! Life+ 8. !V,!VIII.



3

4. B5J+ +? 9? BernalE %he 8age+ 8. 1*.



3

". &. D. B56=+ %he 8ocial 0unction of 8cience XM66;;% MIT P5+ 1*$)Y.



3

$. &. D. B56=+ 8cience in 'istory XM66;;% MIT P5+ 1*)1Y. _'istoria social de la ciencia+ ;<. &6 R69 C68==6+B65=6% PH=6+ 1*$)+ 2 >=.



3

). G5: F5<96+La crise du progr4sE esquisse d@histoire des idées3 IOJ"IJP XP65H% G6==965<+ 1*3$ _La crisis del progresoE esbo2o de la historia de las ideas TIOJ"IJPU+ ;56<. M65 G6=965+ B65=6% L66+ 1*)).



3

'. #569 G5=] O=: =@]+ (old =eaceE 8talin and the 8oviet Ruling (ircle3 IJH"P XN>6 #5]O75< U>5; P5+2((4Y+ 8. 3*.



3

*. C. P. SJ+ «&. D. B56=% A P56= P5;56;»+ M. G=<9; A. M6]6 X<.Y+ %he 8cience of 8cice XL<5% P:+1*$4Y.



3

1. S= 7; ;56 @:56H6 @5>+ 8@=6<6 @6 = 68 < =6 U 8 <8 < 95;%M65 G=<9;+ +oseph Aeedham3 %wentieth (entury Renaissance $an XP65H% UNESCO+ 1**"Y.



3

2. &8 N<69+(hemical mbryology XC69@5<:% C69@5<: U>5; P5+ 1*31Y.



3

3. &8 N<69 X<.Y+ %he (hemistry of LifeE Lectures on the 'istory of Biochemistry XC69@5<:% C9@5<: U>5; P5+1*$1Y.



3

4. T. E. B. J65;+ (ambridge Between %wo *ars XL<5% C==+ 1*)'Y+ 8. 1*(.



3

". J65;+ (ambridge Between %wo *ars+ 8. 2(*.



3

$. P;5 &. BJ=+ Reconciling 8cience and ReligionE %he 9ebate in arly %wentieth"(entury Britain XC6% U>5; C6:P5+ 2((1Y+ 8. 3*.



3

). N5=:6+ (urrent 8cience $*+ .m $ X2" < 8;9@5 < 1**"Y.



3

'. &8 N<69+ *ithin the 0our 8easE %he 9ialogue of ast and *est XL<5% R;=<:+ 2(("Y+ 881'*,1*1. _9entro de los cuatro mares? l di5logo entre ;riente y ;ccidente+ ;56<. P=65 L8 M+ M6<5<% S:= V; < E86+ 1*)".



3

*. F. R. L6> X<.Y+ 8crutiny + 96 < 1*32+ 88. 3$,3*.



3

1(. 8cience and 8ociety + >=. 23 X1*"*Y+ 88. "',$"+ < << 85< =6 ;6 6;55.



3

11. 8cience and 8ociety + cit .+ 8. $4.



3

1. R@5; . 5+ (ivic #slamE $uslims and 9emocrati2ation in #ndonesia XP5;% P5; U>. P5+ 2(((Y+ 8. 1).



3

2. (#! *orld 0actbook + ;;8%ZZJJJ.6.:>Z=@565Z 8@=6;Z;J5=<,6;@]Z<7.;9=.



3

3. &. D. L:,G656+ «A<9 D55<% M<5 B6555 ; V6;»+ %he :8 (atholic+ )$%* X1$ < 6; < 2(11Y+ 88. 3(,3";;8%ZZJJJ.6;=.5:Z5Z 2(11Z()Z6<9,<55<,9<5,@6555,>6;.



4

4. (#! *orld 0actbook + «F=< L;:% R=:» X«O5;<7 5 65 := 6;6=; 6< ;»Y.



4

". %he +ewish *eek + N>6 #5]+ 2 < >9@5 < 2((1 =6 =8<6 < ;5; +udaism IKI% M>9; &<69»+;;8%ZZJJJ.J6. 5:Z9>9;.;9.



4

$. S69 K@6<6+ «T dA56@ S85:e ;56= 858;>» X21 < ;@5 < 2(11Y+ ;;8%ZZJJJ.8<956.;Z 69,@6<6Z656@,85:,;56=,858;>.



4

). E;6 < #G>ZD6@56] @5 5=:+ =6 :=6+8;9@5 < 2(1(+

;;8%ZZ<2"<2"($@*4.=<5;.;Z;<6p]p985;Z #G,A5>,L,#G>,D6@56]R=:3(*1(.8< _656 ;;8%ZZ<.:>.9Z;<6p]p985;Z#G,A5>,L,#G>,D6@56]R=:13(*1(.8< .



4

'. O 5 N6;6= S;6;;+ 8ocial %rends+ .m 4( X<. < 2(1(Y+ ;6@=6 2.12+ 8. 2(.



4

*. D6>< E. E6:=+ «C6:: P6;;5 A;;<6 6; 5=: 5> C66<6 1*'$,2(('»+ +ourna for the 8cientific 8tudy of Religion+ "(%1 X965 < 2(11Y+ 88. 1'),2((.



4

1(. P. B55+ «E78;6= B6>5 5 E78;6= I<;;?% O>5585;: C5 A;;<6 U.S.»+ =ublic ;pinion Vuarterly + )"%1 X@55 < 2(11Y+ 88. 1*,41 C. 5] 6<6J6 P. L. M65=5+ «J 96 A956 6;;< J58 6 J]?»+

+ournal for the 8cientific 8tudy of Religion+ 44%3 X6:; < 2(("Y+ 88. 3(),322.



4

11. A<56 A=;+ «R=: <;; L6; A956 99:56; C6:% P5=965 F<: 59 F=< R65» XTU>5; C6: D>; S=+ «T R=: \ C=;5 @ F59»+ < 2(($+ ;;8%ZZ<>;.6:.<Z965;;5Z8@=6;ZJ@59Z($2(($ZY.



4

12. T PJ F59 R=: \ P@= L+ «S85; 6< PJ5+ A 1(,C;5 S5 P;;6=»+ ;;8%ZZJJJ.8J59.5:ZC5;6Z E>6:=6=,P5;;6;,C5ZS85;,6<,PJ5.687.



4

13. &69 R. G5+&rass"Roots 8ocialism? Radical $ovements in the 8outhwest IOJ"IJHP XB6; R: L<5% L66 S;6;U>5; P5+ 1*)'Y+ 88. 1)(,1)3.



4

14. G565< B55+ R@5; B= D6= S6=+ Le Vuébec en chiffres de IOK / nos jours XM;56=% ACFA1*'$Y+ 8. 22'.



4

1". A=;+ «R=: <;;».



4

1$. R65< : B5:+ %he civil war revival and its =entecostal progenyE a religious movement amonghe #gbo people of eastern Aigeria+ ; <;56= XU>5<6< < B59:69+ 2((4Y.



4

1). B== &6 I@==+ 0inding (holita XC6986:% U>5; I== P5+ 2((*Y.



4

1'. S 66=65 E5 @@6J9+ %he !ge of )tremesE ! 'istory of the *orld3 IJIH"JI XL<5P6; B]+ 1**"Y+68H;= *,11. _6 ;56< 6;==66 < &6 F6+ &5< A6< C659 C6;==% 'istoria del siglo

M3 IJIH"IJJI+ B65=6%C5H;6+ 1**"+ 2(11.



4

1. C;6< & ==;;+ %he Aew 8obrietyE !rt and =olitics in the *eimar =eriod IJI"IJPP XL<5% T69 \ <+ 1*)'Y+ 8.)$.



4

2. C;6< L<6 N= X<.Y+ Realism and %radition in !rt3 IOHOIJKKE 8ources and 9ocuments XE:=J< C=% P5;,6==+1**$Y+ 8. "3.



4

3. «F5 A5;; S85 A956 A5;»+ Aew York %ribune+ 24 < ;@5 < 1*1".



4

4. C;6< L. B5,G55 X<.Y+ L@année IJIP? Les forms esthétiques de l@oeuvre d@art / la vieille de la pemi4re guerre mondiale XP65H% <; =]+ 1*)1Y+ 8. '*+ . 34.



4

". C6;=: < =6 78Berlin"$oskau IJKK"IJK+ 88. 11' X:. 1Y 12(,121.



4

$. B5,G55 X<.Y+ L@année IJIP+ 8. '$+ . 2).



4

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4

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4

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4

11. C;6< B5,G55 X<.Y+ L@année IJIP.



4

12. C6;=: =aris"Berlin? IJKK"IJPP XP65H% C;5 P98<+ 1*)'Y+ 88. 1)(,1)1.



4

13. C;6< C65= 655 P6= < X<.Y+ !rt in %heory IJKKIJJKE !n !nthology of (hangingdeas XO75<% B=6]J==+1**2Y+ 8. ")$.



4

14. C;6< S M]+ «M6 R6+ D:5 @< ; C6956»+ #nternational 'erald %ribune+ " < 9 < 1**'.



4

1". K=<+ 0rance IOHO"IJH + 88. 4'(,4'1.



4

1$. P55 B5<+ La distinctionE critique sociale du jugement XP65H% <; < M;+ 1*)*+ 8. $1Y. _La distinci1nE criterios y bases sociales del gusto+ ;56<. M.o <= C659 R < E=>56+ M6<5<% T65+ 1*''. S 8< 6 = ;6 =:56 ;5 =:; 65;;6% R66=+ B;+ U;5==+ V=69]+ 6;;6+ R5+ V6 G:+ D6=H+ B56+ G6+ B5:= 6<].



4

1). R@5; :+ !merican -isionsE %he pic 'istory of !rt in !merica XL<5% 65>==+ 1**)Y+ 88. 4'4''.



4

1'. B5,G55 X<.Y+ L@année IJIP+ 8. 2*)+ . 2*.



4

1*. 655 < X<.Y+ !rt in %heory IJKK"IJJK+ 8. '(4.



4

2(. A==6 B==] O=>5 S;6==@56 X<.Y+ %he 0ontana 9ictionary of $odern %hought XL<5% F;66+ 1*))Y+ =6 ;56<6«C@9».



4

21. N]=6 P>5+ =ioneers of $odern 9esignE 0rom *illiam $orris to *alter &ropius X1*3$ L<5+ P:+ 1**1+ <. 5>.Y._=ioneros del diseNo moderno+ ;56<. O<=6 E. S5 E96 G5:5+ B A5% I;+ 1*$3+ 2.o <.



4

22. B5,G55 X<.Y+ L@année IJIP+ 8. '$. . 2).



4

23. P6= =+ Wber die moderne <unst XB56% V5=6: B;=+ 1*4"Y+ 8. "3.



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2. S;65; 6== P6<< 6=+ %he =opular !rts XL<5% ;+ 1*$4Y.



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3. R65< ::65;+ %he :ses of LiteracyE !spects of *orking (lass Life XL<5% C6;; 6< <+ 1*")88. '$,').



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4. E<:65 M5+ Les 8tars XP65H+ <; < M;+ 1*")Y.



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". E+ !pocalittici e integrati+ 88. 1'(,1'1.



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1. E<65< F56 I66+ Las guerrillas del Llano XB:;% M<6=+ 1*"*Y.



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2. G;6> A965<+ Les %rappeurs de l@!rkansas XP65H% A9;+ 1'"'Y. _Los tramperos del !rkansas < 9 5; 865 5=6 < M6<5<% E866 C6=8+ 1**'.



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3. L T6=5 I:5< M665 X<.Y+ %he !merican (owboy + >=. 3*+ .m 2 < «A956 S;< =]=» X6:;% TA956 F=]= C;5 6; ; L@565 C:5+ 1*'3Y+ 8. ''.



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4. ==69 S. 65;+ 1*1$+ ;6< G5: F ==69 E>5+ %he *esternE 0rom 8ilents to theeventies X659<J5;%P:+ 1*))Y.



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". R@5; A. D];56+ %he (attle %owns XN>6 #5]% A=5< A. 8+ 1*$'Y+ 8. 144.



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$. R@5; T6;+ !rtists and #llustrators of the ;ld *est IOK"IJKK XN>6 #5]% S5@5+ 1*"3Y+ 88. 1*4,*"+ ;6 «R6: 6<R65 ; F65 ;» XLippincott@s $aga2ine+ 2*+ 1''2Y+ 8. 43".



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). K6 G5+ Riders of the =urple 8age XN>6 #5]% 6585 \ B5;5+ 1*12Y. _Los jinetes de la pradera roja+ ;56<. &F5<+ B65=6% &>;<+ 1*'1+ 12.o <.



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'. G < M6866;+ «B= < »+ 8@=6< 5:6=9; Les soirées de $édan X1''(Y. _V6 85 98= G <M6866;+Los mejores cuentos+ ;56<. E;5 BH;+ M6<5<% A=66 E<;56=+ 2(12.



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1(. E; 6 6865 >656 5>;6+ 9 85 98= Aew York $aga2ine %e)as $onthly .



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11. F E>5+ %he *estern 8. 11).



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S ;6 85 =6 ;56< < [:= R85+ Lírica inglesa del siglo M#M + M6<5<% T5;+ 1*'). XA? de los



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E= push"pin 56 ;8 < : 6;=. XA? de los t .Y



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6 ;56< 6;==66% 'istoria del siglo MM3 IJIH"IJJI+ B65=6% C5H;6+ 1**"+ 2(11. XA? de los t .Y



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R56 6 =6 5 < <9;6= < ;56 <= 65; %he shock of the new + 85<<6 85 =6 BBC 1*'(. XA? de los t .Y



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L6 R85@6 =6 6== ;56= <= «@655 5» < 69@5:. XA? de los t .Y



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L;56=9;+ «@=6 < M65;». S <= 6;5H6 ;H8+ 5:65 < =6 <6< < S6=@5: XA? de los t .Y



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E=6 E86=6 < E;6+ V6. XA? de los t .Y



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La suerte de +im+ ;56< < & M6= BH; A56+ B65=6% D;+ 2((). XA? de los t .Y



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L6 ;6 ;96 < . N@5: E. F<5 X<.Y+ $inutes of the -ienna =sychoanalytical 8ociety + 1% *($,1*(' XN>6 #5]+1*$2Y+ 88. 1**,2((. XA? de los t .Y



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P5 ;6 6><6+ <= ; E< ;6;56=+ ; <<6<6 6= ).m < < S6;@5+ 6<5 696 9 559;6 6=.XA? de los t .Y



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L6 :H6 65;;6 < N]=6 P>5. XA? de los t .Y



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6 ;56< 6= 6;==6 < &5: A. S+ ;;=6<6 l aNo GKKK 8@=6<6+ < 9 ;+ 85 C68; SJ:L@5 XM6<5<+ 2(11Y. XA? de los t .Y



4

L ;5 >=9 6==6 5< 6 < 5;% %rilogía 'obsbawm? La era de la revolu1n IOJ"IOHO3 La era del capital IOHO"IO3 La era del imperio IO"IJIH+ B65=6% C5H;6+ 2(12. XA? de los t .Y



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V6Los ,ltimos días de la humanidad + ;56< < A<6 >6+ B65=6% T;+ 1**1. XA? deos t .Y



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&6 D=96+ l miedo en ;ccidente Tsiglos M#-"M-###UE una ciudad sitiada+ ;56<. M65 A59+ M6<5<% T65+ 1*'*+ 5<.2(12. XA? de los t .Y



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F5<5 A. 6]+ (amino de servidumbre+ ;56<. & V5:656+ M6<5<% A=66+ 2(11+ 3.o <. XA? de los t .



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E;6 8=H=6 85<<6 85 5<6 %hings to come X E866+ La vida futuraY. XA? de los t .Y



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«A ==: = J== :> 6== ; 6;»+ >5 6= <= 896 «^ J». X A? de los t .Y



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R56 6 «T P@@= J 6 ;» X«E= P@@= << = 8»Y+ <= 5;5 @5;E<J65< L65 X1'12,1'''Y+69 85 896 6@5<. XA? de los t .Y



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E 6;==6+'istoria de la lucha entre la ciencia y la teología+ M6<5<% L6 E866 M<56+ . 1*1$. XA de los t .Y



4

S : 6 96;5 < <656 85 6@5 6< =6 ;5H6 < =6 E>= ;5 8@=+ = 56 ;565 6 6 =< T <6 66 ;>5 96 < 856 9 <. XA? de los t .Y



4

A=76<5 R<]+ Retrato del artista !le)ander 8venchenko+ 1*24+ = ;=6 6 <@= 78 8656 @;5 ;9=;<96=.



4

P6@= P6+ Retrato cubista de 9aniel"'enry <ahnweiler + 1*1(.



4

S9 P6;;5+l gran oso+ 1**2.



4

l espíritu del tiempoE ensayo sobre la cultura de masas+ ;56<. R<5: U5H6 C65= M.o B5+ M6<5<% T65+ 1*$$. XA? de los t .Y



4

L6 556 ;9=:6 ;5 865; <= 6;5+ =:56 9<6 8656 6;65=6 =6 >5 6;==66 ;55;+ < = ;56<;5. XA? de los t .Y



4

V6 = 68H;= «6<]»+ Bandidos+ B65=6% C5H;6+ 2((1. XA? de los t .Y



4

E E866+ =6 8=H=6 < 8hane ;;= Raíces profundas. XA? de los t .Y



4

E= 8; < horse opera <:6 = westerns 96;:5+ 6; ;< < 5 B 6H =6 66 < 856 6@6==;<5H6 ;< 9 =;56=+ 85 6; ;69 < >5<6< =6 856+ = + < 6H = 9;6 < @@6J9. XA? de los t .Y



C=6 9<6,6=;6+ @=66 85;;6;+ <<; < = 8595 = < E;6< U<. XA? de lot .Y

Un Tiempo de Rupturas Hobsbawm-Eric

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