Historia Calidad (2)

8/12/2019 Historia Calidad (2)

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ASQ - History of Quality

1.Overview P. 2

2.Guilds of MedievalEurope

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3.The Industrial Revolution

3.1. Craftmanship

3.2. The factory system3.3. The Taylor system

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4.The Early 20th Century 5

5.World War II 6

6.Total Quality

6.1. Deming, Juran, and Japan

6.2. The American Response

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7.Beyond Total Quality
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1. Overview

The quality movement can trace its roots back to medieval

Europe, where craftsmen began organizing into unions calledguildsin the late 13th century.

Until the early 19th century, manufacturing in theindustrialized world tended to follow this craftsmanship model.The factory system, with its emphasis on product inspection,started in Great Britain in the mid-1750s and grew into theIndustrial Revolutionin the early 1800s.

In theearly 20th century,manufacturers began to include

quality processes in quality practices.After the United States enteredWorld War II,quality becamea critical component of the war effort: Bullets manufactured inone state, for example, had to work consistently in rifles madein another. The armed forces initially inspected virtually everyunit of product; then to simplify and speed up this processwithout compromising safety, the military began to usesampling techniques for inspection, aided by the publication of

military-specification standards and training courses inWalterShewhartsstatistical process control techniques.

The birth oftotal qualityin the United States came as a directresponse to the quality revolution in Japan following WorldWar II. The Japanese welcomed the input of AmericansJoseph M. JuranandW. Edwards Demingand rather thanconcentrating on inspection, focused on improving allorganizational processes through the people who used

them.By the 1970s, U.S. industrial sectors such as automobiles andelectronics had been broadsided by Japans high-qualitycompetition. The U.S. response, emphasizing not onlystatistics but approaches that embraced the entire
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organization, became known as total quality management(TQM).

By the last decade of the 20th century, TQM was considereda fad by many business leaders. But while the use of the termTQM has faded somewhat, particularly in the United States,its practices continue.

In the few years since the turn of the century, the qualitymovement seems to have maturedbeyond Total Quality.Newquality systems have evolved from the foundations of Deming,Juran and the early Japanese practitioners of quality, andquality has moved beyond manufacturing into service,healthcare, educationand governmentsectors.

2. Guilds of Medieval Europe

From the end of the 13th century to the early 19th century,craftsmen across medieval Europe were organized intounions called guilds. These guilds were responsible fordeveloping strict rules for product and service quality.

Inspection committees enforced the rules by marking flawlessgoods with a special mark or symbol.

Craftsmen themselves often placed a second mark on thegoods they produced. At first this mark was used to track theorigin of faulty items. But over time the mark came torepresent a craftsmans good reputation. For example,stonemasons marks symbolized each guild membersobligation to satisfy his customers and enhance the trades

reputation.

Inspection marks and master-craftsmen marks served asproof of quality for customers throughout medieval Europe.This approach to manufacturing quality was dominant until theIndustrial Revolutionin the early 19th century.
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3. The Industrial Revolution

American quality practices evolved in the 1800s as they wereshaped by changes in predominant production methods:

Craftsmanship

The factory system

The Taylor system

3.1. Craftsmanship

In the early 19th century, manufacturing in the United States

tended to follow the craftsmanship model used in theEuropean countries. In this model, young boys learned askilled trade while serving as an apprentice to a master, oftenfor many years.

Since most craftsmen sold their goods locally, each had atremendous personal stake in meeting customers needs forquality. If quality needs werent met, the craftsman ran the riskof losing customers not easily replaced. Therefore, masters

maintained a form of quality control by inspecting goodsbefore sale.

3.2. The Factory System

The factory system, a product of the Industrial Revolution inEurope, began to divide the craftsmens trades intospecialized tasks. This forced craftsmen to become factoryworkers and forced shop owners to become production

supervisors, and marked an initial decline in employeessense of empowerment and autonomy in the workplace.

Quality in the factory system was ensured through the skill oflaborers supplemented by audits and/or inspections. Defectiveproducts were either reworked or scrapped.


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3.3. The Taylor System

Late in the 19th century the United States broke further fromEuropean tradition and adopted a new management approachdeveloped by Frederick W. Taylor. Taylors goal was toincrease productivity without increasing the number of skilledcraftsmen. He achieved this by assigning factory planning tospecialized engineers and by using craftsmen andsupervisors, who had been displaced by the growth offactories, as inspectors and managers who executed theengineers plans.

Taylors approach led to remarkable rises in productivity, but ithad significant drawbacks: Workers were once again strippedof their dwindling power, and the new emphasis onproductivity had a negative effect on quality.

To remedy the quality decline, factory managers createdinspection departmentsto keep defective products fromreaching customers. If defective product did reach thecustomer, it was more common for upper managers to ask theinspector, Why did we let this get out? than to ask theproduction manager, Why did we make it this way to beginwith?

4. The Early 20th Century

The beginning of the 20th century marked the inclusion ofprocessesin quality practices.

A process is defined asa group of activities that takes aninput, adds value to it and provides an output, such as when a

chef transforms a pile of ingredients into a meal.

4.1.Walter Shewhart,a statistician for Bell Laboratories,began to focus on controlling processes in the mid1920s,making quality relevant not only for the finished product butfor the processes that created it.
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Shewhart recognized that industrial processes yield data. Forexample, a process in which metal is cut into sheets yieldscertain measurements, such as each sheets length, heightand weight. Shewhart determined this data could be analyzed

using statistical techniquesto see whether a process is stableand in control, or if it is being affected by special causes thatshould be fixed. In doing so, Shewhart laid the foundation forcontrol charts, a modernday quality tool.

Shewharts concepts are referred to as statistical qualitycontrol (SQC). They differ from product orientation in that theymake quality relevant not only for the finished product but alsofor the process that created it.

4.2.W Edwards Deming,a statistician with the U.S.Department of Agriculture and Census Bureau, became aproponent of Shewharts SQC methods and later became aleader of the quality movement in both Japan and the UnitedStates.

5. World War II

After entering World War II in December 1941, the UnitedStates enacted legislation to help gear the civilian economy tomilitary production. At that time, military contracts weretypically awarded to the manufacturer that submitted thelowest bid.Products were inspected on delivery to ensureconformance to requirements.

During this period, quality became an important safety issue.

Unsafe military equipment was clearly unacceptable, and theU.S. armed forces inspected virtually every unit produced toensure that it was safe for operation. This practice requiredhuge inspection forces and caused problems in recruiting andretaining competent inspection personnel.
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To ease the problems without compromising product safety,the armed forces began to use sampling inspectionto replaceunit-by-unit inspection. With the aid of industry consultants,particularly from Bell Laboratories, they adapted sampling

tables and published them in a military standard, known asMil-Std-105. These tables were incorporated into the militarycontracts so suppliers clearly understood what they wereexpected to produce.

The armed forces also helped suppliers improve quality bysponsoring training courses in Walter Shewharts statisticalquality control (SQC) techniques.

But while the training led to some quality improvement in

some organizations, most companies had little motivation totruly integrate the techniques. As long as governmentcontracts paid the bills, organizations top priority remainedmeeting production deadlines. Whats more, most SQCprograms were terminated once the government contractscame to an end.

6. Total Quality

The birth of total quality in the United States was in directresponseto a quality revolution in Japan following World WarII, as major Japanese manufacturers converted fromproducing military goods for internal use to producing civiliangoods for trade.

At first, Japan had a widely held reputation for shoddy

exports, and their goods were shunned by international

markets. This led Japanese organizations to explore newways of thinking about quality.
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6.1. Deming, Juran, and Japan

The Japanese welcomed input from foreign companies andlecturers, including two American quality experts:

W. Edwards Deming,who had become frustrated withAmerican managers when most programs for statisticalquality control were terminated once the war andgovernment contracts came to an end.

Joseph M. Juran,who predictedthe quality of Japanesegoods would overtake the quality of goods produced in theUnited States by the mid-1970s because of Japansrevolutionary rate of quality improvement.

Japans strategies represented the new total qualityapproach. Rather than relying purely on product inspection,Japanese manufacturers focused on improving allorganizational processesthrough the peoplewho used them.

As a result, Japan was able to produce higher-quality exportsat lower prices, benefiting consumers throughout the world.

American managers were generally unaware of this trend,assuming any competition from the Japanese would ultimately

come in the form of price, not quality. In the meantime,Japanese manufacturers began increasing their share in

American markets, causing widespread economic effects inthe United States: Manufacturers began losing market share,organizations began shipping jobs overseas, and theeconomy suffered unfavorable trade balances. Overall, theimpact on American business jolted the United States intoaction.

6.2. The American Response

At first, U.S. manufacturers held onto to their assumption thatJapanese success was price-related, and thus responded toJapanese competition with strategies aimed at reducingdomestic production costs and restricting imports. This, of
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course, did nothing to improve American competitiveness inquality.

As years passed, price competition declined while qualitycompetition continued to increase. By the end of the 1970s,the American quality crisis reached major proportions,attracting attention from national legislators, administratorsand the media. A 1980 NBC-TV News special report, If JapanCan Why Cant We?highlighted how Japan had capturedthe world auto and electronics markets. Finally, U.S.organizations began to listen.

The chief executive officers of major U.S. corporationsstepped forward to provide personal leadership in the quality

movement. The U.S. response, emphasizing not onlystatistics but approaches that embraced the entireorganization, became known as Total Quality Management(TQM).

Several other quality initiatives followed. The ISO 9000 seriesof quality-management standards, for example, werepublished in 1987. The Baldrige National Quality Program andMalcolm Baldrige National Quality Award were established by

the U.S. Congress the same year. American companies wereat first slow to adopt the standards but eventually came onboard.

6.3.Beyond Total Quality

By the end of the 1990s Total Quality Management (TQM)

was considered little more than a fad by many Americanbusiness leaders (although it still retained its prominence inEurope).

While use of the term TQM has faded somewhat, particularlyin the United States, quality expert Nancy Taguesays:Enough organizations have used it with success that, to


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manufacturing, small business and service. Many advocatesare pressing for the adoption of a nonprofit organizationcategory as well.

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