Content-based instruction

Kim PotowskiThe University of Illinois at Chicago

Department of Hispanic & Italian Studies

COMMUNICATION

Standard 1.1: Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information, express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions

Standard 1.2: Students understand and interpret written and spoken language on a variety of topics

Standard 1.3: Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience of listeners or readers on a variety of topics.

CULTURES

Standard 2.1: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the practices and perspectives of the culture studied

Standard 2.2: Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the products and perspectives of the culture studied

CONNECTIONS

Standard 3.1: Students reinforce and further their knowledge of other disciplines through the foreign language

Standard 3.2: Students acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpoints that are only available through the foreign language and its cultures

COMPARISONS

Standard 4.1: Students demonstrate understanding of the nature of language through comparisons of the language studied and their own

Standard 4.2: Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture through comparisons of the cultures studied and their own.

COMMUNITIES

Standard 5.1: Students use the language both within and beyond the school setting

Standard 5.2: Students show evidence of becoming life-long learners by using the language for personal enjoyment and enrichment.

Goals of second/foreign language instruction

Language maintenance Acquisition or development of a prestige

language variety Expansion of bilingual range Transfer of literacy skills Acquisition or development of academic skills

in the heritage language Positive attitudes toward both the heritage

language, dialects of the language and cultures

Acquisition or development cultural awareness

Goals of heritage language instruction

Path of Spanish acquisition is different.

Heritage speakers

L2 learners

Learn grammatical terminology

Learn a prestigious, monolingual variety

Exposed to reading and writing in Spanish

Learning begins after “critical period” has ended

1) Linguistically2) Affectively3) Academically

General characteristics of heritage speakers

Heritage speakers

L2 learner

s

Typically possess fluent oral abilities – production and comprehension

Larger vocabulary, particularly for everyday items and cultural processes/products

Greater sociolinguistic accuracy: for example, use of “usted” and titles of respect

Pronunciation is native

Do second language textbooks/curricular goals work well, given these students’ characteristics?

Content Most of these goals – particularly language-

related goals – can be addressed through content.

There are many kinds of content we can use: Content from other courses Literature Current events

1) Latino Studies2) Argument writing3) “Grammar”4) Language arts

1) U.S. Latino communities

Literature, film, art, etc.

Chicano farmworker movement

Students can investigate their own communities and share video-based findings online with students in other parts of the country.

Mexican = 1,500,000(80%)

Puerto Rican = 193,000(10%)

Guatemalan = 38,680(2%)

Pilsen/La Villita

Albany Park

Elgin, Evanston,etc.

Mexican = 1,500,000

Puerto Rican = 193,000

“MexiRican”

+

=

Example 1:Students observe a bilingual classroom at their

neighborhood school and interview the teacher and 8 students regarding children’s daily use of the heritage language. They will then create a brochure for local parents, outlining ways in which families can promote maintenance of the home language.

Example 2:

Students interview 6 immigrants in their community – 3 senior citizens and 3 adults under 40 – to find out what services they would find helpful. Students then write a proposal to the Mayor’s office that address these needs.

2) Argument writing Writing as a process.

Three years to develop skills for strong writing (Hakuta, Butler & Witt 2000)

Multiple drafts Audience & purpose Feedback

Multiple draftsAt UIC: We changed from 3 compositions x 2 drafts each

to 2 compositions x 3 drafts each Much higher quality.

Grade: 40% = Draft 1 50% = Draft 210% = Quality of comments on peer review

Peer review = very specific questions.

NOTE: Nichols & Colon (2000): Use of mixed language during first drafts resulted in much stronger final texts.

Audience & purposeEven if it’s invented or feels a bit forced, students –

particularly in lower level courses – should be provided with a concrete audience (beyond the instructor!) and purpose.

“Your purpose is to propose ways in which to reduce domestic violence. You will submit your proposal to the Mayor’s office in a competition to receive funding for your proposal.”

“You will respond to letters about the changing of the name of the Sears Tower, and submit your letter to Hoy (local Spanish language newspaper).”

FeedbackSelective. Semke (1984) “The effects of the red pen”.

Respectful.Clear rubric – require students to turn one in with composition.

3) “Grammar”

What does “grammar” mean?

At least three definitions of “grammar”

1) Internal, automatic system 2) Explicit knowledge of terminology and rules3) What is to be preferred and avoided

Definition #1 “grammar” = Internal, automatic system

Everyone who acquires a spoken or signed language – and that is nearly every single person in the world – naturally and subconsciously develops an internal grammar, or blueprint, of how their language works.

“Cats fast eats”

This is not possible in English. It doesn’t matter if we can’t state why it is not possible. Our internal grammar, as English speakers, simply tells us that it is not a possible English sentence.

Under this definition, it is not accurate to say that a person who speaks (or only understands) a certain language “doesn’t have grammar.” They obviously do, otherwise they would not be able to understand it at all.

The “taxicab maxim”

Linguist Steven Pinker calls this definition the “taxicab maxim”:

If you are driving a taxi, it is impossible to violate the laws of physics.

If you are speaking a language in a way that you acquired naturally in a community of speakers, it is impossible to violate the laws of grammar.

Definition #2 “grammar” = Explicit knowledge of terminology and rules

Has to be formally learned.

If they answered questions 3 and 4 correctly but not questions 1 and 2, is it accurate to say that they “don’t know grammar”?

Is there value to teaching grammatical terminology to students who already speak Spanish?

Correa (2011): Spanish-speakers increased in confidence through studying metalinguistic terminology.

However, having them: Endlessly practice conjugating verbs – I am, you are, she is, we

are, they are Produce definite and indefinite articles Identify the preterite vs. the imperfect

…as goals in and of themselves, without leading to any larger goal, does not appear to be the best use of instructional time.

Focus instead on improving our students’ communicative competence, both in writing and orally.

Definition #3 “grammar” = What is to be preferred (and avoided)

This is often referred to as prescriptive grammar, because it seeks to prescribe what is “correct” and what is not.

In the “taxicab” analogy…

Laws of physics vs. Laws of a particular region

People can have different internal grammar systems of the same language, depending on their geographic location, ethnic group, etc.

In some countries we agree to drive on the left, while in others we agree to drive on the right. But we are all, by force, obeying the laws of physics.

U.K. English U.S. mainstream English

I’ll be here December. I’ll be here in December.

He’s in hospital. He’s in the hospital.

U.S. mainstream English

African American English

She’s working. She working.

I don’t want any. I don’t want none.

All of these sentences are grammatical:

Turn right on red? Zipper merge?

Important to keep in mind:• There is nothing inherently “incorrect” about

driving on the left or refusing to zipper merge. You are still obeying the laws of physics.

• The rules of the road change over time.

Are these sentences grammatically “correct”?

To boldly go where no man has gone before.

I don’t know what Potowski is talking about.

Prescriptivist grammars typically consider these sentences “incorrect” and insist on: “To go boldly” and “…about what Potowski is talking.”

But these sentences are NOT “violating grammar” – just like a taxicab never violates the laws of physics.

Are these prescriptive rules useful anymore? Or have people largely abandoned them?

Prescriptive grammar

Conclusions about “grammar”

Let’s be clear about what we mean! U.S. Spanish-speakers absolutely do

“know grammar” because they have a grammatical system, one that is just as valid as any other.

Teachers must decide: What constitutes valid “traffic violations” vs. that

rules are basically irrelevant. Which explicit metalinguistic skills we think they

should develop.

“Spanglish”

Like all naturalistic language behavior, “Spanglish” is

RULE GOVERNED.Remember the “taxicab maxim.”

¿Suenan naturales?

Ejemplos

1) Nos vemos a las diez, right?

2) I love your shoes. ¿Dónde los compraste?

3) Juan está bailanding con su mamá.

4) No estudiaron so they failed the test.

5) Andrea was mad so she salió.

Most U.S. Spanish-English bilinguals agree because ALL linguistic behavior is rule-governed.

What exactly is “Spanglish”?

“Spanglish” = Language contact

#1

Code switching

#2Borrowings

#3Extensions

#4Calques

#1: Code switching

Alternation from one language to another within a single communicative act.

Quería salir a bailar but I was too tired.He told me to wait a que saliera.¡Cállate, menso! I’m not playing with you.

¿Por qué suenan mal estos ejemplos?

Violan las restricciones sintácticas del cambio de códigos:• No puedes separar morfemas ligados (that is, you can’t switch in the

middle of a word).• No puedes cambiar done las estructuras de las dos lenguas es desigual.

• Normalmente no cambiamos entre el sujeto y el verbo (“Ella went”) ni entre un artículo y un sustantivo (“the tenedor”).

*Juan está bailanding con su mamá.*Andrea was mad so she salió.

These are not rules that our parents teach us!

We develop these ‘rules’ implicitly through input and interaction – just like all natural linguistic systems.

Most bilinguals develop at least THREE rule systems:Language 1 Language 1 + 2Language 2

P.S. Code switching in “high culture”

- Ábrela tú.

- ¿Por qué yo? Tú tienes las keys. Yo te las entregué. Además, I left mine adentro.

- ¿Por qué las dejaste adentro?

- Porque I knew you had yours.

- ¿Por qué dependes de mí?

- Just open it, and make it fast.

#2: Borrowings

Words “imported” from English and integrated into Spanish.

El lonche está en el fríser.Trabaja partaim pero tomó un daiof.

#3: Extensions

Words that already existed in Spanish but take on new meanings, influenced by English

.

#4: Calques

Direct translations of 2+ word phrases.

“Ese señor está corriendo para alcalde.” running for = postulándose para

“Te llamo para atrás” te regreso la llamada

Identifiquen los cuatro fenómenos subrayados

1. Mañana van a inspectar la casa que compré.2. Me voy a mover to a new neighborhood. 3. No creo que llegue en tiempo.4. Muchos estudiantes no toman ventaja de las

scholarships.5. Cuando lo realizan, es demasiado tarde para aplicar y

tienen problemas pagando los biles.6. Muchos mexicanos en Chicago trabajan de busboys.7. Muchos mexicanos en Chicago trabajan de bosboi.

a) Un cambio de códigos: se oye el inglés.b) El préstamo: se oye como españolc) Una extensión semántica es una palabra que ya existía en español.d) El calco es una traducción directa de una frase.

Studying the rule-governed nature of U.S. Spanish

…and the formal linguistic terms RESPECT

Only people with strong proficiency in Spanish can code switch large chunks within a sentence.

El término “Spanglish” ¿Es positivo, neutro, o crea/refleja connotaciones dañinas?

“Usar el término ‘spanglish’ es una forma de desafiar el rechazo de los jóvenes. [Vamos a] rescatar esa palabra, darle un sentido más positivo y echársela ante la cara a la gente y decir “No, this is what it really means. [Además,] decirle al pueblo que no use esta palabra no va a eliminar el uso de la palabra.”

“Es inevitable que el término ‘spanglish’ conlleva la idea de que no es español. Me parece que es importante poder decirles a los jóvenes, ‘Tú hablas español, pero necesitas adquirir…otras maneras de hablar[lo],’ eso me parece más positivo a que una persona diga, ‘I don’t speak Spanish, I speak Spanglish’.”

Ana Celia Zentella Ricardo Otheguy

WHY do people use these 4 phenomena?

1. Mañana van a inspectar la casa que compré.

2. Me voy a mover to a new neighborhood. 3. Ese restaurante busca contratar a cinco

busboys.

“Porque no se sabe decirlo en español.”

En un corpus de miles de cambios de código producidos por 5 niñas a lo largo de 10 años….

…el 75% de lo que cambiaron, sí lo sabían decir en la lengua original.

“Porque no existe el mismo concepto en las 2 lenguas.”

Otheugy & García: entrevistas con 25 personas Criados en Latinoamérica, después criaron a

sus propios hijos en NY su adquisición del español era completo.

Los entrevistaron 2 veces en español sobre los mismos temas:

vecindad, familia, escuela, trabajo Primera vez: “Su experiencia en

Latinoamérica.” 2 meses después (con el mismo entrevistador): “Las experiencias de sus hijos aquí en NYC.”

Conclusión: A veces, usamos palabras nuevas no porque no conozcamos la palabra en español, sino porque no quiere decir lo mismo.

Cuando hablaban sobre Latinoamérica

Cuando hablaban sobre Nueva York

El comedor escolar El lunchroom

El edificio El bildin

El director de escuela El principal

Pascua Easter

vs.

vs.

vs.

¿Por qué se usan estos 4 fenómenos?

Porque no existe el mismo concepto en las 2 lenguas.

Contenido emocional: “m’ijo” Para citar a alguien. Para enfatizar algo. Para cambiar de tema. Para respetar la lengua de la gente con la que

hablamos. Porque es lo primero que viene a la mente (acceso

en línea) Porque no se sabe decirlo en español.

Marker of identity.

The goal of Spanish teachers should NOT be to eliminate “Spanglish” and replace it with monolingual Spanish

Not only quixotic, but actually damaging: Many youth decide to abandon Spanish altogether rather than suffer criticisms for it.

Spanish in the US is a resource that can be used in the classroom for increasing linguistic development and academic abilities. 

Beach vs. wedding

Question the concept of “incorrect.”

Formal vs. informalUse examples from English: most students

know not to write “ain’t” or “cuz” in a school essay.

Use their Spanish as a bridge. We do not want them to burn their bathing suits!

One of the many challenges of the job of Spanish teachers working with heritage speakers:

Deciding what is “ok” at the wedding. It’s very hard to keep up with changing norms – and even harder to buck them.

Such decisions should be locally grounded and based on the question: Who are the audiences?

4) Language arts

What did you do in your high school English class?

A.P. Spanish language Minimum preparation = (3), 4, 5 NOT required that the course bear “A.P.” in the

title. Reimbursement from district and state Focus on presentational speaking and writing

Language maintenance Acquisition or development of a prestige

language variety Expansion of bilingual range Transfer of literacy skills Acquisition or development of academic skills

in the heritage language Positive attitudes toward both the heritage

language, dialects of the language and cultures

Acquisition or development cultural awareness

Goals of heritage language instruction

Thank you

Resources for teaching Spanish to heritage speakers:

potowski.org/SNSresources

Kim Potowskikimpotow@uic.edu

“Profesora Potowski”